- After the formation of the coalition government in Britain, the existing War Council was renamed the Dardanelles Committee, but otherwise retained the same functions and membership; indeed, for now Churchill even remains a members. Today it meets for the first time in three weeks, and given the name change it is not surprising that the ongoing campaign on Gallipoli is the focus of discussion. The early enthusiasm of February and March for the operation has dissipated, replaced by bewilderment at the lack of success and uncertainty as to the best course of action. Should Gallipoli be reinforced, which by definition means taking units from elsewhere, or should it be evacuated, thus giving the Ottomans a great morale victory and damaging British prestige throughout the Balkans and the Muslim world. After discussion today, including a memo from Churchill, it is agreed to send out a further three divisions to Gallipoli, constituting the reinforcements General Hamilton had requested after the failure of the Second Battle of Krithia. No one as of yet is willing to countenance the embarrassment of defeat by advocating evacuation.
- Overnight three Zeppelins attempted bombing raids on England, with varying degrees of success. The naval Zeppelin L9 drops ten explosive and fifty incendiary bombs on Hull, causing the most extensive damage inflicted on England by a Zeppelin to date. Indeed, during the day there are anti-German riots in Hull, mobs attacking businesses supposedly owned by Germans. The two army Zeppelins sent against England - LZ38 and LZ39 - suffer a much different fate. The former develops engine trouble and returns to its base near Brussels, only to have its shed bombed by two British aircraft based at Dunkirk after daybreak. LZ39, meanwhile, earns the dubious distinction of being the first Zeppelin shot down by enemy fire. Near Ghent it was attacked by several British aircraft, and Flight Sub-Lieutenant Warneford manages to drop a bomb that detonates on the airship, causing it to burst into flames and plummet to the earth. The victory earns Warneford acclaim and the Victoria Cross, while the German army concludes the Zeppelins under its direction would be more profitably used in reconnaissance and bombing roles on the Eastern Front.
Showing posts with label Churchill. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Churchill. Show all posts
Sunday, June 07, 2015
Monday, May 25, 2015
May 25th, 1915
- The formation of the new coalition government in Britain is completed, and the new cabinet formally takes office today. Prime Minister Asquith retains office as Prime Minister, as there was never any serious discussion of replacing him at present, as no Liberal at this moment has the stature to supplant him. Furtjer, Conservative leader Andrew Bonar Law understands that the alternative to a Liberal-led coalition is not a Conservative-led coalition but a Conservative minority government which would be opposed by a partisan Liberal party that would block Conservative efforts to fight the war as they saw fight (i.e. such as on conscription). Even though the Liberals and Conservatives have roughly the same number of MPs in the House of Commons, the Liberals also retain a majority of places in the cabinet and many of the key offices; Lloyd George in particular has worked in negotiations to limit Conservative ministers, and has succeeded in convincing Bonar Law to accept the relatively junior office of Colonial Secretary. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that this is no longer a purely Liberal government, as Liberal ministers now find themselves sitting at the same time as such objects of long-time partisan hatred as Edward Carson. In addition, the Labour party has joined the coalition, and for the first time in its history a Labour MP - its leader, Arthur Henderson - has a seat at the cabinet table (as President of the Board of Education). Of the major parties only the Irish Nationalists are absent; though offered a place, and though the party leadership was tempted, they declined as it would mean serving alongside the hated Ulster Unionists.
Two particular changes warrant mention. First, the press campaign against Lord Kitchener launched by The Times on May 14th has backfired spectacularly, as the public, oblivious to the administrative bumbling of the War Office, still see the Secretary of War as the great imperial hero. As a result, removing Kitchener from office is not politically viable. Instead, though he is left in office, Kitchener's powers are reduced by transferring responsibility for munitions production to a separate Ministery of Munitions. Lloyd George becomes Minister of Munitions, and though giving up the Chancellorship of the Exchequer to do so would normally be seen as a demotion, he well understands that in wartime public focus is on the performance of the war ministries, and that if he can fix the 'shells crisis' he will become the man of the hour.
Second, today confirms Churchill's demotion from the Admiralty. His replacement is Arthur Balfour, a senior Conservative (and ex-Prime Minister) whose steady and urbane personality is the absolute opposite of Churchill's, which is precisely the point. No one would ever fear Balfour racing off to take up the defence of a threatened city, as Churchill did at Antwerp. This morning Churchill cleans out his desk at the Admiralty building. He is in the grib of severe depression, feeling that his political career is at an end. At this moment he is visited by Kitchener, who commiserates with Churchill, and as it gets up to leave he remarks to his former colleague: 'Well, there is one thing at any rate they cannot take from you. The Fleet was ready.' Kitchener, in his typical imperious manner, is exactly right: whatever other failings Churchill may have demonstrated while First Lord of Admiralty from 1911 to today, it is indisputable that the Royal Navy was prepared for war when it came last August. Moreover, of course, Churchill's hour is yet to come.
- As the French 10th Army inches forward in Artois, General d'Urbal has decided to launch an attack by XXI, XXXIII, and IX Corps simultaneously against several points. After twenty-four hours' artillery bombardment, the infantry advance at midday, but fail to gain any significant ground.
- North of Przemysl the German advance continues today. A Russian bridgehead west of the San held by XXI Corps at Zagrody is eliminated this afternoon, while to the north the German Guard Corps occupies Laszki. The speed of the German advance is slower today; though Russian resistance continues, the crucial factor is that the farther east 11th Army goes, the more exposed its northern flank potentially becomes. As a result, Guard Corps in particular finds itself shedding battalions as it advances to cover the line of the Lubaczowka River.
- Twelve days after the British pre-dreadnought Goliath was torpedoed by the Ottoman destroyer Muavenet, an even greater menance makes itself felt off the Dardanelles. After weeks at sea and refuelling at Cattaro, the German submarine U21 enters action, torpedoing the British pre-dreadnought Triumph as it lay off Anzac Beach. As it began to sink, a destroyer comes alongside and hundreds of sailors step from the stern of Triumph onto the deck of the smaller ship. After twenty minutes the pre-dreadnought sinks, and fifty-three men drown. The loss of the warship is bad enough, but the psychological impact is worse, as the sinking occurs in broad daylight in full view of both sides. The Ottoman soldiers in their trenches cheer madly, their cries echoing down the hills into the Entente trenches, where British, French, and ANZAC infantry can only look on in shock. Admiral de Robeck responds by immediately orders all of his large warships back to Mudros, which could hardly have had a positive impact on morale for the army still trapped in the Gallipoli beachheads.
- The diplomatic agreement between Japan and China, reflecting the latter's acceptance of the Twenty-One Demands. As a result of the treaty, Japan's hold on southern Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia is enhanced, Japan receives Germany's economic rights in Shantung while the leasehold is to be settled after the war, the Japanese-controlled Hanyehping Company is established, and China pledges to lease no other power territory at Fukien, opposite Japanese-owned Taiwan.
Two particular changes warrant mention. First, the press campaign against Lord Kitchener launched by The Times on May 14th has backfired spectacularly, as the public, oblivious to the administrative bumbling of the War Office, still see the Secretary of War as the great imperial hero. As a result, removing Kitchener from office is not politically viable. Instead, though he is left in office, Kitchener's powers are reduced by transferring responsibility for munitions production to a separate Ministery of Munitions. Lloyd George becomes Minister of Munitions, and though giving up the Chancellorship of the Exchequer to do so would normally be seen as a demotion, he well understands that in wartime public focus is on the performance of the war ministries, and that if he can fix the 'shells crisis' he will become the man of the hour.
Second, today confirms Churchill's demotion from the Admiralty. His replacement is Arthur Balfour, a senior Conservative (and ex-Prime Minister) whose steady and urbane personality is the absolute opposite of Churchill's, which is precisely the point. No one would ever fear Balfour racing off to take up the defence of a threatened city, as Churchill did at Antwerp. This morning Churchill cleans out his desk at the Admiralty building. He is in the grib of severe depression, feeling that his political career is at an end. At this moment he is visited by Kitchener, who commiserates with Churchill, and as it gets up to leave he remarks to his former colleague: 'Well, there is one thing at any rate they cannot take from you. The Fleet was ready.' Kitchener, in his typical imperious manner, is exactly right: whatever other failings Churchill may have demonstrated while First Lord of Admiralty from 1911 to today, it is indisputable that the Royal Navy was prepared for war when it came last August. Moreover, of course, Churchill's hour is yet to come.
- As the French 10th Army inches forward in Artois, General d'Urbal has decided to launch an attack by XXI, XXXIII, and IX Corps simultaneously against several points. After twenty-four hours' artillery bombardment, the infantry advance at midday, but fail to gain any significant ground.
- North of Przemysl the German advance continues today. A Russian bridgehead west of the San held by XXI Corps at Zagrody is eliminated this afternoon, while to the north the German Guard Corps occupies Laszki. The speed of the German advance is slower today; though Russian resistance continues, the crucial factor is that the farther east 11th Army goes, the more exposed its northern flank potentially becomes. As a result, Guard Corps in particular finds itself shedding battalions as it advances to cover the line of the Lubaczowka River.
- Twelve days after the British pre-dreadnought Goliath was torpedoed by the Ottoman destroyer Muavenet, an even greater menance makes itself felt off the Dardanelles. After weeks at sea and refuelling at Cattaro, the German submarine U21 enters action, torpedoing the British pre-dreadnought Triumph as it lay off Anzac Beach. As it began to sink, a destroyer comes alongside and hundreds of sailors step from the stern of Triumph onto the deck of the smaller ship. After twenty minutes the pre-dreadnought sinks, and fifty-three men drown. The loss of the warship is bad enough, but the psychological impact is worse, as the sinking occurs in broad daylight in full view of both sides. The Ottoman soldiers in their trenches cheer madly, their cries echoing down the hills into the Entente trenches, where British, French, and ANZAC infantry can only look on in shock. Admiral de Robeck responds by immediately orders all of his large warships back to Mudros, which could hardly have had a positive impact on morale for the army still trapped in the Gallipoli beachheads.
- The diplomatic agreement between Japan and China, reflecting the latter's acceptance of the Twenty-One Demands. As a result of the treaty, Japan's hold on southern Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia is enhanced, Japan receives Germany's economic rights in Shantung while the leasehold is to be settled after the war, the Japanese-controlled Hanyehping Company is established, and China pledges to lease no other power territory at Fukien, opposite Japanese-owned Taiwan.
Friday, May 22, 2015
May 22nd, 1915
- For the past several days, Churchill has been bombarding Asquith with letters begging to remain as First Lord of the Admiralty, using every rhetorical device in his considerable arsenal. It is to no avail, for the price of coalition is Churchill's scalp. Today Churchill meets with the Prime Minister, and the latter confirms his dismissal. As inadequate compensation, Asquith offers the ministerial post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The most junior Cabinet position, and with no practical responsibilities, it is most often given to those without talent for anything more or to ease an elderly colleague into retirement. It is far beneath Churchill's abilities, but as it is better than nothing and Asquith also promises a seat at the War Council, Churchill accepts.
As Churchill has his interview with Asquith, Admiral Fisher realizes that his hope to return to office with his powers greatly enhanced is nothing but a pipe dream. He finally departs London by train, heading north to Scotland, and during a stopover at Crewe receives a letter from Asquith formally accepting his resignation as First Sea Lord. The stormy relationship between the elderly admiral and the young politician ends in mutual destruction.
- At 830pm the German 15th Division at Neuville in Artois launches attacks the French line, hoping to disrupt the ongoing French offensive. However, the preliminary artillery bombardment had been largely unsuccessful; in particular, poor weather prevented the assigned trench mortar battalion from accurately hitting its targets. As a result, the German infantry are unable to penetrate the French trenches.
The failure of today's bombardment, however, masks the growing concentration of German artillery behind the line: over the past two weeks, the number of heavy guns in Artois have doubled. The Germans have also been prodigious in their use, having fired over six hundred thousand shells in the first ten days of the French offensive. Despite this expenditure, OHL has been able to maintain a steady supply of munitions to the front, such that the German batteries are not hampered by a shortage.
- The Italian cabinet approves a mobilization order for the army, and it is published immediately. In practice, however, the Italian army has been slowly mobilizing for over two months; indeed, since before the Treaty of London had even been signed, indicating the extent to which Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino had always intended to have Italy join the Entente come what may.
Meanwhile, Foreign Minister Sonnino wires the declaration of war against Austria-Hungary to the Italian ambassador at Vienna, with instructions to deliver it tomorrow. However, through wiretapping and codebreaking the Austro-Hungarian government is able to identify the specific telegram containing the actual declaration of war, and are able to delay its delivery.
As Churchill has his interview with Asquith, Admiral Fisher realizes that his hope to return to office with his powers greatly enhanced is nothing but a pipe dream. He finally departs London by train, heading north to Scotland, and during a stopover at Crewe receives a letter from Asquith formally accepting his resignation as First Sea Lord. The stormy relationship between the elderly admiral and the young politician ends in mutual destruction.
- At 830pm the German 15th Division at Neuville in Artois launches attacks the French line, hoping to disrupt the ongoing French offensive. However, the preliminary artillery bombardment had been largely unsuccessful; in particular, poor weather prevented the assigned trench mortar battalion from accurately hitting its targets. As a result, the German infantry are unable to penetrate the French trenches.
The failure of today's bombardment, however, masks the growing concentration of German artillery behind the line: over the past two weeks, the number of heavy guns in Artois have doubled. The Germans have also been prodigious in their use, having fired over six hundred thousand shells in the first ten days of the French offensive. Despite this expenditure, OHL has been able to maintain a steady supply of munitions to the front, such that the German batteries are not hampered by a shortage.
- The Italian cabinet approves a mobilization order for the army, and it is published immediately. In practice, however, the Italian army has been slowly mobilizing for over two months; indeed, since before the Treaty of London had even been signed, indicating the extent to which Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino had always intended to have Italy join the Entente come what may.
Meanwhile, Foreign Minister Sonnino wires the declaration of war against Austria-Hungary to the Italian ambassador at Vienna, with instructions to deliver it tomorrow. However, through wiretapping and codebreaking the Austro-Hungarian government is able to identify the specific telegram containing the actual declaration of war, and are able to delay its delivery.
Tuesday, May 19, 2015
May 19th, 1915
- Continuing his desperate bid to remain First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill contacts Fisher through an intermediary and offers to meet whatever demands the latter has for rescinding his resignation. Fisher's response is to forward the letter to Bonar Law, having added his own note: 'I rejected the 30 pieces of silver to betray my country.' Churchill also writes Bonar Law directly today, forwarding documents that he argues prove his tenure as First Lord has been a success and should be continued. The Conservative leader's reply is that Churchill's removal from office is 'inevitable.'
Fisher, meanwhile, believes that with Churchill doomed his hour has come, and gives full vent to his megalomania in a letter to Asquith laying out the conditions under which he would remain as First Sea Lord: Churchill must be excluded from the cabinet and the First Lord limited to parliamentary matters, while he would have unlimited and sole authority over the disposition of warships, the appointment of officers, and decisions regarding naval instruction. It hardly needs saying that Asquith declines Fisher's 'offer'. Indeed, as Fisher has not yet had his resignation accepted by the Prime Minister (pending a decision on his replacement), Fisher has for all practical purposes abandoned his post for the past four days, and his actions have won him no friends. Arthur Balfour, a former Conservative Prime Minister, writes that Fisher 'is really a little mad,' while Asquith himself confides to Maurice Hankey 'that Fisher, strictly speaking, ought to be shot for leaving his post.'
- With the pressure of the Russian 4th Army now being brought to bear on the south wing of Woyrsch's army group in central Poland, the Russians opposite the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division disengages this afternoon and pull back towards Iwaniska. The gap between 1st Army and Woyrsch's army group is also covered today when the Austro-Hungarian 84th Regiment makes contact with German Landwehr under the command of General Anatol von Bredow.
- By dawn this morning the Russian counterattack by the Combined Corps against the southeastern face of the German bridgehead across the San River has completely collapsed, and diversionary attacks elsewhere against the German 11th Army have similarly failed to make any progress. The losses of the past two and a half weeks of both men and material have practically eliminated the offensive capability of the Russian formations opposing 11th Army - it is reported today that some of the Russian infantry attacking the German XXXXI Reserve Corps are armed with only grenades or even clubs.
Meanwhile, on the northeastern face of the German bridgehead the advance of the German X Corps creates a gap between the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps. Fearing a German breakout, General Dimitriev of the Russian 3rd Army orders several cavalry divisions into the gap, but also requests permission from General Ivanov of South-West Front for a further withdrawal. This request is denied.
Fisher, meanwhile, believes that with Churchill doomed his hour has come, and gives full vent to his megalomania in a letter to Asquith laying out the conditions under which he would remain as First Sea Lord: Churchill must be excluded from the cabinet and the First Lord limited to parliamentary matters, while he would have unlimited and sole authority over the disposition of warships, the appointment of officers, and decisions regarding naval instruction. It hardly needs saying that Asquith declines Fisher's 'offer'. Indeed, as Fisher has not yet had his resignation accepted by the Prime Minister (pending a decision on his replacement), Fisher has for all practical purposes abandoned his post for the past four days, and his actions have won him no friends. Arthur Balfour, a former Conservative Prime Minister, writes that Fisher 'is really a little mad,' while Asquith himself confides to Maurice Hankey 'that Fisher, strictly speaking, ought to be shot for leaving his post.'
- With the pressure of the Russian 4th Army now being brought to bear on the south wing of Woyrsch's army group in central Poland, the Russians opposite the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division disengages this afternoon and pull back towards Iwaniska. The gap between 1st Army and Woyrsch's army group is also covered today when the Austro-Hungarian 84th Regiment makes contact with German Landwehr under the command of General Anatol von Bredow.
- By dawn this morning the Russian counterattack by the Combined Corps against the southeastern face of the German bridgehead across the San River has completely collapsed, and diversionary attacks elsewhere against the German 11th Army have similarly failed to make any progress. The losses of the past two and a half weeks of both men and material have practically eliminated the offensive capability of the Russian formations opposing 11th Army - it is reported today that some of the Russian infantry attacking the German XXXXI Reserve Corps are armed with only grenades or even clubs.
Meanwhile, on the northeastern face of the German bridgehead the advance of the German X Corps creates a gap between the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps. Fearing a German breakout, General Dimitriev of the Russian 3rd Army orders several cavalry divisions into the gap, but also requests permission from General Ivanov of South-West Front for a further withdrawal. This request is denied.
Monday, May 18, 2015
May 18th, 1915
- After yesterday's shocking news regarding the end of his tenure at the Admiralty, Churchill casts about today for any means of remaining in office. Dining with the Conservative politicians F. E. Smith and Max Aitken (the future Lord Beaverbrook), Churchill talks of winning support among the Tories, but Aitken informs him that there is no hope of that. Churchill even goes so far as to talk about making amends with Fisher if it would keep him as First Lord.
- In Artois German reserves continue to arrive at the front to replace the formations battered by French attacks since the 9th; today 2nd Reserve Guard Division is inserted into the line between 13th and 14th Divisions. The ability to rotate out depleted units and replace them with fresh divisions is crucial to the ability of the Germans to hold off the French offensive.
- In central Poland the Russian counterattack by 4th Army shifts direction today; instead of maintaining pressure on the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army, the attacking forces move to the northwest in an attempt to hit the flank of Woyrsch's Corps. The Germans here find themselves under heavy pressure and take significant losses, but the shift gives time for 1st Army to regain its equilibrium.
- This evening Mackensen orders the portion of 11th Army on the east bank of the San River to hold their current positions. The pace of the German advance has outrun their supplies, as despite efforts to repaired the rail lines in the region the nearest railhead to 11th Army is sixty-two miles to the west. In particular, great difficulties are being encountered in hauling artillery shells to the front, and the shortage of munitions is critical. A pause in operations is necessary to replenish and resupply before further offensive operations can be undertaken.
The Russians, meanwhile, are not content to give the Germans the necessary breathing space. General Dimitriev of 3rd Army has assembled a new Combined Corps, comprised of 77th Division and 3rd Caucasian Rifle Division drawn from elsewhere on the Eastern Front, and intends this formation to attack the southeastern front of the German bridgehead across the San and roll up the enemy line. This evening the Russian counterattack begins as the Combined Corps hits the German 1st Guard Division and VI Corps between Makowisko and the San.
- Today the British submarine E14 passes through the Dardanelles and arrives back in the eastern Mediterranean after a three-week sortie in the Sea of Marmara. During this time it sank four Ottoman vessels, including a large transport, which disturbed but did not stop, Ottoman reinforcements to Gallipoli. For this success Lieutenant-Commander E. C. Boyle is awarded the Victoria Cross.
- In Artois German reserves continue to arrive at the front to replace the formations battered by French attacks since the 9th; today 2nd Reserve Guard Division is inserted into the line between 13th and 14th Divisions. The ability to rotate out depleted units and replace them with fresh divisions is crucial to the ability of the Germans to hold off the French offensive.
- In central Poland the Russian counterattack by 4th Army shifts direction today; instead of maintaining pressure on the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army, the attacking forces move to the northwest in an attempt to hit the flank of Woyrsch's Corps. The Germans here find themselves under heavy pressure and take significant losses, but the shift gives time for 1st Army to regain its equilibrium.
- This evening Mackensen orders the portion of 11th Army on the east bank of the San River to hold their current positions. The pace of the German advance has outrun their supplies, as despite efforts to repaired the rail lines in the region the nearest railhead to 11th Army is sixty-two miles to the west. In particular, great difficulties are being encountered in hauling artillery shells to the front, and the shortage of munitions is critical. A pause in operations is necessary to replenish and resupply before further offensive operations can be undertaken.
The Russians, meanwhile, are not content to give the Germans the necessary breathing space. General Dimitriev of 3rd Army has assembled a new Combined Corps, comprised of 77th Division and 3rd Caucasian Rifle Division drawn from elsewhere on the Eastern Front, and intends this formation to attack the southeastern front of the German bridgehead across the San and roll up the enemy line. This evening the Russian counterattack begins as the Combined Corps hits the German 1st Guard Division and VI Corps between Makowisko and the San.
- Today the British submarine E14 passes through the Dardanelles and arrives back in the eastern Mediterranean after a three-week sortie in the Sea of Marmara. During this time it sank four Ottoman vessels, including a large transport, which disturbed but did not stop, Ottoman reinforcements to Gallipoli. For this success Lieutenant-Commander E. C. Boyle is awarded the Victoria Cross.
Sunday, May 17, 2015
May 17th, 1915
- This morning a letter reaches Andrew Bonar Law, the Canadian-born leader of the British Conservative Party, from Admiral Fisher, in which the latter announces his resignation as First Sea Lord. In his typical manner, Fisher holds nothing back: 'W.C. MUST god at all costs! AT ONCE . . . because a very great disaster is very near us in the Dardanelles . . . W.C. is a bigger danger than the Germans by a long way.'
Even without the hyperbole, Bonar Law recognizes the significance of this information. For the past three days he has been struggling to maintain control of his backbenchers, the latter enraged over the report of the 14th in The Times regarding a shortage of shells during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Bonar Law wants to maintain the electoral truce, but he may not be able to control his own party. With this morning's letter he realizes that the resignation of Fisher will be the final straw for many Conservative MPs, who have long despised Churchill for abandoning the party in 1904 over Tariff Reform. Further, in their eyes Churchill's a administration of the Admiralty in wartime has been a failure: not only has there not been a decisive victory over the High Seas Fleet, but the Antwerp diversion was a debacle and the Dardanelles operation appears to be going nowhere.
After receiving Fisher's letter Bonar Law calls on Lloyd George and asks for confirmation of Fisher's resignation. When Lloyd George provides this, Bonar Law replies that 'the situation is impossible.' Lloyd George agrees, and the pair visit 10 Downing Street where they inform Asquith of the situation. The Prime Minister recoils at the prospect of heated parliamentary debates and denunciations of the management of the war. Further, the Liberal government is a minority, and the possibility exists that it might not survive under effective Conservative criticism. Lloyd George recommends the formation of a coalition government between the parties, in order to head off opposition in the House of Commons. Asquith does not hesitate in accepting this, his willingness to fight for his government perhaps fatally undermined by the news of the 14th regarding Venetia Stanley. It is certainly the case that Asquith never seriously appears to have contemplated fighting the Conservatives, and is perfectly willing to jettison Liberal colleagues to find cabinet places for Conservatives. Most prominent of Bonar Law's conditions for a coalition government is that Churchill must be removed as First Lord of the Admiralty. Neither Asquith nor Lloyd George flinch at the prospect of dismissing their colleague, perhaps realizing it may be the price of keeping their own positions.
Churchill, for his part, has no idea what has transpired when he arrives at 10 Downing Street later this morning to report that he has a new First Sea Lord and is ready to defend his record in the House of Commons. Asquith instead replies that there will be no debate in the House; instead, a coalition government will be formed and, turning to Churchill, asks 'what are we to do with you?' It is at this moment that Churchill realizes that his time at the Admiralty may be at an end. Later this evening, after digesting the news, Churchill writes to Asquith that he would only accept office in the new government if it is directly related to the war effort; otherwise, he would prefer to take up a command in France.
- Overnight the German zeppelin LZ39 was intercepted by several aircraft of the Royal Naval Air Service. They attack the airship by dropping bombs on it, and though it remains in the air LZ39 is sufficiently damaged to force a return to base.
- The first of the new attacks by the French 10th Army in Artois was scheduled to be launched today, but is postponed due to poor weather. Meanwhile the Germans have been attempting to retake the ground lost to the French on Lorette Spur. These attacks, however, have failed, and have worn out the regiments of 117th Division.
- After an intensive bombardment the British launch another attack near Festubert today, and succeed in pushing back the German lines. Indeed, there are indications of a crisis of morale in German ranks, as a number of prisoners are taken before the British infantry had even begun their advance. To reinforce the line 6th Army brings in several battalions of Bavarians and Saxons, as well as 38th Landwehr Brigade. Crucially, they are drawn not from 6th Army's reserve, but rather from the north; the brigade is taken from 4th Army. Thus even though the British have achieved some tactical success at Festubert, they have failed in drawing away German forces from the French offensive to the south, which was the primary reason for the operation.
- The German 11th Army secures a third crossing of the San River today at Nielepkowice north of Jaroslau. Meanwhile Mackensen orders those forces already across the river to consolidate their bridgeheads.
- Just after midnight elements of the Russian 9th Army attempt to storm the town of Delatyn in Bukovina, in the centre of the line held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army. In bitter fighting the latter are forced back from the outer defences, but the Russians are unable to break into the town itself. Just as with the Austro-Hungarian attacks to the west, initial advances quickly degenerate into static fighting.
- The reappointed cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra meets today to discuss Italian entry into the war, and agrees to submit a bill to parliament when it reconvenes on the 20th to vest full financial powers in the government in case of war. Also, ex-premier Giovanni Giolitti departs Rome for Piedmont today, knowing full well that attempting to fight for peace when parliament meets in three days would be a lost cause.
Even without the hyperbole, Bonar Law recognizes the significance of this information. For the past three days he has been struggling to maintain control of his backbenchers, the latter enraged over the report of the 14th in The Times regarding a shortage of shells during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Bonar Law wants to maintain the electoral truce, but he may not be able to control his own party. With this morning's letter he realizes that the resignation of Fisher will be the final straw for many Conservative MPs, who have long despised Churchill for abandoning the party in 1904 over Tariff Reform. Further, in their eyes Churchill's a administration of the Admiralty in wartime has been a failure: not only has there not been a decisive victory over the High Seas Fleet, but the Antwerp diversion was a debacle and the Dardanelles operation appears to be going nowhere.
After receiving Fisher's letter Bonar Law calls on Lloyd George and asks for confirmation of Fisher's resignation. When Lloyd George provides this, Bonar Law replies that 'the situation is impossible.' Lloyd George agrees, and the pair visit 10 Downing Street where they inform Asquith of the situation. The Prime Minister recoils at the prospect of heated parliamentary debates and denunciations of the management of the war. Further, the Liberal government is a minority, and the possibility exists that it might not survive under effective Conservative criticism. Lloyd George recommends the formation of a coalition government between the parties, in order to head off opposition in the House of Commons. Asquith does not hesitate in accepting this, his willingness to fight for his government perhaps fatally undermined by the news of the 14th regarding Venetia Stanley. It is certainly the case that Asquith never seriously appears to have contemplated fighting the Conservatives, and is perfectly willing to jettison Liberal colleagues to find cabinet places for Conservatives. Most prominent of Bonar Law's conditions for a coalition government is that Churchill must be removed as First Lord of the Admiralty. Neither Asquith nor Lloyd George flinch at the prospect of dismissing their colleague, perhaps realizing it may be the price of keeping their own positions.
Churchill, for his part, has no idea what has transpired when he arrives at 10 Downing Street later this morning to report that he has a new First Sea Lord and is ready to defend his record in the House of Commons. Asquith instead replies that there will be no debate in the House; instead, a coalition government will be formed and, turning to Churchill, asks 'what are we to do with you?' It is at this moment that Churchill realizes that his time at the Admiralty may be at an end. Later this evening, after digesting the news, Churchill writes to Asquith that he would only accept office in the new government if it is directly related to the war effort; otherwise, he would prefer to take up a command in France.
- Overnight the German zeppelin LZ39 was intercepted by several aircraft of the Royal Naval Air Service. They attack the airship by dropping bombs on it, and though it remains in the air LZ39 is sufficiently damaged to force a return to base.
- The first of the new attacks by the French 10th Army in Artois was scheduled to be launched today, but is postponed due to poor weather. Meanwhile the Germans have been attempting to retake the ground lost to the French on Lorette Spur. These attacks, however, have failed, and have worn out the regiments of 117th Division.
- After an intensive bombardment the British launch another attack near Festubert today, and succeed in pushing back the German lines. Indeed, there are indications of a crisis of morale in German ranks, as a number of prisoners are taken before the British infantry had even begun their advance. To reinforce the line 6th Army brings in several battalions of Bavarians and Saxons, as well as 38th Landwehr Brigade. Crucially, they are drawn not from 6th Army's reserve, but rather from the north; the brigade is taken from 4th Army. Thus even though the British have achieved some tactical success at Festubert, they have failed in drawing away German forces from the French offensive to the south, which was the primary reason for the operation.
- The German 11th Army secures a third crossing of the San River today at Nielepkowice north of Jaroslau. Meanwhile Mackensen orders those forces already across the river to consolidate their bridgeheads.
- Just after midnight elements of the Russian 9th Army attempt to storm the town of Delatyn in Bukovina, in the centre of the line held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army. In bitter fighting the latter are forced back from the outer defences, but the Russians are unable to break into the town itself. Just as with the Austro-Hungarian attacks to the west, initial advances quickly degenerate into static fighting.
- The reappointed cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra meets today to discuss Italian entry into the war, and agrees to submit a bill to parliament when it reconvenes on the 20th to vest full financial powers in the government in case of war. Also, ex-premier Giovanni Giolitti departs Rome for Piedmont today, knowing full well that attempting to fight for peace when parliament meets in three days would be a lost cause.
Saturday, May 16, 2015
May 16th, 1915
- Realizing that Admiral Fisher is serious about resignation, Churchill visits the Prime Minister today. He offers his own resignation, hoping for a vote of confidence from Asquith that will allow him to replace Fisher and continue as First Lord of the Admiralty. This is exactly what Asquith gives him today, saying that he had not even thought of Churchill resigning. Buoyed, the First Lord secures the agreement of Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson to replace Fisher as the First Sea Lord, and the other Sea Lords consent to remaining in office. Churchill then prepares a parliamentary address for tomorrow's session to announce Fisher's resignation and defend his own conduct. It is a speech, however, he will never get to deliver.
- General d'Urbal issues new orders for his 10th Army today, incorporating the revised instructions from General Foch. He envisions a series of methodical attacks, each designed to seize a particular objective from which the next assaut would be launched, culminating with the seizure of Vimy Ridge. In the centre, XXXIII Corps was to capture five points before launching its main attack on the village of Souchez, while XXI Corps had three positions of its own to occupy before assisting XXXIII Corps to seize Souchez. The first of these attacks is scheduled to begin tomorrow. On the German side, the units holding the line have gotten hopelessly mixed up over the past week, as companies and battalions have been sent haphazardly to plug gaps in the line and confront the main French assaults. As such, most of the day is devoted to reorganizing the defence, and in particular to straightening out the chain of command for the artillery batteries so that each stretch of the front line had dedicated artillery support. The battered 58th Division is also pulled out of the line, replaced by 16th Division.
To the north, the British 2nd Division launches an attack at dawn near Festubert, and a small amount of progress is made. For the rest of the day British artillery pound the German lines, in preparation for another effort tomorrow.
- As a result of the success of the German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, the Russian line in central Poland has been pulled back, to avoid a gap opening between the Russian 4th Army, mostly north of the Vistula River, and 3rd Army to the south. Following the Russians are the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army and an army group under German General Remus von Woyrsch composed of both German and Austro-Hungarian units. As the two forces pursue the retreating Russians, Woyrsch's group is pulled to the northeast, while 1st Army moves to the east, opening a small gap between them. Here, near Opatow, the Russian 4th Army counterattacks today, and the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division is thrown back several kilometres and suffers heavy casualties. The sudden Russian riposte brings Woyrsch's group and 1st Army to halt as they move to contain the unexpected enemy advance.
- Along the San River the German 11th Army attempt several crossings. The main action is at Jaroslau, which is occupied today by the German 2nd Guard Division. Here the town's Jewish population warns the Germans that the Russians have mined the bridge over the San, and shortly thereafter the bridge explodes and falls into the river. The Elisabeth Regiment of 2nd Guard Division then crosses the San at 530pm under the protection of heavy artillery and machine gun fire, and by evening a Russian counterattack has been driven off and the bridgehead is secure. To the north, 92nd Regiment of 20th Division is able to cross the San west of Miazownica, giving X Corps a shallow bridgehead. Thus by the end of the day, 11th Army has breached the river line at two places.
- In Italy the 'Radiant Days of May' are already passing; though a large pro-war demonstration grips the capital today, elsewhere the number and size of such gatherings are in decline. Despite its ephemeral nature, the 'Radiant Days' have completely altered the balance of interventionist vs neutralist opinion among the political classes in favour of the former. After Salandra's resignation on the 13th, Victor Emmanuel had canvassed several other parliamentary leaders, including Giolitti, about their ability to form a government. All had declined, seeing the shift of opinion towards intervention as decisive. This afternoon the king summons Salandra to Villa Savoia, and meets the politician at the gate with a simple declaration: 'It is necessary that you withdraw your declaration.' Salandra agrees, and his cabinet formally returns to office, and Italian entry into the war is now a certainty.
- In the Mediterranean the Austro-Hungarian destroyer Triglav successfully tows the German coastal submarine UB7 through the Straits of Otranto, evading the Entente blockade, and the latter then makes its way eastward towards the Dardanelles.
- General d'Urbal issues new orders for his 10th Army today, incorporating the revised instructions from General Foch. He envisions a series of methodical attacks, each designed to seize a particular objective from which the next assaut would be launched, culminating with the seizure of Vimy Ridge. In the centre, XXXIII Corps was to capture five points before launching its main attack on the village of Souchez, while XXI Corps had three positions of its own to occupy before assisting XXXIII Corps to seize Souchez. The first of these attacks is scheduled to begin tomorrow. On the German side, the units holding the line have gotten hopelessly mixed up over the past week, as companies and battalions have been sent haphazardly to plug gaps in the line and confront the main French assaults. As such, most of the day is devoted to reorganizing the defence, and in particular to straightening out the chain of command for the artillery batteries so that each stretch of the front line had dedicated artillery support. The battered 58th Division is also pulled out of the line, replaced by 16th Division.
To the north, the British 2nd Division launches an attack at dawn near Festubert, and a small amount of progress is made. For the rest of the day British artillery pound the German lines, in preparation for another effort tomorrow.
- As a result of the success of the German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, the Russian line in central Poland has been pulled back, to avoid a gap opening between the Russian 4th Army, mostly north of the Vistula River, and 3rd Army to the south. Following the Russians are the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army and an army group under German General Remus von Woyrsch composed of both German and Austro-Hungarian units. As the two forces pursue the retreating Russians, Woyrsch's group is pulled to the northeast, while 1st Army moves to the east, opening a small gap between them. Here, near Opatow, the Russian 4th Army counterattacks today, and the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division is thrown back several kilometres and suffers heavy casualties. The sudden Russian riposte brings Woyrsch's group and 1st Army to halt as they move to contain the unexpected enemy advance.
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| The Battle of Opatow, May 16th to 20th, 1915. |
- Along the San River the German 11th Army attempt several crossings. The main action is at Jaroslau, which is occupied today by the German 2nd Guard Division. Here the town's Jewish population warns the Germans that the Russians have mined the bridge over the San, and shortly thereafter the bridge explodes and falls into the river. The Elisabeth Regiment of 2nd Guard Division then crosses the San at 530pm under the protection of heavy artillery and machine gun fire, and by evening a Russian counterattack has been driven off and the bridgehead is secure. To the north, 92nd Regiment of 20th Division is able to cross the San west of Miazownica, giving X Corps a shallow bridgehead. Thus by the end of the day, 11th Army has breached the river line at two places.
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| The advance of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies at Jaroslau and Przemysl, May 16th to 20th, 1915. |
- In Italy the 'Radiant Days of May' are already passing; though a large pro-war demonstration grips the capital today, elsewhere the number and size of such gatherings are in decline. Despite its ephemeral nature, the 'Radiant Days' have completely altered the balance of interventionist vs neutralist opinion among the political classes in favour of the former. After Salandra's resignation on the 13th, Victor Emmanuel had canvassed several other parliamentary leaders, including Giolitti, about their ability to form a government. All had declined, seeing the shift of opinion towards intervention as decisive. This afternoon the king summons Salandra to Villa Savoia, and meets the politician at the gate with a simple declaration: 'It is necessary that you withdraw your declaration.' Salandra agrees, and his cabinet formally returns to office, and Italian entry into the war is now a certainty.
- In the Mediterranean the Austro-Hungarian destroyer Triglav successfully tows the German coastal submarine UB7 through the Straits of Otranto, evading the Entente blockade, and the latter then makes its way eastward towards the Dardanelles.
Friday, May 15, 2015
May 15th, 1915
- At 5am this morning Admiral Fisher arrives at his desk in the Admiralty building, where he comes across Churchill's revision to the reinforcements to be sent to the Dardanelles. Though the change was only to add two submarines, something in Fisher breaks. It reinforces his belief that Churchill will always want to force the Dardanelles, and will always seek to send more and more reinforcements there, a policy he does not and feels he cannot support. These two submarines become the straw that breaks the camel's back, and Fisher decides then and there that he must resign. Though he has threatened resignation several times before, this time he is determined to follow through. Knowing how persuasive Churchill can be, Fisher concludes that he can only maintain his resolve to resign if he stays out of reach of the First Lord. Thus Fisher leaves a letter of resignation with Churchill's secretary, and then promptly disappears.
Several hours later Churchill arrives at the Admiralty to discover Fisher's letter of resignation. Believing it to be just another idle threat, he seeks him out. To his consternation, however, Fisher is nowhere to be found anywhere in the Admiralty building. Churchill then rushes to 10 Downing Street to inform the Prime Minister of what has occurred. Asquith promptly writes a curt note to Fisher: 'In the King's name, I order you to return to your post.' By disappearing before his resignation could be accepted, Fisher has technically abandoned his post in wartime. Whatever sympathy there may have existed in political circles for Fisher and his struggles against Churchill (and the latter has more than his share of critics), the manner of his resignation is seen, quite properly, as disgraceful.
After several hours Fisher is discovered in a room at the Charing Cross Hotel. Responding to Asquith's summons, he goes to the Prime Minister's residence where both Asquith and Lloyd George attempt to change Fisher's mind, but to no avail. Churchill also writes several letters to Fisher, each pleading for an interview, but the latter remains adamant that he will resign and will not allow himself to be talked out of it.
- Today the American diplomatic note regarding the sinking of Lusitania arrives in Berlin. The German government now begins to prepare a response, one which Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg hopes will mollify the Americans.
- This evening Foch, as commander of Provisional Group of the North, arrives at the headquarters of General d'Urbal of 10th Army. Foch states that a week of attacks have not achieved the desired result, and that another attack should only be launched after thorough preparation. By switching to a more methodical approach, Foch hopes to be able to advance steadily towards Vimy Ridge, which he hopes can be seized within eight to ten days. General d'Urbal thus cancels orders for an attack tomorrow, and begins to plan for further operations that fit within Foch's framework.
- To the north, the British Expeditionary Force is active once more in attempting to support the French offensive in Artois. Overnight, a British division replaced a French division south of La Bassée, allowing the latter to redeploy south. At 1130pm, the British 2nd Division of Haig's 1st Army attacks the German line near Festubert. Of the three brigades in the operation, one achieves complete surprise and overruns the first German trench line. The other two, however, are spotted beforehand and, illuminated by star shells and searchlights, suffer heavy casualties.
- The second phase of the Gorlice-Tarnow offensive opens today when the German 11th Army assaults the Russian line at and north of Jaroslau. Attacks by 1st and 2nd Guard Divisions seize the Russian defensive positions protecting Jaroslau, and by the end of the day the Russians are streaming back through the town towards the east bank of the San River. To the north, the German X Corps drives to the river, though at seventy yards wide it is too broad to cross without adequate preparations. For his part Mackensen this afternoon orders X, Guard, and XXXXI Reserve Corps to undertake precisely these preparations, including bringing up substantial amounts of artillery shells, to attack across the San and established bridgeheads tomorrow.
- In east Galicia General Pflanzer-Baltin of the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army orders a counteroffensive by his western wing; here the Russians opposite have been forced to pull back to remain in contact with the Russian 11th Army (in turn having retreated due to the collapse of 3rd Army), and Pflanzer-Baltin hopes to catch the Russians off-guard and force a further withdrawal. Though several Austro-Hungarian divisions are able to advance initially, Russian counterattacks soon throw them back, and the fighting quickly degenerates into a stalemate.
Several hours later Churchill arrives at the Admiralty to discover Fisher's letter of resignation. Believing it to be just another idle threat, he seeks him out. To his consternation, however, Fisher is nowhere to be found anywhere in the Admiralty building. Churchill then rushes to 10 Downing Street to inform the Prime Minister of what has occurred. Asquith promptly writes a curt note to Fisher: 'In the King's name, I order you to return to your post.' By disappearing before his resignation could be accepted, Fisher has technically abandoned his post in wartime. Whatever sympathy there may have existed in political circles for Fisher and his struggles against Churchill (and the latter has more than his share of critics), the manner of his resignation is seen, quite properly, as disgraceful.
After several hours Fisher is discovered in a room at the Charing Cross Hotel. Responding to Asquith's summons, he goes to the Prime Minister's residence where both Asquith and Lloyd George attempt to change Fisher's mind, but to no avail. Churchill also writes several letters to Fisher, each pleading for an interview, but the latter remains adamant that he will resign and will not allow himself to be talked out of it.
- Today the American diplomatic note regarding the sinking of Lusitania arrives in Berlin. The German government now begins to prepare a response, one which Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg hopes will mollify the Americans.
- This evening Foch, as commander of Provisional Group of the North, arrives at the headquarters of General d'Urbal of 10th Army. Foch states that a week of attacks have not achieved the desired result, and that another attack should only be launched after thorough preparation. By switching to a more methodical approach, Foch hopes to be able to advance steadily towards Vimy Ridge, which he hopes can be seized within eight to ten days. General d'Urbal thus cancels orders for an attack tomorrow, and begins to plan for further operations that fit within Foch's framework.
- To the north, the British Expeditionary Force is active once more in attempting to support the French offensive in Artois. Overnight, a British division replaced a French division south of La Bassée, allowing the latter to redeploy south. At 1130pm, the British 2nd Division of Haig's 1st Army attacks the German line near Festubert. Of the three brigades in the operation, one achieves complete surprise and overruns the first German trench line. The other two, however, are spotted beforehand and, illuminated by star shells and searchlights, suffer heavy casualties.
- The second phase of the Gorlice-Tarnow offensive opens today when the German 11th Army assaults the Russian line at and north of Jaroslau. Attacks by 1st and 2nd Guard Divisions seize the Russian defensive positions protecting Jaroslau, and by the end of the day the Russians are streaming back through the town towards the east bank of the San River. To the north, the German X Corps drives to the river, though at seventy yards wide it is too broad to cross without adequate preparations. For his part Mackensen this afternoon orders X, Guard, and XXXXI Reserve Corps to undertake precisely these preparations, including bringing up substantial amounts of artillery shells, to attack across the San and established bridgeheads tomorrow.
- In east Galicia General Pflanzer-Baltin of the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army orders a counteroffensive by his western wing; here the Russians opposite have been forced to pull back to remain in contact with the Russian 11th Army (in turn having retreated due to the collapse of 3rd Army), and Pflanzer-Baltin hopes to catch the Russians off-guard and force a further withdrawal. Though several Austro-Hungarian divisions are able to advance initially, Russian counterattacks soon throw them back, and the fighting quickly degenerates into a stalemate.
Thursday, May 14, 2015
May 14th, 1915
- This morning the fuse lit by Sir John French five days earlier explodes on the pages of The Times newspaper, which runs an extensive report and editorial on the recent failure at Aubers Ridge. Given the close relationship between French and the newspaper's military correspondent, it is no surprise that the coverage praises the plan for and management of the battle itself. Instead, the paper is harshly critical of the supply of both artillery shells and heavy artillery pieces, and lays blame for this failure directly on the War Office and the Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener. The proprietor of The Times, Lord Northcliffe, has come to see Kitchener not as the imperial hero, but as the stubborn incompetent whose mismanagement is damaging the British war effort. Northcliffe is not alone in this view; some within the Conservative party, as well as the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, have become exasperated with Lord Kitchener, and feel he must go if Britain is to fully mobilize its industry in support of the war.
The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated. Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst. In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort. This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.
This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th. With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli. Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room. Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.
Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that Queen Elizabeth is being withdrawn. Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships. After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles. It is a fateful decision.
As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst. For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet. He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support. Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician. Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.' The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.
- Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez. On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today. However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line. In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.
- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.
- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday. Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.
- The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public. In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment. What happens next, however, will transform the political situation. Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary. This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August. These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat. Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order. In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.
These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds. Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion. The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.
- Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles. In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.' The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.
The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated. Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst. In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort. This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.
This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th. With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli. Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room. Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.
Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that Queen Elizabeth is being withdrawn. Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships. After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles. It is a fateful decision.
As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst. For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet. He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support. Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician. Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.' The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.
- Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez. On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today. However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line. In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.
- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.
- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday. Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.
- The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public. In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment. What happens next, however, will transform the political situation. Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary. This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August. These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat. Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order. In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.
These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds. Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion. The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.
- Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles. In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.' The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.
Wednesday, May 13, 2015
May 13th, 1915
- Yesterday the British 28th Division, having suffered greatly in the recent fighting, was withdrawn from the eastern face of the Ypres salient, replaced by 1st and 3rd Cavalry Division fighting as dismounted infantry. They gain a rapid initiation to the fighting at Ypres, coming under a heavy artillery bombardment early this morning that precedes another German attack. Most of the British line holds, but 7th Cavalry Brigade is forced back hundreds of yards, and a subsequent counterattack by 8th and 10th Cavalry Brigades is unable to fully restore the position.
Though desultory fighting will continue around the Ypres salient for several weeks, the 2nd Battle of Ypres has effectively drawn to a close. In the context of major operations on the Western Front, the battle has undoubtedly been a German victory. Not only were they able to advance several miles towards Ypres, but were also able to force the British to voluntarily yield ground, something virtually unheardof. Moreover, while German casualties numbered 35 000, Entente casualties were in excess of 60 000, and the Germans accomplish this favourable casualty ratio while attacking, inverting the normal situation whereby attackers suffer more than defenders. In a larger sense, however, the 2nd Battle of Ypres was a missed opportunity. Because the operation had never been intended to be a major offensive, the Germans were not prepared when the initial gas attack proved more successful than anyone could have imagined. The shock effect of gas literally blew a hole in the Entente line larger than any seen to date in the war, and with sufficient reserves the Germans might have been able to drive on Ypres and beyond. In a familiar refrain, by the time the Germans realized the opportunity that existed, the moment to exploit it had already passed, and subsequent fighting was comparable to the static fighting seen in other major engagements - the vast majority of the ground captured by the Germans was achieved in the first hours after the gas attack. The lost opportunity, however, is even greater than the specific context of the 2nd Battle of Ypres. The most potent effect of gas is psychological: when it strikes soldiers who are unprepared, their willingness to stand and fight vanishes and resistance becomes impossible. By definition this can only happen the first time gas is used; within twenty-four hours crude countermeasures were being developed, and in future soldiers who are gassed will have gas masks at hand. This ensures that while gas still kills and has an impact on the battlefield, never again can it have the same psychological effect. The most effective use of gas was always going to be the first time, and the Germans threw away this opportunity by not being prepared to exploit the situation. The Germans have also earned the opprobrium of being the first combatant to use asphyxiating gas on the battlefield. Though all countries will soon make extensive use of gas, and work to develop ever more lethal chemicals, 2nd Ypres becomes, in the eyes of many, yet another example of German 'barbarism', in line with the Rape of Belgium and the sinking of Lusitania. For many in both Entente countries and neutrals such as the United States, it is yet another reason why Germany and 'Prussian militarism' must be crushed; one cannot compromise with barbarism. Finally, the battle has been the baptism of fire for 1st Canadian Division. The resiliency (if not sheer stubbornness) of the Canadians in the first days of the German offensive, holding their lines despite gas and overwhelming attacks until British and French reserves could arrive, was vital to preventing a greater German breakthrough, and becomes a celebrated feat of arms. It is the first of many such accomplishments for the Canadians on the Western Front.
- In Artois French pressure forces the Germans to abandon most of the village of Ablain, but otherwise French attacks are unsuccessful today. Nevertheless, Crown Prince Rupprecht, commander of the German 6th Army, believes that three of his front-line divisions are completely worn out and must be replaced, and requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn. The German Chief of Staff agrees, transferring 2nd Guard Reserve Division and two brigades from OHL control to 6th Army's sector.
- The battered Russian 3rd Army completes its retreat to the San River, taking up positions north of the fortification of Przemysl. Its northern wing is entrenched on the east bank from Jaroslau almost to the junction with the Vistula River, where 4th Army covers both sides of the Vistula itself. The southern wing of 3rd Army, between Jaroslau and Przemysl, is actually deployed on the west bank; because the west bank is much higher than the east, holding the river line itself here is not possible. South and east of Przemysl sit 8th and 11th Armies, the latter connecting with 9th Army still conducting its offensive in the Bukovina. Reinforcements are also en route; General Alexeyev has begrudgingly allowed XV Corps, formerly part of Northwest Front, to redeploy southwards, and it is to come into the line between 4th and 3rd Armies.
- In east Galicia the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army continues its retreat to the Pruth River, and by nightfall most of its elements are across. The west and centre wings were able to pull back relatively unmolested, but the east wing came under heavy attack, especially by the Russian XXXIII Corps, as it did so. Here at least the Russians are having some success in the Carpathians, and the offensive has forced the Austro-Hungarians to divert III Corps, initially intended to garrison the frontier with Italy, to Bukovina. Beyond this, however, it has had no impact on the larger strategic picture; Falkenhayn for one knows that if Mackensen and 11th Army continues to achieve success, and in particular force the San River line, the Russian position in the Bukovina will be outflanked and nothing that happens there will matter.
- At 5pm the Italian cabinet reconvenes, and since yesterday's meeting Salandra has met with party leaders over the question of peace or war. He reports to the cabinet that only one - Leonida Bissolati of the moderate Socialists - supported intervention. The cabinet then spends the next four hours debate the issue back and forth. One concern is that if the cabinet, and by convention the king, endorses war, but then is repudiated by parliament, a constitutional crisis may ensue. To clear the air and force the issue, Salandra proposes the government's resignation; his hope is that efforts to cobble together an alternative anti-war government will fail, and thus by default committing Italy to war. At 9pm the cabinet agrees, and Salandra immediately drives to the royal palace at Villa Savoia to offer their resignations. At 1030pm news of the resignation becomes public; the moment of decision is at hand.
- Today the German submarine U21 arrives at the Austro-Hungarian naval base of Cattaro, after several weeks at sea. Due to its lengthy journey from Germany it had only barely made it to port, with only 1.8 tons out of the original 56.5 tons of fuel remaining. Once refueled and resupplied, the Germans will have their first active ocean-going submarine in the Mediterrean (UB-8 is a much smaller coastal submarine).
- For weeks Entente warships have pounded Ottoman positions on Gallipoli with impunity, as none of the shore batteries could fire shells capable of penetrating the armour of the old pre-dreadnoughts. Given their numbers, the Entente fleet has also shown no real concern with naval opposition, and largely assume they may sail and anchor as they please. Overnight, the Ottomans do their best to disabuse the British and French admirals of their misplaced faith in their invulnerability. With a full moon and heavy mist reducing visibility, the Ottoman destroy Muavenet, captained by a German, snuck through the straits and moved up the European coast of Gallipoli. In Morto Bay, not a hundred yards offshore, the destroyer comes across the British pre-dreadnought Goliath at anchor, where it is waiting to continue its shore bombardment at dawn. Surging forward, Muavenet fires three torpedoes and disappears back into the night and through the straits before anyone can react. The torpedoes strike home, and within minutes rolls over and sinks. Because the current here is four to five knots and moving away from shore, none of the British sailors in the water can swim ashore. Five hundred and seventy drown, and only one hundred and eight survive. It is a striking accomplishment for the Ottomans: the Sultan awards each sailor on Muavenet a gold watch and a purse filled with gold.
The sinking of Goliath shows that the waters off the Dardanelles are now contested, and the aftershocks of the loss of the pre-dreadnought reach London this afternoon, where news of the sinking prompts a passionate outburst from Admiral Fisher. For months he has worried over the potential loss of warships during the Dardanelles campaign, and in particular is concerned about Queen Elizabeth, Britain's newest and most advanced battleship. The loss of Goliath stokes these fears to a fever pitch, and Fisher insists that Queen Elizabeth be ordered to return to home waters immediately. Churchill accedes to the First Sea Lord's demand, but later this evening the argument is joined by Kitchener when he visits the Admiralty on a different matter. When the Secretary of War learns of Queen Elizabeth's recall, he goes into a rage, accusing the navy of abandoning the army after the army had come to the aid of the navy after the latter's failure to force the Dardanelles. Fisher, never one to back down from a fight, fires right back at Kitchener, declaring that Queen Elizabeth will sail for home this instant or he would resign on the spot. Kitchener returns to the War Office and pens an aggressive note to Asquith, but for now Fisher has won the argument: the orders for Queen Elizabeth's recall stand. The crisis over the Dardanelles, however, is just beginning.
- In German South-West Africa the advance of South African forces from Swakopmund on the coast and from the south has been slow and irregular, disrupted by supply difficulties more than German opposition. After several months, however, today the northern detachment, under the direct command of Prime Minister Botha, enters Windhoek, the capital of the German colony. In doing so the South Africans also seize the main wireless station, disrupting communications between the remaining German forces in the colony, now retreating northeast along the lone railway, and the outside world.
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| The front line at Ypres, May 13th, 1915. |
Though desultory fighting will continue around the Ypres salient for several weeks, the 2nd Battle of Ypres has effectively drawn to a close. In the context of major operations on the Western Front, the battle has undoubtedly been a German victory. Not only were they able to advance several miles towards Ypres, but were also able to force the British to voluntarily yield ground, something virtually unheardof. Moreover, while German casualties numbered 35 000, Entente casualties were in excess of 60 000, and the Germans accomplish this favourable casualty ratio while attacking, inverting the normal situation whereby attackers suffer more than defenders. In a larger sense, however, the 2nd Battle of Ypres was a missed opportunity. Because the operation had never been intended to be a major offensive, the Germans were not prepared when the initial gas attack proved more successful than anyone could have imagined. The shock effect of gas literally blew a hole in the Entente line larger than any seen to date in the war, and with sufficient reserves the Germans might have been able to drive on Ypres and beyond. In a familiar refrain, by the time the Germans realized the opportunity that existed, the moment to exploit it had already passed, and subsequent fighting was comparable to the static fighting seen in other major engagements - the vast majority of the ground captured by the Germans was achieved in the first hours after the gas attack. The lost opportunity, however, is even greater than the specific context of the 2nd Battle of Ypres. The most potent effect of gas is psychological: when it strikes soldiers who are unprepared, their willingness to stand and fight vanishes and resistance becomes impossible. By definition this can only happen the first time gas is used; within twenty-four hours crude countermeasures were being developed, and in future soldiers who are gassed will have gas masks at hand. This ensures that while gas still kills and has an impact on the battlefield, never again can it have the same psychological effect. The most effective use of gas was always going to be the first time, and the Germans threw away this opportunity by not being prepared to exploit the situation. The Germans have also earned the opprobrium of being the first combatant to use asphyxiating gas on the battlefield. Though all countries will soon make extensive use of gas, and work to develop ever more lethal chemicals, 2nd Ypres becomes, in the eyes of many, yet another example of German 'barbarism', in line with the Rape of Belgium and the sinking of Lusitania. For many in both Entente countries and neutrals such as the United States, it is yet another reason why Germany and 'Prussian militarism' must be crushed; one cannot compromise with barbarism. Finally, the battle has been the baptism of fire for 1st Canadian Division. The resiliency (if not sheer stubbornness) of the Canadians in the first days of the German offensive, holding their lines despite gas and overwhelming attacks until British and French reserves could arrive, was vital to preventing a greater German breakthrough, and becomes a celebrated feat of arms. It is the first of many such accomplishments for the Canadians on the Western Front.
- In Artois French pressure forces the Germans to abandon most of the village of Ablain, but otherwise French attacks are unsuccessful today. Nevertheless, Crown Prince Rupprecht, commander of the German 6th Army, believes that three of his front-line divisions are completely worn out and must be replaced, and requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn. The German Chief of Staff agrees, transferring 2nd Guard Reserve Division and two brigades from OHL control to 6th Army's sector.
- The battered Russian 3rd Army completes its retreat to the San River, taking up positions north of the fortification of Przemysl. Its northern wing is entrenched on the east bank from Jaroslau almost to the junction with the Vistula River, where 4th Army covers both sides of the Vistula itself. The southern wing of 3rd Army, between Jaroslau and Przemysl, is actually deployed on the west bank; because the west bank is much higher than the east, holding the river line itself here is not possible. South and east of Przemysl sit 8th and 11th Armies, the latter connecting with 9th Army still conducting its offensive in the Bukovina. Reinforcements are also en route; General Alexeyev has begrudgingly allowed XV Corps, formerly part of Northwest Front, to redeploy southwards, and it is to come into the line between 4th and 3rd Armies.
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| The German and Austro-Hungarian advance towards Jaroslau and Przemysl, May 13th to 16th, 1915. |
- In east Galicia the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army continues its retreat to the Pruth River, and by nightfall most of its elements are across. The west and centre wings were able to pull back relatively unmolested, but the east wing came under heavy attack, especially by the Russian XXXIII Corps, as it did so. Here at least the Russians are having some success in the Carpathians, and the offensive has forced the Austro-Hungarians to divert III Corps, initially intended to garrison the frontier with Italy, to Bukovina. Beyond this, however, it has had no impact on the larger strategic picture; Falkenhayn for one knows that if Mackensen and 11th Army continues to achieve success, and in particular force the San River line, the Russian position in the Bukovina will be outflanked and nothing that happens there will matter.
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| The Battle of Dniester, May 13th, 1915. |
- At 5pm the Italian cabinet reconvenes, and since yesterday's meeting Salandra has met with party leaders over the question of peace or war. He reports to the cabinet that only one - Leonida Bissolati of the moderate Socialists - supported intervention. The cabinet then spends the next four hours debate the issue back and forth. One concern is that if the cabinet, and by convention the king, endorses war, but then is repudiated by parliament, a constitutional crisis may ensue. To clear the air and force the issue, Salandra proposes the government's resignation; his hope is that efforts to cobble together an alternative anti-war government will fail, and thus by default committing Italy to war. At 9pm the cabinet agrees, and Salandra immediately drives to the royal palace at Villa Savoia to offer their resignations. At 1030pm news of the resignation becomes public; the moment of decision is at hand.
- Today the German submarine U21 arrives at the Austro-Hungarian naval base of Cattaro, after several weeks at sea. Due to its lengthy journey from Germany it had only barely made it to port, with only 1.8 tons out of the original 56.5 tons of fuel remaining. Once refueled and resupplied, the Germans will have their first active ocean-going submarine in the Mediterrean (UB-8 is a much smaller coastal submarine).
- For weeks Entente warships have pounded Ottoman positions on Gallipoli with impunity, as none of the shore batteries could fire shells capable of penetrating the armour of the old pre-dreadnoughts. Given their numbers, the Entente fleet has also shown no real concern with naval opposition, and largely assume they may sail and anchor as they please. Overnight, the Ottomans do their best to disabuse the British and French admirals of their misplaced faith in their invulnerability. With a full moon and heavy mist reducing visibility, the Ottoman destroy Muavenet, captained by a German, snuck through the straits and moved up the European coast of Gallipoli. In Morto Bay, not a hundred yards offshore, the destroyer comes across the British pre-dreadnought Goliath at anchor, where it is waiting to continue its shore bombardment at dawn. Surging forward, Muavenet fires three torpedoes and disappears back into the night and through the straits before anyone can react. The torpedoes strike home, and within minutes rolls over and sinks. Because the current here is four to five knots and moving away from shore, none of the British sailors in the water can swim ashore. Five hundred and seventy drown, and only one hundred and eight survive. It is a striking accomplishment for the Ottomans: the Sultan awards each sailor on Muavenet a gold watch and a purse filled with gold.
The sinking of Goliath shows that the waters off the Dardanelles are now contested, and the aftershocks of the loss of the pre-dreadnought reach London this afternoon, where news of the sinking prompts a passionate outburst from Admiral Fisher. For months he has worried over the potential loss of warships during the Dardanelles campaign, and in particular is concerned about Queen Elizabeth, Britain's newest and most advanced battleship. The loss of Goliath stokes these fears to a fever pitch, and Fisher insists that Queen Elizabeth be ordered to return to home waters immediately. Churchill accedes to the First Sea Lord's demand, but later this evening the argument is joined by Kitchener when he visits the Admiralty on a different matter. When the Secretary of War learns of Queen Elizabeth's recall, he goes into a rage, accusing the navy of abandoning the army after the army had come to the aid of the navy after the latter's failure to force the Dardanelles. Fisher, never one to back down from a fight, fires right back at Kitchener, declaring that Queen Elizabeth will sail for home this instant or he would resign on the spot. Kitchener returns to the War Office and pens an aggressive note to Asquith, but for now Fisher has won the argument: the orders for Queen Elizabeth's recall stand. The crisis over the Dardanelles, however, is just beginning.
- In German South-West Africa the advance of South African forces from Swakopmund on the coast and from the south has been slow and irregular, disrupted by supply difficulties more than German opposition. After several months, however, today the northern detachment, under the direct command of Prime Minister Botha, enters Windhoek, the capital of the German colony. In doing so the South Africans also seize the main wireless station, disrupting communications between the remaining German forces in the colony, now retreating northeast along the lone railway, and the outside world.
Monday, May 11, 2015
May 11th, 1915
- For months the First Sea Lord, Admiral Fisher, has held deep misgivings about the Dardanelles operation, fearing heavy losses for negligible gain. When Admiral de Robeck's signal arrives at the Admiralty suggesting another naval attempt to force the straits, Fisher erupts in anger, writing to Churchill: 'I cannot under any circumstances be a party to any order to Admiral de Robeck to make any attempt to pass the Dardanelles until the shores have been effectively occupied.' Churchill, in contrast, is willing to at least allow a limited attack to clear the minefield off Kephez. The vast divergence of opinion between the two over the Dardanelles operation is now in the open, and Fisher has laid down the gauntlet: if the naval operation proceeds he will no longer serve as First Sea Lord. Another fuse is lit . . .
- General d'Urbal orders further attacks today in Artois, and sends additional divisions to XXXIII and XX Corps as reinforcements. After a two hour artillery bombardment, the infantry advance, but are repeatedly repulsed by strong German defences; Pétain reports his attacks are broken up by heavy machine gun fire on his flanks and increased enemy artillery fire. On the German side OHL releases 117th Division as a further reinforcement to 6th Army, and it arrives southwest of Lens. With additional reinforcements it is hoped to be able to hold the threatened villages of Carency and Ablain.
- Today President Wilson presents to his cabinet the draft of a note he intends to send to the German government regarding the sinking of Lusitania. While he states that he does not believe the German government directly ordered the sinking, he sees it as the natural consequence of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare:
- In Galicia the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies begin their retreat eastward towards the San River, pursued by (from northwest to southeast) the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, the German 11th Army, the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd Armies, and Südarmee. In places the battered Russians are able to disengage entirely, while in others their retreat is hastened by yet further fighting.
- Only in far eastern Galicia are the Russian still on the advance, continuing their offensive into the Bukovina. Today the Russian XXXIII Corps enlarged its bridgehead across the Dniester River yesterday, and today an attack to the west against the right wing of the Austro-Hungarian 15th Division forces the latter back. This retreat threatens the flank of the forces bottling up XXXIII Corps, and as a result the Austro-Hungarians are forced to withdraw to a new defensive line to the south, running through Horodenka and Obertyn.
- In Italy King Victor Emmanuel meets with Prime Minister Salandra this afternoon. The monarch is in a better mood than in prior days; yesterday's meeting with Giolitti has reassured him that the former prime minister will not attempt to return to power and provoke a grave constitutional crisis. Salandra, however, is still concerned about the extent of Giolitti's support in parliament, as the latter has voiced the belief that a vote of four-fifths against intervention would be sufficient to annul any otherwise binding commitment made to the Entente.
- In Mesopotamia General Nixon, commanding the Indian forces at and around Basra, formally instructs General Townshend of 6th Indian Division to clear the positions held by the Ottomans around Qurna, advance upriver, and occupy Amara.
- General d'Urbal orders further attacks today in Artois, and sends additional divisions to XXXIII and XX Corps as reinforcements. After a two hour artillery bombardment, the infantry advance, but are repeatedly repulsed by strong German defences; Pétain reports his attacks are broken up by heavy machine gun fire on his flanks and increased enemy artillery fire. On the German side OHL releases 117th Division as a further reinforcement to 6th Army, and it arrives southwest of Lens. With additional reinforcements it is hoped to be able to hold the threatened villages of Carency and Ablain.
- Today President Wilson presents to his cabinet the draft of a note he intends to send to the German government regarding the sinking of Lusitania. While he states that he does not believe the German government directly ordered the sinking, he sees it as the natural consequence of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare:
The government of the United States desires to call the attention of the Imperial German Government . . . to . . . the practical impossibility of employing submarines in the destruction of commerce without disregarding those rules of fairness, reason, justice, and humanity which all modern opinion regards as imperative. It is practically impossible for the officers of a submarine at sea to visit a merchantman at sea and examine her papers and cargo. It is practically impossible for them to make a prize of her; and if they cannot put a prize crew on board her, they cannot sink her without leaving her crew and all aboard to the mercy of the sea in her small boats. . . . Manifestly, submarines cannot be used against merchantmen . . . without an inevitable violation of many sacred principles of justice and humanity.Within cabinet, Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan sees the note as too pro-British; have not the British also violated international law in their conduct of their naval blockade of Germany? Bryan also opposes Americans travelling on ships belonging to combatants. His views are opposed by State Department Counselor Robert Lansing, who argues that the American government, having permitted American citizens to sail on British steamships to date, cannot now disavow such activity, and must insist on a German pledge to never conduct such an attack again. Bryan's objections are overruled, and Wilson's original note will be conveyed to the German government as is.
- In Galicia the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies begin their retreat eastward towards the San River, pursued by (from northwest to southeast) the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, the German 11th Army, the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd Armies, and Südarmee. In places the battered Russians are able to disengage entirely, while in others their retreat is hastened by yet further fighting.
- Only in far eastern Galicia are the Russian still on the advance, continuing their offensive into the Bukovina. Today the Russian XXXIII Corps enlarged its bridgehead across the Dniester River yesterday, and today an attack to the west against the right wing of the Austro-Hungarian 15th Division forces the latter back. This retreat threatens the flank of the forces bottling up XXXIII Corps, and as a result the Austro-Hungarians are forced to withdraw to a new defensive line to the south, running through Horodenka and Obertyn.
- In Italy King Victor Emmanuel meets with Prime Minister Salandra this afternoon. The monarch is in a better mood than in prior days; yesterday's meeting with Giolitti has reassured him that the former prime minister will not attempt to return to power and provoke a grave constitutional crisis. Salandra, however, is still concerned about the extent of Giolitti's support in parliament, as the latter has voiced the belief that a vote of four-fifths against intervention would be sufficient to annul any otherwise binding commitment made to the Entente.
- In Mesopotamia General Nixon, commanding the Indian forces at and around Basra, formally instructs General Townshend of 6th Indian Division to clear the positions held by the Ottomans around Qurna, advance upriver, and occupy Amara.
Sunday, April 05, 2015
April 5th, 1915
- Today the French VIII and XXXI Corps advance against the southern face of the St.-Mihiel salient, advancing on the left flank of XII Corps. With this attack, covering almost the whole line from St.-Mihiel east to the Moselle River, the French hope to draw German reserves southwards as the main offensive is launched simultaneously against the western face of the salient. Here the French attacks are directed against the northern end of the salient, aiming to drive through the German lines towards the Woëvre plain, compelling the evacuation of the German positions to the south. A key objective is the hill of Les Éparges, from which the Germans can overlook the main French to the north towards the Woëvre plain.
The morning sees heavy rain and poor visibility, which postpones the attack until conditions improve in the afternoon. After a preliminary artillery bombardment commencing at 11am, the infantry advance starting at 215pm. Everywhere the attack is a shambles, primarily due to inadequate artillery support. With insufficient time to plan the bombardment, many German positions have not been struck, while the rolling terrain has hindered artillery observers. Further, the soil, saturated from days of rain, absorbed numerous shells before they could detonate. Nowhere have the French secured any ground of significance.
- Conrad writes to Falkenhayn today, reemphasizing yet again the difficult situation faced by the Austro-Hungarian army in the Carpathians. Further, Conrad argues, another reverse there would only encourage both Italy and Romania to enter the war, and that should this occur, Austria-Hungary would need to withdraw ten divisions from the Carpathians to meet this three (seven against Italy and three against Romania). He seeks assurances from Falkenhayn that these divisions will be replaced by German units should their withdrawal be necessary.
- Unbeknownst to Conrad, Falkenhayn is considering his own arrangements: General Cramon, the German military attache at Austro-Hungarian army headquarters, inquires of Colonial Johann Straub, head of the Austro-Hungarian Railroad Office, of the rail situation in the Gorlice-Tarnow region. Straub informs Cramon that it would be possible to send one hundred trains into the area, each of one hundred and eight cars, of which forty would haul supplies and sixty available to carry soldiers. This suggests a German force of four corps could be deployed there in about eight days.
- Meanwhile, in the Carpathians themselves, Austro-Hungarian fortunes are beginning to turn thanks to the arrive of German reinforcements. By this morning 25th and 35th Reserve Divisions of the German Beskid Corps are now in the line between Lupkow and the Laborczra valley, and launch a counterattack on the Russian lines, aided by the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Division. By late afternoon, they have advanced and seized the heights of Javirska and Kobila.
- Admiral Fisher once again writes to Churchill of his unease with the ongoing Dardanelles operation, which has only been heightened by the losses of March 18th: 'You are just simply eaten up with the Dardanelles and cannot think of anything else. Damn the Dardanelles! They will be our grave!' The fuse continues to burn . . .
- As British regular forces scattered throughout the Empire are called home in the first months of the war for service in France, the necessity arises for replacements for essential defense tasks. In some circumstances, the Colonial Office turns to the dominions for aid. Today, the first half of No. 6 Company, Royal Canadian Garrison Artillery, arrives at St. Lucia in the British Windward islands to man the half dozen artillery pieces defending the island.
The morning sees heavy rain and poor visibility, which postpones the attack until conditions improve in the afternoon. After a preliminary artillery bombardment commencing at 11am, the infantry advance starting at 215pm. Everywhere the attack is a shambles, primarily due to inadequate artillery support. With insufficient time to plan the bombardment, many German positions have not been struck, while the rolling terrain has hindered artillery observers. Further, the soil, saturated from days of rain, absorbed numerous shells before they could detonate. Nowhere have the French secured any ground of significance.
- Conrad writes to Falkenhayn today, reemphasizing yet again the difficult situation faced by the Austro-Hungarian army in the Carpathians. Further, Conrad argues, another reverse there would only encourage both Italy and Romania to enter the war, and that should this occur, Austria-Hungary would need to withdraw ten divisions from the Carpathians to meet this three (seven against Italy and three against Romania). He seeks assurances from Falkenhayn that these divisions will be replaced by German units should their withdrawal be necessary.
- Unbeknownst to Conrad, Falkenhayn is considering his own arrangements: General Cramon, the German military attache at Austro-Hungarian army headquarters, inquires of Colonial Johann Straub, head of the Austro-Hungarian Railroad Office, of the rail situation in the Gorlice-Tarnow region. Straub informs Cramon that it would be possible to send one hundred trains into the area, each of one hundred and eight cars, of which forty would haul supplies and sixty available to carry soldiers. This suggests a German force of four corps could be deployed there in about eight days.
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| The attack of the German Beskid Corps, Apr. 2nd to 5th, 1915. |
- Admiral Fisher once again writes to Churchill of his unease with the ongoing Dardanelles operation, which has only been heightened by the losses of March 18th: 'You are just simply eaten up with the Dardanelles and cannot think of anything else. Damn the Dardanelles! They will be our grave!' The fuse continues to burn . . .
- As British regular forces scattered throughout the Empire are called home in the first months of the war for service in France, the necessity arises for replacements for essential defense tasks. In some circumstances, the Colonial Office turns to the dominions for aid. Today, the first half of No. 6 Company, Royal Canadian Garrison Artillery, arrives at St. Lucia in the British Windward islands to man the half dozen artillery pieces defending the island.
Thursday, March 26, 2015
March 26th, 1915
- The Landships Committee has reported to Churchill the preliminary results of its investigations of possible vehicles that could be adapted to combat use, and has focussed on two potential designs: a six-wheeled vehicle and a tracked vehicle using Pedrails. Today, Churchill authorizes the construction of prototypes of each for testing.
- Due to a lack of resources, Joffre cancels an attack planned in the Vosges, originally intended as a preliminary diversionary operation prior to the main offensive against the St.-Mihiel salient.
- Today the French 152nd Infantry Regiment, alongside 1st Chasseur Brigade, succeed in wresting control of the summit of Hartmannswillerkopf from the Germans.
- Admiral Robeck sends a further telegram to the Admiralty today, providing a more detailed justification of his decision to abandon the naval assault on the Dardanelles:
- Due to a lack of resources, Joffre cancels an attack planned in the Vosges, originally intended as a preliminary diversionary operation prior to the main offensive against the St.-Mihiel salient.
- Today the French 152nd Infantry Regiment, alongside 1st Chasseur Brigade, succeed in wresting control of the summit of Hartmannswillerkopf from the Germans.
- Admiral Robeck sends a further telegram to the Admiralty today, providing a more detailed justification of his decision to abandon the naval assault on the Dardanelles:
I do not hold the check on the 18th to be decisive, but having met General Hamilton . . . I consider a combined operation essential to obtain great results and object of campaign . . . To attack the Narrows now with fleet would be a mistake, as it would jeopardize the execution of a better and bigger scheme.
Monday, March 23, 2015
March 23rd, 1915
- In the Vosges the French 1st Chasseur Brigade attacks German positions on Hartmannswillerkopf, and are able to capture the first two enemy lines on the Siberloch flank of the mountain.
- In the aftermath of the fall of Przemysl, Falkenhayn had written to Conrad expressing his belief that the best chance for success in the east lay in an offensive against Serbia. As this would necessitate Austria-Hungary standing on the defensive in the Carpathians, Conrad strongly objects in his reply of today. He fears that any failure against Serbia would be the final nail in the coffin of the Dual Monarchy's prestige, while he believes that a resumption of the offensive in the Carpathians can still achieve success. Conrad is not going to allow devastating failure to stop him from trying again.
- Admiral Robeck signals the Admiralty this morning of his intention to abandon a purely naval assault on the Dardanelles. Instead, he proposes to launch a combined naval and army attack on the straits and Gallipoli peninsula on or after April 14th, when General Hamilton has stated his forces will be prepared to land.
The news from Robeck comes as a surprise to Churchill, who had expected the attack of the 18th to be merely the first stage of an ongoing operation. The losses incurred in that attack, while unfortunate, are acceptable given the ability to dispatch reinforcements and the significance of the objective. The First Lord intends to overrule Robeck and order an immediate resumption of a naval-only operation, and summons a meeting of the senior leadership of the Royal Navy, including Admiral Fisher. The collected admirals, however, insist that Robeck, as the senior commander on the spot, is best-suited to judge the proper course of action, and if he advises that a landing is necessary, then the Admiralty should agree. For Fisher in particular, who has long loathed the Dardanelles operation and feared the consequences of heavy losses, Robeck's message is a godsend, providing the justification needed to abandon the naval assault and shift to an operation on which the major burden will fall on the army. All morning Churchill argues with Fisher and the admirals, and as a last resort the First Lord appeals to Asquith. The Prime Minister responds, however, that while he may personally sympathize with Churchill's position, he does not feel it proper to overrule the professional advice of the admirals.
At a Cabinet meeting this afternoon, Churchill mournfully announces that the naval operation against the Dardanelles is to be abandoned, replaced by a joint operation in which the focus shall be on an amphibious operation by forces under General Hamilton's command. Kitchener declares that the army will see the operation through to a successful conclusion, and the matter is settled. Afterwards Churchill informs Robeck that his plan has been approved. Entente operations at the Dardanelles will henceforth be directed by Hamilton and the army leadership, with the navy relegated to the role of providing fire support.
- Over the past few months the relationship between the Senussi in the Sahara and the Ottoman Empire has improved, given that the former has enthusiastically answered the call to jihad issued by the latter. Money and equipment has been smuggled in on Greek merchant ships, while today Nuri Efendi, younger brother of Enver Pasha and a veteran of the 1912 fighting in Libya against Italy, lands at Sollum near the Libyan-Egyptian frontier with fifty Ottoman officers to aid the Senussi.
- In the aftermath of the fall of Przemysl, Falkenhayn had written to Conrad expressing his belief that the best chance for success in the east lay in an offensive against Serbia. As this would necessitate Austria-Hungary standing on the defensive in the Carpathians, Conrad strongly objects in his reply of today. He fears that any failure against Serbia would be the final nail in the coffin of the Dual Monarchy's prestige, while he believes that a resumption of the offensive in the Carpathians can still achieve success. Conrad is not going to allow devastating failure to stop him from trying again.
- Admiral Robeck signals the Admiralty this morning of his intention to abandon a purely naval assault on the Dardanelles. Instead, he proposes to launch a combined naval and army attack on the straits and Gallipoli peninsula on or after April 14th, when General Hamilton has stated his forces will be prepared to land.
The news from Robeck comes as a surprise to Churchill, who had expected the attack of the 18th to be merely the first stage of an ongoing operation. The losses incurred in that attack, while unfortunate, are acceptable given the ability to dispatch reinforcements and the significance of the objective. The First Lord intends to overrule Robeck and order an immediate resumption of a naval-only operation, and summons a meeting of the senior leadership of the Royal Navy, including Admiral Fisher. The collected admirals, however, insist that Robeck, as the senior commander on the spot, is best-suited to judge the proper course of action, and if he advises that a landing is necessary, then the Admiralty should agree. For Fisher in particular, who has long loathed the Dardanelles operation and feared the consequences of heavy losses, Robeck's message is a godsend, providing the justification needed to abandon the naval assault and shift to an operation on which the major burden will fall on the army. All morning Churchill argues with Fisher and the admirals, and as a last resort the First Lord appeals to Asquith. The Prime Minister responds, however, that while he may personally sympathize with Churchill's position, he does not feel it proper to overrule the professional advice of the admirals.
At a Cabinet meeting this afternoon, Churchill mournfully announces that the naval operation against the Dardanelles is to be abandoned, replaced by a joint operation in which the focus shall be on an amphibious operation by forces under General Hamilton's command. Kitchener declares that the army will see the operation through to a successful conclusion, and the matter is settled. Afterwards Churchill informs Robeck that his plan has been approved. Entente operations at the Dardanelles will henceforth be directed by Hamilton and the army leadership, with the navy relegated to the role of providing fire support.
- Over the past few months the relationship between the Senussi in the Sahara and the Ottoman Empire has improved, given that the former has enthusiastically answered the call to jihad issued by the latter. Money and equipment has been smuggled in on Greek merchant ships, while today Nuri Efendi, younger brother of Enver Pasha and a veteran of the 1912 fighting in Libya against Italy, lands at Sollum near the Libyan-Egyptian frontier with fifty Ottoman officers to aid the Senussi.
Tuesday, March 17, 2015
March 17th, 1915
- German Army Zeppelins attempt today to bombard London, but not only are they unable to find their target in a heavy fog, they cannot even find England itself. Instead, Z XII drops bombs on Calais, only to damage itself during landing.
- In Champagne there is heavy fighting for the heights north of Le Mesnil, where a German attack by 16th Reserve Division at 445am is turned back after an inadequate preliminary bombardment. This evening the commander of 3rd Army orders more through preparations for an assault to retake Hill 196, taken yesterday by the French.
- Joffre today writes to the Minister of War, informing him of the situation on the Western Front. He states that the fighting in Champagne since January has demonstrated that the commitment of considerable reserves and significant amounts of material were necessary to achieve decisive success in a major operation. It would take time for such reserves to be formed, but in the interim Joffre intends to conduct offensives of a smaller scale, aiming to maintain morale about the soldiers and keep pressure on the Germans.
- The attack planned for today by the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army between the Vistula River and the western Carpathians, but poor weather has forced its postponement for twenty-four hours.
- With Admiral Robeck having resigned yesterday due to illness, he is replaced as commander of the Dardanelles expedition by Rear Admiral John de Robeck, formerly the second-in-command. Churchill immediately encourages de Robeck to energetically attack the straits, and the later, accepting Carden's plan, states that with good weather the operation will begin tomorrow.
- As the naval campaign at the Dardanelles reaches its climax, a bizarre sideshow has been ongoing at the nearby Bulgarian port of Degeagatch on the Aegean coast. For several days two Britons - Griffin Eady, a civil engineer, and Edwin Whittall, a businessman - who had been longtime residents of the Ottoman Empire have been in secret negotiations with a representative of the Ottoman government. The negotiations had been initiated by Rear-Admiral William R. 'Blinker' Hall, the shadowy Director of Naval Intelligence and head of Room 40, and he had authorized Eady and Whittall to offer a £4 million bribe in exchange for the Ottomans withdrawing from the war. Whether the Ottoman representative had any actual authority to negotiate, given Enver Pasha's grip on the government, is unknown, and moreover Hall has authorized the negotiations and the bribe entirely on his own initiative, without reference to the Admiralty, Cabinet, or the Foreign Office. When the First Lord uncovered Hall's plot, he ordered the negotiations terminated, given the apparently imminent victory at the Dardanelles, and Eady and Whittall depart Degeagatch today.
- For the past three days Emden's landing party has been aboard two zambuks, sailing north along the east coast of the Red Sea. Each of the two ships carries thirty-five men in a space measuring only fourteen metres by four. Even beyond overcrowding the past few days have been uncomfortable for the Germans: both zambuks are infested with cockroaches, bedbugs, lice, and other insects. In the words of First Officer Mücke, all clothing not in use had to be tied down, lest it run away, and in the daily 'louse hunts' the record for one shirt was seventy-four lice.
To keep Entente blockade ships at bay, the zambuks have been sailing within the coral reefs of the Farsan Bank. While the reefs are dangerous for large ships, smaller ones such as the zambuks are still at risk. Just after 6pm this evening the lead zambuk strikes a coral reef, and only after several efforts is able to reach deeper waters. The second zambuk, following two hundred yards behind, is not so lucky - in trying to avoid one reef, it strikes another and sinks. The able-bodied sailors from the stricken zambuk are able to swim to the other, while two dugouts from the surviving zambuk are able to bring back the sick. In order to fit all aboard without floundering, however, most of the provisions had to be thrown overboard, leaving the Germans with food and water for only three days, in addition to their weapons and ammunition.
- In Champagne there is heavy fighting for the heights north of Le Mesnil, where a German attack by 16th Reserve Division at 445am is turned back after an inadequate preliminary bombardment. This evening the commander of 3rd Army orders more through preparations for an assault to retake Hill 196, taken yesterday by the French.
- Joffre today writes to the Minister of War, informing him of the situation on the Western Front. He states that the fighting in Champagne since January has demonstrated that the commitment of considerable reserves and significant amounts of material were necessary to achieve decisive success in a major operation. It would take time for such reserves to be formed, but in the interim Joffre intends to conduct offensives of a smaller scale, aiming to maintain morale about the soldiers and keep pressure on the Germans.
- The attack planned for today by the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army between the Vistula River and the western Carpathians, but poor weather has forced its postponement for twenty-four hours.
- With Admiral Robeck having resigned yesterday due to illness, he is replaced as commander of the Dardanelles expedition by Rear Admiral John de Robeck, formerly the second-in-command. Churchill immediately encourages de Robeck to energetically attack the straits, and the later, accepting Carden's plan, states that with good weather the operation will begin tomorrow.
- As the naval campaign at the Dardanelles reaches its climax, a bizarre sideshow has been ongoing at the nearby Bulgarian port of Degeagatch on the Aegean coast. For several days two Britons - Griffin Eady, a civil engineer, and Edwin Whittall, a businessman - who had been longtime residents of the Ottoman Empire have been in secret negotiations with a representative of the Ottoman government. The negotiations had been initiated by Rear-Admiral William R. 'Blinker' Hall, the shadowy Director of Naval Intelligence and head of Room 40, and he had authorized Eady and Whittall to offer a £4 million bribe in exchange for the Ottomans withdrawing from the war. Whether the Ottoman representative had any actual authority to negotiate, given Enver Pasha's grip on the government, is unknown, and moreover Hall has authorized the negotiations and the bribe entirely on his own initiative, without reference to the Admiralty, Cabinet, or the Foreign Office. When the First Lord uncovered Hall's plot, he ordered the negotiations terminated, given the apparently imminent victory at the Dardanelles, and Eady and Whittall depart Degeagatch today.
- For the past three days Emden's landing party has been aboard two zambuks, sailing north along the east coast of the Red Sea. Each of the two ships carries thirty-five men in a space measuring only fourteen metres by four. Even beyond overcrowding the past few days have been uncomfortable for the Germans: both zambuks are infested with cockroaches, bedbugs, lice, and other insects. In the words of First Officer Mücke, all clothing not in use had to be tied down, lest it run away, and in the daily 'louse hunts' the record for one shirt was seventy-four lice.
To keep Entente blockade ships at bay, the zambuks have been sailing within the coral reefs of the Farsan Bank. While the reefs are dangerous for large ships, smaller ones such as the zambuks are still at risk. Just after 6pm this evening the lead zambuk strikes a coral reef, and only after several efforts is able to reach deeper waters. The second zambuk, following two hundred yards behind, is not so lucky - in trying to avoid one reef, it strikes another and sinks. The able-bodied sailors from the stricken zambuk are able to swim to the other, while two dugouts from the surviving zambuk are able to bring back the sick. In order to fit all aboard without floundering, however, most of the provisions had to be thrown overboard, leaving the Germans with food and water for only three days, in addition to their weapons and ammunition.
Wednesday, March 11, 2015
March 11th, 1915
- In direct response to the German declaration of a war zone around Britain and the commencement of unrestricted submarine warfare, the British declare a total blockade of Germany today. Henceforth, Entente navies would prevent all cargoes, not just contraband, from reaching German ports.
- The Zeppelins belonging to the German army are today authorized to conduct aerial bombardments of London.
- In Canada, recruiting for a second contingent began even while the first was still training on Salisbury Plain. Today, Lord Kitchener informs the Canadian government that the transportation of the first elements of the second contingent across the Atlantic will commence in late April.
- Overnight, German forces have constructed a new defensive line across the breach open yesterday at Neuve Chapelle, while also deploying additional artillery batteries. In the morning mist the new positions go unseen, such that when a British attack is launched at 7am, it runs into a hail of machine gun and artillery fire from elements of the German 14th Division. A second attack in the evening is similarly dispatched as further German reinforcements, this time from 6th Bavarian Division, arrive on the battlefield.
- In Champagne the major assault of the French XVI Corps is scheduled to begin tomorrow, and this evening its commander issues his final orders to his subordinates. He instructs that every soldier is to participate in the advance, with none left to occupy trenches, and that every piece of ground seized is to be immediately consolidated and used as a launching pad for further attacks.
- The results of the reorganization of the German army, to incorporate the newest cohort of recruits while creating a large reserve of experienced divisions, are not as promising as Falkenhayn had originally hoped. Instead of the anticipated twenty-four new divisions, it is now apparent that, due to losses and other requirements, only fourteen new divisions can be created. This is less than the force envisioned in 6th Army's proposed operation for an offensive north of the Somme. Despite this setback, Falkenhayn remains committed to undertaking an attack in the West - writing today to Colonel Seeckt, 11th Army's Chief of Staff, he emphasizes that he still plans to force a return to a war of movement on the Western Front through a major breakthrough that culminates in victory over the Entente.
- Since the beginning of March, the German 10th Army has been gradually falling back towards the line it held prior to the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, as the position it had won in the battle had been rendered untenable due to Russian pressure on the flanks. It has been cautiously followed by the Russian 10th Army, but two days ago the Germans turned the tables on their pursuers, and after several furious days of fighting the Russians have been halted. The Germans are thus able to assume defensive positions and stalemate returns to the front. Despite the victory last month at Masurian Lakes, in terms of territory the Germans find themselves right back where they started.
- After four days of fighting the offensive of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army has stalled, unable to maintain the early momentum towards Gorlize and Staszkowka, at a cost of six thousand casualties.
Meanwhile, the garrison of the besieged fortress of Przemysl reports today that after the slaughter of all horses and a thorough search for all available food it will be able to hold out until March 24th, at which point surrender will be necessary to avoid starvation. The winter battles in the Carpathians are approaching their climax; the Austro-Hungarians must break through immediately if Przemysl is to be relieved before it falls.
The Russians, however, have other ideas. General Brusilov has been concerned that the advance of the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, particularly near Lupkow, threatens the flank of the Russian forces facing 3rd Army to the west. To negate this possibility, Russian forces attack today near Lupkow, and the Austro-Hungarian 29th Division is forced to yield the ground it had conquered over the past few days.
- At the Dardanelles the minesweepers are sent into the straits unescorted tonight, hoping to catch the Ottomans by surprise. The result was about what one would expect, as Keyes related:
- The landing party of the German light cruiser Emden arrives today back at Hodeida, from which it had departed a month earlier. Intending to continue their journey by sea, they must secure new vessels, as Choising, the merchant ship upon which they had crossed the Indian Ocean, had been sent away upon their arrival at Hodeida. As there are no steamships to be had, First Officer Mücke acquires two zambuks, small sailboats fourteen meters long and four meters wide, used along the Arabian coast. The party intends to sail from Yabana, a small bay north of Hodeida, on the fourteenth, while to deflect unwanted attention Mücke spreads the rumour that they will instead sail from Isa Bay on the thirteenth.
- The Zeppelins belonging to the German army are today authorized to conduct aerial bombardments of London.
- In Canada, recruiting for a second contingent began even while the first was still training on Salisbury Plain. Today, Lord Kitchener informs the Canadian government that the transportation of the first elements of the second contingent across the Atlantic will commence in late April.
- Overnight, German forces have constructed a new defensive line across the breach open yesterday at Neuve Chapelle, while also deploying additional artillery batteries. In the morning mist the new positions go unseen, such that when a British attack is launched at 7am, it runs into a hail of machine gun and artillery fire from elements of the German 14th Division. A second attack in the evening is similarly dispatched as further German reinforcements, this time from 6th Bavarian Division, arrive on the battlefield.
- In Champagne the major assault of the French XVI Corps is scheduled to begin tomorrow, and this evening its commander issues his final orders to his subordinates. He instructs that every soldier is to participate in the advance, with none left to occupy trenches, and that every piece of ground seized is to be immediately consolidated and used as a launching pad for further attacks.
- The results of the reorganization of the German army, to incorporate the newest cohort of recruits while creating a large reserve of experienced divisions, are not as promising as Falkenhayn had originally hoped. Instead of the anticipated twenty-four new divisions, it is now apparent that, due to losses and other requirements, only fourteen new divisions can be created. This is less than the force envisioned in 6th Army's proposed operation for an offensive north of the Somme. Despite this setback, Falkenhayn remains committed to undertaking an attack in the West - writing today to Colonel Seeckt, 11th Army's Chief of Staff, he emphasizes that he still plans to force a return to a war of movement on the Western Front through a major breakthrough that culminates in victory over the Entente.
- Since the beginning of March, the German 10th Army has been gradually falling back towards the line it held prior to the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, as the position it had won in the battle had been rendered untenable due to Russian pressure on the flanks. It has been cautiously followed by the Russian 10th Army, but two days ago the Germans turned the tables on their pursuers, and after several furious days of fighting the Russians have been halted. The Germans are thus able to assume defensive positions and stalemate returns to the front. Despite the victory last month at Masurian Lakes, in terms of territory the Germans find themselves right back where they started.
- After four days of fighting the offensive of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army has stalled, unable to maintain the early momentum towards Gorlize and Staszkowka, at a cost of six thousand casualties.
Meanwhile, the garrison of the besieged fortress of Przemysl reports today that after the slaughter of all horses and a thorough search for all available food it will be able to hold out until March 24th, at which point surrender will be necessary to avoid starvation. The winter battles in the Carpathians are approaching their climax; the Austro-Hungarians must break through immediately if Przemysl is to be relieved before it falls.
The Russians, however, have other ideas. General Brusilov has been concerned that the advance of the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, particularly near Lupkow, threatens the flank of the Russian forces facing 3rd Army to the west. To negate this possibility, Russian forces attack today near Lupkow, and the Austro-Hungarian 29th Division is forced to yield the ground it had conquered over the past few days.
- At the Dardanelles the minesweepers are sent into the straits unescorted tonight, hoping to catch the Ottomans by surprise. The result was about what one would expect, as Keyes related:
The less said about that night the better. To put it briefly, the sweepers turned tail and fled as soon as they were fired upon. I was furious and told the officers . . . that it did not matter if we lost all seven sweepers, there were twenty-eight more, and the mines had got to be swept up. How could they talk about being stopped by heavy fire if they were not hit?- At the Admiralty, Churchill has received reports of Ottoman ammunition shortages at the Dardanelles, and sends orders to Carden to abandon his methodical attempts to bombardment the forts and sweep the minefields, and instead press forward with maximum force. In Churchill's views, any losses that may occur would be amply compensated by the strategic consequences of victory at the Dardanelles.
- The landing party of the German light cruiser Emden arrives today back at Hodeida, from which it had departed a month earlier. Intending to continue their journey by sea, they must secure new vessels, as Choising, the merchant ship upon which they had crossed the Indian Ocean, had been sent away upon their arrival at Hodeida. As there are no steamships to be had, First Officer Mücke acquires two zambuks, small sailboats fourteen meters long and four meters wide, used along the Arabian coast. The party intends to sail from Yabana, a small bay north of Hodeida, on the fourteenth, while to deflect unwanted attention Mücke spreads the rumour that they will instead sail from Isa Bay on the thirteenth.
Friday, February 20, 2015
February 20th, 1915
- After authorizing the release of a division from IV Corps to reinforce 4th Army, Joffre is dismayed to learn that it may take several more days before the reinforcements enter the line and allow for renewed advances. The French Commander-in-Chief sends a reduke to General de Langle of 4th Army, insisting on the importance of attacking as soon as possible to prevent the Germans from constructing new defensive positions faster than the French can fight through them.
On the German side, 1st Guard Division arrives in 3rd Army's sector, an increase in strength that appears to secure the army's left flank against further attacks.
- The Hankey Memorandum of December 28th, 1914, which included a proposal regarding the used of tracked vehicles on the Western Front, had led to an investigation by a War Office committee, which after unpromising tests had concluded that the concept would not be practical. However, the memorandum has also caught the attention of Churchill, who has also been receiving suggestions from officiers of the Royal Naval Air Service for vehicles more capable than their armoured cars. Today he authorizes the formation of the Landships Committee, chaired by Director of Naval Construction E. H. T. d'Eyncourt, to investigate the different ideas put forward for the used of tracked and/or armoured vehicles.
- In the eastern Carpathians the Austro-Hungarian 10th Cavalry Division, part of General Pflanzer-Baltin's army group, occupies the town of Stanislau this morning after its evacuation by Russian forces. However, reinforcements from the Russian 9th Army are arriving in the region, and by the afternoon the Russians counterattack near Stanislau. Only the timely arrival of a brigade from 36th Division allows the Austro-Hungarians to hold the town.
- At the Dardanelles the weather has taken a sharp turn for the worse, with heavy rain and high seas. Admiral Carden is unwilling to waste ammunition when poor visibility prevents accurate targeting, and thus given the conditions the British and French warships are unable to continue the bombardment of the Ottoman forts begun yesterday.
On the German side, 1st Guard Division arrives in 3rd Army's sector, an increase in strength that appears to secure the army's left flank against further attacks.
- The Hankey Memorandum of December 28th, 1914, which included a proposal regarding the used of tracked vehicles on the Western Front, had led to an investigation by a War Office committee, which after unpromising tests had concluded that the concept would not be practical. However, the memorandum has also caught the attention of Churchill, who has also been receiving suggestions from officiers of the Royal Naval Air Service for vehicles more capable than their armoured cars. Today he authorizes the formation of the Landships Committee, chaired by Director of Naval Construction E. H. T. d'Eyncourt, to investigate the different ideas put forward for the used of tracked and/or armoured vehicles.
- In the eastern Carpathians the Austro-Hungarian 10th Cavalry Division, part of General Pflanzer-Baltin's army group, occupies the town of Stanislau this morning after its evacuation by Russian forces. However, reinforcements from the Russian 9th Army are arriving in the region, and by the afternoon the Russians counterattack near Stanislau. Only the timely arrival of a brigade from 36th Division allows the Austro-Hungarians to hold the town.
- At the Dardanelles the weather has taken a sharp turn for the worse, with heavy rain and high seas. Admiral Carden is unwilling to waste ammunition when poor visibility prevents accurate targeting, and thus given the conditions the British and French warships are unable to continue the bombardment of the Ottoman forts begun yesterday.
Sunday, February 15, 2015
February 15th, 1915
- Admiral Pohl receives another telegram from the Kaiser today: 'H.M. the Emperor has commanded that the U-boat campaign to destroy commerce . . . is not to begin on February 18, but only when orders to do so are received from the All Highest.' Once again Wilhelm II wavers when faced with an important military decision, much to the dismay of his admirals.
- In Britain, meanwhile, Churchill, speaking in the House of Commons, seeks to assure the public regarding the threatened German submarine campaign:
- In Singapore, the 5th Light Infantry battalion of the Indian army is the only remaining regular force defending the colony, as other units have been transferred to more active theaters. The battalion, however, has long seethed with discontent, and today many of its soldiers rise in mutiny. The unit is entirely Muslim, and fears of being sent to fight the Ottomans may have played a role in the decision to mutiny. Conversely, other than a couple of exceptions Indian nationalism does not appear to have been a major motivating force. Indeed, most important are causes specific to the unit itself - the commanding officer is incompetent and the officers mistrust each other, allowing other issues, such as poor rations and promotion prospects, to fester.
Initially, the mutineers, some three hundred in total, outnumber the 231 European soldiers on the island. They also attempt to augment their ranks by freeing German prisoners of war, but the latter were more afraid of the Indians than anything and the few that did act preferred to escape rather than fight. Rampaging in several large groups, thirty-four Britons and Asians are killed in several hours. In response a landing party from the sloop Cadmus is put ashore and uses a machine gun to check the mutineers' advance on Singapore itself.
- In Britain, meanwhile, Churchill, speaking in the House of Commons, seeks to assure the public regarding the threatened German submarine campaign:
. . . losses will no doubt be incurred - of that I give full warning. But we believe that no vital injury can be done if our traders put to sea regularly . . . If they take the precautions which are proper and legitimate, we expect the losses will be confided within manageable limits, even at the outset when the enemy must be expected to make his greatest effort to produce an impression.- The 1st Canadian Division completes disembarkation at St. Nazaire today, and the soldiers immediately entrain for the journey to Flanders. Their billeting area is just east of Hazebrouck, and they are to be attached to III Corps, 2nd Army of the BEF. Prior to taking over a section of the front line in several weeks time, the headquarters staff and regimental personnel will be attached to the British 4th and 6th Divisions to learn first-hand about the nature of trench warfare.
- In Singapore, the 5th Light Infantry battalion of the Indian army is the only remaining regular force defending the colony, as other units have been transferred to more active theaters. The battalion, however, has long seethed with discontent, and today many of its soldiers rise in mutiny. The unit is entirely Muslim, and fears of being sent to fight the Ottomans may have played a role in the decision to mutiny. Conversely, other than a couple of exceptions Indian nationalism does not appear to have been a major motivating force. Indeed, most important are causes specific to the unit itself - the commanding officer is incompetent and the officers mistrust each other, allowing other issues, such as poor rations and promotion prospects, to fester.
Initially, the mutineers, some three hundred in total, outnumber the 231 European soldiers on the island. They also attempt to augment their ranks by freeing German prisoners of war, but the latter were more afraid of the Indians than anything and the few that did act preferred to escape rather than fight. Rampaging in several large groups, thirty-four Britons and Asians are killed in several hours. In response a landing party from the sloop Cadmus is put ashore and uses a machine gun to check the mutineers' advance on Singapore itself.
Monday, February 09, 2015
February 9th, 1915
- A meeting of the War Council in London today includes discussion regarding Entente strategy on the Western Front, and communications from Joffre regarding the role he desires the British to play. While desiring to cooperate and coordinate with their French ally, they are not inclined to, as Churchill remarks, give the French the 'last word' on the employment of the British Expeditionary Force.
- In Germany OHL submits a recommendation to the Prussian War Ministry today to establish a chief of field aviation (Feldflugchef) who would have authority over all aerial matters, including the coordination of airplane production.
- In East Prussia the full weight of the advancing German 10th Army falls upon two Russian cavalry divisions screening the northern flank of the Russian 10th Army. The Russian divisions simply disintegrate, and the attack of the Germans continues unimpeded.
- In Germany OHL submits a recommendation to the Prussian War Ministry today to establish a chief of field aviation (Feldflugchef) who would have authority over all aerial matters, including the coordination of airplane production.
- In East Prussia the full weight of the advancing German 10th Army falls upon two Russian cavalry divisions screening the northern flank of the Russian 10th Army. The Russian divisions simply disintegrate, and the attack of the Germans continues unimpeded.
Wednesday, January 28, 2015
January 28th, 1915
- A meeting of the War Council in London is scheduled for 1130am. Beforehand, Churchill receives a letter of resignation from Fisher over the latter's opposition to the proposed Dardanelles campaign. Unwilling to lose the First Sea Lord, Churchill drags Fisher to a private meeting with Asquith at 10 Downing Street. There the two rehash their positions, and Asquith, forced to choose, decides that the operation should go forward, and when Fisher receives the decision in silence, Churchill assumes the First Sea Lord has been won over. The trio then go to the War Council meeting in the Cabinet Room. Fisher, however, believes that Asquith resolved that the final decision will not be taken today. When Asquith instead states that a decision needs to be made today, Fisher silents stands and makes for the door. Lord Kitchener, well understanding what Fisher meant to do, leaps to his feet, gets to the door before Fisher, and steers him aside. The Secretary of State for War argued to Fisher that he was the only one opposed to the mission, and as the Prime Minister had made his decision, it was the First Sea Lord's responsibility to the country to implement the choice. Reluctantly, Fisher returns to the table, sitting in petulant silence as the discussion on the operation continues.
At 2pm the meeting is adjourned, at which point Churchill corners Fisher and proceeds to place, as he would later write, 'great and continuous pressure' on the First Sea Lord. Churchill, with his overbearing personality and absolute conviction in the rightness of his beliefs, finally wears down Fisher, and the latter finally agrees to consent to the operation. Elated, Churchill announces when the War Council reconvenes later in the afternoon that the entire Admiralty is behind the Dardanelles plan, and the meeting gives its final authorization for the attack to begin, though it will take several more weeks until the naval force is prepared to commence the operation. Fisher, however, has only momentarily yielded under the pressure of his associates; in his heart he still believes the Dardanelles operation is foolhardy and risks significant losses. It will only take for his fears to become reality for his opposition to resurface again.
- General de Langle of the French 4th Army issues details to his corps commanders today regarding his plan for the resumption of the offensive in the Champagne. For this next phase of the battle, 4th Army is to utilize five corps in the line, of which two - XVII and I - will undertake the initial penetration of the German front at Perthes. Once they have reached their objective, located about 1500 metres behind the line, they are to turn left and right in order to attack the German defenses from the flank and enlarge the breach. Following the breach IV Corps, 4th Army's reserve is to advance deep into the enemy position. Notably, the tactics de Langle outlines are for successive waves of infantry in order to achieve the initial breakthrough.
- In France while the shortage of artillery shells has been a focus of economic concern, there has also been criticism of the government regarding the provision of rifles. Production has been minimal, while 850 000 have been lost in the first six months of the war, leaving a shortfall of almost 700 000. Today the director of artillery meets with representatives of private industry regarding their manufacturing rifles for the army. While the firms represented are willing to take on government contracts, many are unable to fulfill the terms of the agreement - the precision required to produce rifles was far greater than such firms were accustomed to, and mobilization has reduced the available pool of skilled labour.
- As the Russian counterattack in the Carpathians continues, the east wing of the Russian 8th Army is able to advance against the centre of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army. Today, XVIII Corps of the latter is pushed back five miles by the Russians.
At 2pm the meeting is adjourned, at which point Churchill corners Fisher and proceeds to place, as he would later write, 'great and continuous pressure' on the First Sea Lord. Churchill, with his overbearing personality and absolute conviction in the rightness of his beliefs, finally wears down Fisher, and the latter finally agrees to consent to the operation. Elated, Churchill announces when the War Council reconvenes later in the afternoon that the entire Admiralty is behind the Dardanelles plan, and the meeting gives its final authorization for the attack to begin, though it will take several more weeks until the naval force is prepared to commence the operation. Fisher, however, has only momentarily yielded under the pressure of his associates; in his heart he still believes the Dardanelles operation is foolhardy and risks significant losses. It will only take for his fears to become reality for his opposition to resurface again.
- General de Langle of the French 4th Army issues details to his corps commanders today regarding his plan for the resumption of the offensive in the Champagne. For this next phase of the battle, 4th Army is to utilize five corps in the line, of which two - XVII and I - will undertake the initial penetration of the German front at Perthes. Once they have reached their objective, located about 1500 metres behind the line, they are to turn left and right in order to attack the German defenses from the flank and enlarge the breach. Following the breach IV Corps, 4th Army's reserve is to advance deep into the enemy position. Notably, the tactics de Langle outlines are for successive waves of infantry in order to achieve the initial breakthrough.
- In France while the shortage of artillery shells has been a focus of economic concern, there has also been criticism of the government regarding the provision of rifles. Production has been minimal, while 850 000 have been lost in the first six months of the war, leaving a shortfall of almost 700 000. Today the director of artillery meets with representatives of private industry regarding their manufacturing rifles for the army. While the firms represented are willing to take on government contracts, many are unable to fulfill the terms of the agreement - the precision required to produce rifles was far greater than such firms were accustomed to, and mobilization has reduced the available pool of skilled labour.
- As the Russian counterattack in the Carpathians continues, the east wing of the Russian 8th Army is able to advance against the centre of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army. Today, XVIII Corps of the latter is pushed back five miles by the Russians.
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