September 25th, 1915

- At 3am General Haig and his chief of staff meet once more with Captain Gold, and the latter informs the commander of 1st Army that the wind would be most favourable at dawn.  Haig then issues orders for the chlorine gas cylinders to be opened right at dawn at 550am, with the infantry assault beginning at 630am.

The divisions of the British I and IV Corps prior to the attack at Loos, Sept. 25th, 1915.

The first British use of gas, however, is not without difficulties.  At 440am, a German shell strikes one of the cylinders in the sector of 3rd London Regiment of the Indian Corps, and some of the infantry are impacted by the gas before enough dirt can be shoveled onto the burst cylinder.  Elsewhere shifts in the wind affect the direction of the gas clouds.  In some sectors the gas settles into No Man's Land, and in a few places actually blows back on the British infantry; on the northern flank of I Corps, a gas cloud blows back on two platoons and the battalion machine gun section of 1/9th Highlanders of 2nd Division before they had their gas masks in place, and within a minute only sixteen of eighty men remain capable of action.  Though two reserve platoons are called up to take their place, given that the Germans opposite are now fully awake the British attack here is abandoned.  The employment of gas is of greater help on the front of IV Corps, the southern wing of 1st Army.  In some places the gas clouds at least mix with smoke to obscure the advance of British infantry (equipped with effective gas masks) until they are almost on top of the first German trench line.  In front of 15th Division (opposite the village of Loos) and 47th Division to the south, the gas works as intended, the clouds slowly rolling over the German trenches, with the attacking infantry following immediately behind.

North of La Bassée Canal, the diversionary attacks of 8th Division at III Corps and the Meerut Division of the Indian Corps capture several stretches of the first German trench line.  However, those elements that push forward successfully find themselves under attack on their flanks from those portions of the first German trench lines that remain in enemy hands, and by nightfall the Germans have recaptured their lost positions.  British casualties here are heavy - the Meerut Division alone loses four thousand men - but the attacks at least serve to pin the German forces opposite and prevent them from moving south against the main British attack.

South of La Bassée Canal, 2nd Division, attacking over broken terrain of brick heaps and shell craters, gets nowhere while suffering heavy casualties.  On its right 9th (Scottish) Division has more success: while its 28th Brigade to the north never reaches the first German trench line, 26th Brigade on the right, covered effectively by smoke and gas, breaks into and clears a German strongpoint known as the Hohenzollern Redoubt, passes through the second trench line, and reaches its objectives for the first day, all in the first hour.  26th Brigade, however, has suffered terrible losses for its success; of eight hundred men who attacked at 630am, only one hundred remain in action an hour later.  On 9th (Scottish) Division's right, 7th Division also achieves notable success: by 730am both of its brigades have pushed through both the first and support German trench lines, and by 930 have captured an old chalk mining area known as the Quarries in addition to capturing a German battery of eight artillery guns.  As of 11am they have reached the second German line opposite the villages of St. Elie and Hulluch, but as with the Scots to the north, the two attacking brigades of 7th Division have paid a high price to secure their gains.

Most of General Rawlinson's IV Corps also achieves significant gains in the first hours of the offensive.  On the corps' northern wing, though 1st Brigade of 1st Division is initially held up at the German wire, 2nd Brigade passes through the German lines and by late morning is also approaching the village of Hulluch.  In the corps' centre, 15th (Scottish) Division advances the furthest this morning: by 705am most of the first German line has been captured, and shortly thereafter British infantry pass through the ruined village of Loos itself, where the British artillery has been particularly thorough in wrecking the German communication trenches.  By 800am men of 44th Brigade reach Hill 70, the 'tallest' feature on the Loos battlefield and soon sweep over the crest, capturing the partially-completed redoubt the Germans were still in the process of constructing on the summit.  On the corps' southern wing, 47th Division pushes forward and has captured all of its objectives for the day by 9am.

Infantry of the British 47th Division advance into the clouds of chlorine gas released just prior to their attack, Sept. 25th, 1915.  The
photograph is taken from the forward British trenches looking towards the German lines.

Despite the failure of the use of chlorine gas to have a decisive effect, by late morning the bulk of the British 1st Army has pushed through the first German trench line and has reached the second trench line, in some cases advancing over three thousand yards.  On the German side, 117th Division of IV Corps, responsible for the stretch of the front from south of Haines to south of Hill 70, has suffered the worst, with fifteen companies destroyed and twenty-two guns lost.  It no longer has the strength to garrison the entire length of the second trench line it has been pushed into, and has lost touch with 7th Division on its southern flank.  When reports of the crisis reach the headquarters of the German 6th Army, Rupprecht immediately orders his entire army reserve - 8th Division, 26th Brigade, and three battalions drawn from II Bavarian Corps - to reinforce the battered IV Corps.  It will be late afternoon at the earliest before these forces can reach the battlefield, however; further British attacks in the hours ahead will have to be held by the battered remnants of 117th Division.

On either side of Arras, the assault infantry of the French 10th Army are in their forward trenches by 430am, and the artillery bombardment reaches its crescendo at 9am.  However, Foch's plan does not have them attack until 1225pm, the delay hopefully giving time for the British attack to the north to draw German attention and reserves.  Shortly before noon, however, rain begins to fall, and the resulting mud makes movement difficult.  It is too late to abandon the attack, however, given that the coordination of the overall Entente offensive depends on each main assault occurring on schedule.  Thus the French infantry go over the top at the scheduled hour.  Unlike the British, the French do not mass-release chlorine gas; instead, French artillery fires gas and smoke shells on rear areas and specified targets.

Overall, the assault of the French 10th Army has mixed results.  The attack of the French 43rd Division, located on the northern wing of 10th Army adjacent to the British, is repulsed by the German 7th Division opposite.  To the south, however, the weather works to the advantage of the French 13th and 70th Divisions northwest of Souchez - the trenches of the German 123rd Saxon Division of VI Corps have become waterlogged, and when the French infantry emerge from the smoke they overrun the German defenders and are able to push forward two kilometres to the base of Giesler Hill.  Further south, at Neuville St. Vaast, French infantry push through the German lines at several points, with some reaching the forward slope of Vimy Ridge itself.  On the other hand, the southern wing of 10th Army is unable to make any progress opposite and south of Arras against the German 1st Bavarian Corps.

For the Germans opposite the French 10th Army, the multiple enemy advances between Souchez and Neuville St. Vaast pose the greatest danger, where VI Corps struggles to hold the line.  However, the ability of either General Kurt von Pritzelwitz of VI Corps or Crown Prince Rupprecht of 6th Army to direct the defence of the threatened sectors has been impaired by the destruction of telephone lines by artillery fire and aerial bombardment, leaving the German commanders in the dark about the specific circumstances at the front.  Moreover, Rupprecht has already had to dispatch all of his army's reserves to contain the British assault at Loos, and thus has nothing left to send VI Corps; the forces already in the line will have to fight and contain the French on their own.

The ground seized by the French 10th Army north of Arras, Sept. 25th, 1915.

In the Champagne, at 9am the French artillery shift their fire to concentrate on the first German trench line, and add gas and smoke shells into the mix to reduce the visibility of the enemy defenders.  Fifteen minutes later, infantry from eighteen divisions go over the top, and the heaviest attack is undertaken on the inner wings of the French 4th and 2nd Armies, with II Colonial Corps of the former on the left and XIV Corps of the latter on the right.  Here the French artillery bombardment has been particularly effective - many of the German defensive positions have been completely destroyed, while many of the German survivors are too stunned to offer serious resistance.  So thick is the smoke and gas clouds laid down by the artillery that in some cases the French infantry reach the German trenches before the German soldiers can even emerge from their dugouts, and the latter are captured or killed before they are ready to even fight back.  The French bombardment has also cut most of the German telephone lines, cutting off communications and preventing frontline commanders from calling for reserves or counterartillery fire.  The result is that XIV and II Colonial Corps simply roll over the first trench line of the German VIII Reserve Corps.  By noon, both French corps have advanced three to four kilometres and are assaulting the final German reserve line just south of Somme Py.  The advancing French also turn east and west, and begin to roll up the flanks of the German forces on either side of the breakthrough.  In response, the German divisions on either side of VIII Reserve Corps, though more successful in repelling the French attacks, have to pull back several kilometres to avoid having their inner flanks turned.  Several German artillery batteries are overrun and captured by the French, and each of VIII Reserve Corps' three divisions suffer five thousand casualties.

The gains of the French offensive in Champagne, Sept. 1915.

One of the defining characteristics of the Western Front in the First World War is the length of time it takes information and orders to pass up and down the chain of command.  In an era before portable wireless radio, reports are either relayed by telephone or send by messenger; the former are extremely vulnerable to artillery fire, while the latter, making their way from newly-won or heavily attacked positions, must navigate both enemy fire and the broken terrain of the battlefield.  Delays in communication will be central to the outcome of the fall offensive of the Entente, but one of its first manifestations is seen on the German side.  Continuing his inspection tour of the army headquarters on the Western Front, this morning Falkenhayn arrives at Montmédy, and even though British and French forces have been attacking (and advancing) for several hours, now significantly out-of-date reports from 3rd and 6th Army headquarters are sanguine, indicating nothing more than the continuation of artillery bombardments that have been ongoing now for several days.  Believing that nothing in particular is amiss, Falkenhayn issues no new instructions and departs shortly thereafter for Stenay, headquarters of 5th Army.  While enroute, 3rd Army headquarters finally learns of the plight of VIII Corps, and sends an urgent plea for reinforcements to its neighbour 5th Army, saying that the 'enemy has broken through in the area of Souain-Somme Py.  Having also been attacked this morning, 5th Army is in no position to send aid, and its commander, Crown Prince Wilhelm, refuses.  With Falkenhayn having recently arrived at 5th Army headquarters, the request by 3rd Army is submitted directly to the German chief of staff.  Almost simultaneously, at 1230pm 6th Army headquarters in Artois sends an equally urgent message to Falkenhayn: 'Aided by gas the enemy has broken into the positions of IV Corps at Haisnes and Loos . . . The entire Army Reserve and the 8th Division had to be put at the disposal of IV Corps.  Further reinforcements for the army are urgently required.'  A telephone conversation with 3rd Army commander General Einem and his chief of staff, Lieutenant-General Ritter von Höhn, further brings home to Falkenhayn the perilous state of affairs, and the German chief of staff feels compelled to remind the badly-shaken Einem and Höhn that the Kaiser expects 'every man to do his duty.'

In an instant, Falkenhayn's understanding of the situation was transformed.  Not only were the British and French undertaking significant operations, but they appeared to be on the verge of achieving breakthroughs in both Artois and Champagne - Falkenhayn's strategy of standing on the defensive in the west to permit offensives in the east and the Balkans now appears to hover on the brink of disaster.  It was essential now to rapidly move all available reserves to 3rd and 6th Armies to allow them to hold their present lines.  Falkenhayn immediately orders 192nd Brigade transferred from 7th Army's reserve to 6th Army and 56th Division from Lorraine to 3rd Army.  Shortly after 1pm he departs Stenay for Mézières, OHL's headquarters on the Western Front, to better coordinate the response to the Entente offensive.  Here he instructs the Guard and X Corps, currently in Belgium resting and recovering after lengthy service on the Eastern Front, to move to reinforce 6th Army and 3rd Army respectively.  It would take hours for these reinforcements to arrive, however, and in the meantime 6th and 3rd Armies will have to hang on with what they have in hand.  Falkenhayn's entire strategy for 1915 hangs in the balance.

Meanwhile in Flanders the focus of British commanders this afternoon is pushing up reinforcements to continue the advance.  In each division, two brigades had led the attack this morning, while the third brigade was held in reserve, and the struggle now is to get these brigades forward to exploit the gains already won.  Now the British experience the difficulties in communicating on the modern battlefield.  At 910am, the commander of 1st Division, whose 1st Brigade has advanced almost to the village of Hulluch, issues orders for a two-battalion detachment under Lieutenant-Colonel E. W. B. Green (imaginatively named Green Force).  Several messengers are dispatched from 1st Division headquarters with the instructions, but several are struck by German artillery fire or get lost in a landscape where almost every identifying feature has literally been blown away.  As a result, the order to advance does not reach Lt-Col Green until 1055am, even though the latter's headquarters was only 2500 yards from the former.  It then takes another hour for the order to pass down through battalion and company commanders, so it is not until after midday that Green Force actually begins to move forward.  Similarly, to the north 27th Brigade, the reserve of 9th Division, is ordered forward towards Haisnes.  Prior to the battle, two communication trenches had been assigned to 27th Brigade to facilitate their movement to the front, but as the infantry attempt to pass through them they find the trenches blocked with wounded coming back to medical stations.  When they attempt to move around the blockages they find themselves under German artillery fire, so the brigade has suffered significant casualties before even reaching the front.  By the time they approach Haisnes, the German line has been reinforced, and the exhausted infantry instead concentrate on improving the defences of the ground seized.  The experience of 21st Brigade, the reserve of 7th Division, is similar - ordered forward to push through the German line north of Hulluch, as they approach the front line just west of St Elie German shrapnel shells cut great swathes through their ranks, and to the survivors who reach the front line it is clear no further advance is possible without more extensive artillery support.

With the delays and difficulties encountered by the divisional reserves, it will take the commitment of further reserve forces to maintain the momentum of the British attack.  However, neither I or IV Corps has any reserve, nor does 1st Army.  Instead, XI Corps, consisting of 21st and 24th Divisions, the Guards Division, and the Cavalry Corps were under the direct command of Field Marshal French.  The commander of the British Expeditionary Force has never been enthusiastic about the offensive at Loos, and it is possible that he retained direct control over these forces to prevent their commitment to a losing cause - the BEF still numbers only thirty-seven divisions, six of which are Territorial divisions with little experience and six of which are 'New Army' divisions with none at all, and given that Britain does not yet have conscription, the destruction of the six divisions of the BEF reserve would have been a serious setback.  The practical implication, however, is that after the success of the morning attack, another layer of command is added to the communication delays intrinsic to the First World War battlefield, and will become a major point of contention among the senior leadership of the BEF after the battle.

When the infantry attacked at dawn this morning, the lead columns of 21st and 24th Divisions were about four and a half miles behind the British front line, but the infantry are exhausted after marching all night from their prior concentration areas to the west.  At 7am, Haig sends a staff officer by car to French's headquarters, informing the latter that the attack is progressing satisfactorily and requesting the release of XI Corps.  Though it ought to have taken only forty-five minutes to cover the ground between the two locations by car, at 845am no response has been received and Haig dispatches another officer.  This message reaches French, who in turn at 930am orders the commander of XI Corps to begin moving his two divisions to the front.  It is another hour before the order reaches the divisional headquarters, and another forty-five minutes before the lead elements actually begin to move - by this time, the British advance means that they are now seven miles behind the current front line.  The exhausted infantry do their best to push forward, but the few roads are already clogged with military traffic and their progress is painstakingly slow.  Impatient, at 235pm Haig orders the commander of XI Corps to detach one brigade from each division and prioritize getting those forces to the front as quickly as possible, hoping they can launch an attack today towards the Haute Deule Canal, several kilometres past Hulluch.  It is not until 6pm that the first infantry of 62nd Brigade of 21st Division actually arrive at the front, and Haig realizes that it will be impossible to to attack this evening.  Instead, just after 8pm he orders XI Corps to take up position between Hulluch and Hill 70, in anticipation of an advance by the full corps early tomorrow morning.

On the German side, the hours of the afternoon pass without the expected resumption of the British advance.  Though fierce fighting continues, there is no concerted push against the reserve German trenches.  As the first reinforcements arrive later in the day, IV Corps uses them to reestablish a continuous front.  To the north, elements of 2nd Guard Division, transferred from VII Corps, reestablish contact with the northern flank of 117th Division between Auchy and Haisnes, while to the south, elements of 7th and 123rd Saxon Divisions, sent from VI Corps, advance to Hill 70 and make contact with the southern wing of 117th Division.  Though the Germans have suffered heavily, by evening they have recreated a cohesive front line, without gaps that could be exploited by the British.  Limited counterattacks have also been undertaken, and though little ground is retaken they have the virtue of at least keeping the British forces off guard, and help convince the lead British brigades that, after the morning battles, they need to wait for reserves before the advance can be resumed.  On the southern wing of the British gains, however, the infantry of 44th Brigade that captured the summit of Hill 70 and pushed down the eastern slope come under increasingly heavy German fire from the ruins of workers' cottages to the east.  Moreover, their very success means they are now confronted with German defenses that had not been given the same attention from British artillery as the first German trench line.  Taking losses, the men of 44th Brigade pull back from the eastern slope of Hill 70, and, given that the summit is now being swept by enemy machine gun fire, they retreat to the western slope and entrench.

As the situation stabilizes through the afternoon, the commander of the German IV Corps decides that the primary reserves dispatched from 6th Army headquarters - 8th Division and 26th Brigade - should be used to counterattack the salient around Loos carved out by the British.  Initially hoping to attack this evening, delays are experienced in getting the reserves to the front: 26th Brigade is attempting to deploy into trenches still contested by British infantry, while the soldiers of 8th Division have to move through the maze of ruined houses in the town of Lens.  Postponed several times, the counterattack is finally scheduled to go in at midnight.

The first day of the Battle of Loos has seen several British divisions advance several thousand yards, sweeping over the first German trench positions, seizing the village of Loos itself, and pushing up to the German reserve lines.  Having achieved this notable success, the pace of the advance faltered, as the forces of the initial attack have suffered losses and reserves have been delayed in getting to the front.  Nevertheless, Haig believes that the planned attack of 21st and 24th Divisions at dawn tomorrow will complete the breaking of the German lines.

The gains of the British 1st Army at Loos, Sept. 25th, 1915.

After its progress in the morning, the situation of the French 10th Army deteriorates in the afternoon.  Three regiments of the German 123rd Division, supported by the southern flank of the German 7th Division, attack after dark the French infantry that had pushed to Giesler Hill, and the exhausted French yield some of the ground won earlier today.  Opposite Neuville St. Vaast, further French assaults are unable to break through the reserve German trench lines, and though the Germans are unable to recover the forward trench lost this morning, they are able to reestablish a solid defensive line.

In Champagne, the German VIII Reserve Corps fights desperately throughout the afternoon to hold on to its reserve trench line.  To stem the French tide, the corps commander orders his recruiting depot (consisting of new recruits from the home front and returning wounded veterans) into the line at Somme Py.  In addition, most of 5th Division, located in 3rd Army's rear area and whose orders to transfer to the Balkans had been cancelled just yesterday, is fed into the battle over the afternoon and evening.  On the French side, the experience in the aftermath of initial success is similar to that of the British in Flanders: the lead infantry are exhausted and have taken significant losses.  Further, in the chaos of battle battalions have been hopelessly mixed up and lines of command confused, while the very extent of the French advance has caused its own problems, as isolated groups of German infantry, bypassed by the initial attack, now emerge to fight in ground the French believe they have already captured.  The result is that bitter fighting through the afternoon is not nearly as successful at that of the morning, and the Germans are just barely able to hang on.  Nevertheless, General Friedrich Fleck, commanding VIII Reserve Corps, and General Einem of 3rd Army believe the crisis is far from having past, and as the breakdown of communications prevents accurate news from reaching headquartesr to the rear, in the vacuum of news pessimism reigns.  Indeed Fleck, believing his command is on the verge of disintegration, requests permission this evening to withdraw from the reserve defensive position northwards past Somme Py and out of the trenches.  This retreat, if implemented, would give the French precisely the breakthrough in Champagne they are so desperate to achieve.

On the French side, as reports filter back to the headquarters of the French 2nd and 4th Armies of the successful advance of II Colonial and XIV Corps, General Castlenau of the Army Group of the Centre at 415pm orders the two divisions of VI Corps to enter the line and follow up the attack of and expand the ground seized by II Colonial Corps.  Again, however, it takes time for orders to make their way down the chain of command, and for the infantry to make their way across the shattered landscape, and it is midnight before VI Corps is in the front line.  Optimism remains high, however, that further attacks tomorrow will shatter the weakened Germans and push on to the north.

- South of Vilna, the withdrawal of Russian forces to counter the German offensive at and north of the city has allowed the German 12th Army to reach the Berezina River east of Lida while the army group under Prince Leopold has arrived at the Szczara River.  To the east of Vilna itself, the German 10th Army has ground its way towards Smorgon, but against increasing resistance has been unable to advance further.

To Falkenhayn, Ludendorff's September offensive at Vilna and Sventsiany has achieved exactly what the German chief of staff expected - namely, a minor advance of no great strategic consequence.  Considering both the impending invasion of Serbia and the Entente offensive on the Western Front, Falkenhayn believes it is both necessary and desirable to end operations on the Eastern Front.  Though the great German victories achieved since the attack at Gorlice-Tarnow in May have not convinced the Tsar to agree to a negotiated peace, they have sharply reduced the strength of the Russian army and it will likely be many months until the Russians are again capable of major offensive actions.  As such, Falkenhayn today issues orders for German forces on the Eastern Front to hold their present positions and construct a strong defensive line that can be held with a reduced commitment of forces.  At the northern end of the line, the armies under OberOst are to entrench on a line running from west of Riga through Mitau and west of Dvinsk to Lake Narotch and the mouth of the Bierieza River.  From here, the army group under Prince Leopold and the Army of the Bug will hold on a line running from the Bierieza River through Baranowicze to Pinsk.

- Russian cavalry and aircraft have reported the movement of the German XXIV Reserve Corps and other formations southeastward toward the northern flank of the Russian 8th Army.  Though General Brusilov wishes to stand on the Styr while redeploying the Russian XXX Corps towards Kolki to block the German advance.  His superior, the more cautious General Ivanov, disagrees and, seeking to avoid a potential envelopment, orders Brusilov's 8th Army to retreat eastward towards the Putilowka and Kormin Rivers.

- As plans are finalized for the Serbian campaign, preliminary operations are deemed necessary to seize several large islands in the Danube River east of Belgrade - in German or Austro-Hungarian hands, the islands shorten the distance needed by the main crossings, and can serve as platforms to position light artillery closer to the front.  The most substantial island is Temesziget, over twelve miles long and up to three miles wide, and its capture has been assigned to 11th Bavarian Division of IV Reserve Corps.  Overnight elements of the division crossed to the north shore of the island, and the small Serbian detachments are quickly overwhelmed.

- After several days of debate, the French Council of Ministers decides to go to the aid of the Serbs, and authorizes the dispatch of an expedition to the Balkans.  A telegraph is sent to the Greek government informing it that the Entente will provide the 150 000 troops required by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos to activate the convention with Serbia and bring Greece into the war.  The British government also agrees to commit forces to the Balkans, though with considerably more disagreement: while David Lloyd George is in favour of contributing to the expedition, Lord Kitchener argues that redeploying forces from Gallipoli to the Balkans is 'jumping out of the frying pan into the fire.'  In order to maintain the aura of neutrality, Prime Minister Venizelos requests twenty-four hours notice of the landing of the first Entente forces in Greece, so his government can lodge a diplomatic (though meaningless) protest.  The Entente plan is to land at the port city of Salonika in northern Greece, using it as a base of operations for forces moving north to Serbia's aid.

September 19th, 1915

- General Haig of the British 1st Army issues his final orders to his corps commanders for the forthcoming offensive, scheduled to be undertaken in six days time.  The main attack will be undertaken by I Corps (commanded by Lieutenant General Hubert de la Poer Gough) in the north between La Bassée Canal and the Vermelles-Hulluch road and IV Corps (commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Rawlinson) in the south between the Vermelles-Hulloch road and a large slag heap known as the Double Crassier.  Their objective is to carry the two German defensive lines and secure crossings of the Haute Deule Canal, between 8000 and 9000 yards from their starting line.  To the north, the Indian Corps and the III Corps beyond would undertake diversionary attacks between the La Bassée Canal and Aubers Ridge.

Crucial to the success of the British plan is the use of chlorine gas.  By today, 5500 cylinders containing a total of 150 tons of chlorine gas have been installed along the front of 1st Army.  It was estimated that German gas masks were ineffective after thirty minutes, and thus the plan was to send the gas over the German lines for forty minutes prior to the infantry attacking immediately thereafter.  However, the use of gas is entirely dependent on the weather conditions; without a strong wind in the right direction, the released gas may not pass over the German lines, and indeed might be blown back into the British lines.  Thus one of the most important individuals at Haig's headquarters is Captain E. Gold, a meteorologist seconded from the Royal Flying Corps, and whose responsibility is to provide daily weather forecasts to allow Haig to decide whether or not the chlorine gas can be used.  If the weather does not cooperate, Haig intends to undertake a scaled-down attack on the 25th, with the main advance occurring on the 26th or 27th, depending on the day the chlorine gas can be used.

- Given that some of the Austro-Hungarian forces initially assigned to the Serbian offensive must now stay on the Eastern Front in light of the ongoing crisis of the Austro-Hungarian armies there, Falkenhayn must find German forces that he can send to the Balkan Front in their stead.  Thus despite the growing signs of a French offensive on the Western Front, III Corps receives orders today to transfer to the Balkans.  Falkenhayn is playing a delicate balancing act, attempting to leave the absolute bare minimum of force on the Western Front to allow for the invasion of Serbia to go forward and avoid the collapse of Austro-Hungarian armies in the east.

August 22nd, 1915

- A centrepiece of Entente propaganda since the spring had been the German use of chlorine gas at the First Battle of Ypres, both as a violation of the rules of war and an affront to Western civilization, and had materially contributed to diminished reputation of Germany in neutral states in particular.  What was undeniable, however, had been the impact of the first use of gas on the Western Front, given the hole it 'blew' in the Entente line at Ypres and the ground subsequently captured.  Given the success the Entente powers have also been strongly tempted since April to make use of chemmical warfare themselves, and while some voices were raised in the British government opposing the use of chlorine gas on both a moral and a technical level (doubts were raised whether British industry could produce sufficient amounts of chlorine gas), the Cabinet had ultimately decided that they could not set aside a weapon that had the apparent potential to break the stalemate on the Western Front.  For several months special detachments of Royal Engineers had been training on the handling and use of chlorine gas, and today demonstrate their capabilities before General Haig and his corps commanders.  Suitably impressed, Haig adds the release of chlorine gas to his planning for the impending attack of his 1st Army south of La Bassée Canal.

- On the Eastern Front the German 8th Army seizes the Russian fortress at Ossoviets today, while a subsequent advance also captures the town of Tykocin on the Narew River.  To the south Prince Leopold's army group launches attacks to drive the Russian defenders opposite into the Bielowiese Forest further east, and though progress is made among the swamps a decisive success eludes the Germans.  On the other side of Brest-Litovsk, the German 1st and 22nd Divisions of the Army of the Bug have reached Oltusz and Radez respectively today, and their advance has forced the Russian II Caucasian Corps to pull back from the Bug River between Wlodawa and Slawatyzce, with 11th Bavarian Division crossing in pursuit.

- After several months convalescence, King Constantine I of Greece has sufficiently recovered to resume his political responsibilities, and today appoints Eleutherios Venizelos, who had emerged victorious in the June elections, Prime Minister.

May 13th, 1915

- Yesterday the British 28th Division, having suffered greatly in the recent fighting, was withdrawn from the eastern face of the Ypres salient, replaced by 1st and 3rd Cavalry Division fighting as dismounted infantry.  They gain a rapid initiation to the fighting at Ypres, coming under a heavy artillery bombardment early this morning that precedes another German attack.  Most of the British line holds, but 7th Cavalry Brigade is forced back hundreds of yards, and a subsequent counterattack by 8th and 10th Cavalry Brigades is unable to fully restore the position.

The front line at Ypres, May 13th, 1915.

Though desultory fighting will continue around the Ypres salient for several weeks, the 2nd Battle of Ypres has effectively drawn to a close.  In the context of major operations on the Western Front, the battle has undoubtedly been a German victory.  Not only were they able to advance several miles towards Ypres, but were also able to force the British to voluntarily yield ground, something virtually unheardof.  Moreover, while German casualties numbered 35 000, Entente casualties were in excess of 60 000, and the Germans accomplish this favourable casualty ratio while attacking, inverting the normal situation whereby attackers suffer more than defenders.  In a larger sense, however, the 2nd Battle of Ypres was a missed opportunity.  Because the operation had never been intended to be a major offensive, the Germans were not prepared when the initial gas attack proved more successful than anyone could have imagined.  The shock effect of gas literally blew a hole in the Entente line larger than any seen to date in the war, and with sufficient reserves the Germans might have been able to drive on Ypres and beyond.  In a familiar refrain, by the time the Germans realized the opportunity that existed, the moment to exploit it had already passed, and subsequent fighting was comparable to the static fighting seen in other major engagements - the vast majority of the ground captured by the Germans was achieved in the first hours after the gas attack.  The lost opportunity, however, is even greater than the specific context of the 2nd Battle of Ypres.  The most potent effect of gas is psychological: when it strikes soldiers who are unprepared, their willingness to stand and fight vanishes and resistance becomes impossible.  By definition this can only happen the first time gas is used; within twenty-four hours crude countermeasures were being developed, and in future soldiers who are gassed will have gas masks at hand.  This ensures that while gas still kills and has an impact on the battlefield, never again can it have the same psychological effect.  The most effective use of gas was always going to be the first time, and the Germans threw away this opportunity by not being prepared to exploit the situation.  The Germans have also earned the opprobrium of being the first combatant to use asphyxiating gas on the battlefield.  Though all countries will soon make extensive use of gas, and work to develop ever more lethal chemicals, 2nd Ypres becomes, in the eyes of many, yet another example of German 'barbarism', in line with the Rape of Belgium and the sinking of Lusitania.  For many in both Entente countries and neutrals such as the United States, it is yet another reason why Germany and 'Prussian militarism' must be crushed; one cannot compromise with barbarism.  Finally, the battle has been the baptism of fire for 1st Canadian Division.  The resiliency (if not sheer stubbornness) of the Canadians in the first days of the German offensive, holding their lines despite gas and overwhelming attacks until British and French reserves could arrive, was vital to preventing a greater German breakthrough, and becomes a celebrated feat of arms.  It is the first of many such accomplishments for the Canadians on the Western Front.

- In Artois French pressure forces the Germans to abandon most of the village of Ablain, but otherwise French attacks are unsuccessful today.  Nevertheless, Crown Prince Rupprecht, commander of the German 6th Army, believes that three of his front-line divisions are completely worn out and must be replaced, and requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn.  The German Chief of Staff agrees, transferring 2nd Guard Reserve Division and two brigades from OHL control to 6th Army's sector.

- The battered Russian 3rd Army completes its retreat to the San River, taking up positions north of the fortification of Przemysl.  Its northern wing is entrenched on the east bank from Jaroslau almost to the junction with the Vistula River, where 4th Army covers both sides of the Vistula itself.  The southern wing of 3rd Army, between Jaroslau and Przemysl, is actually deployed on the west bank; because the west bank is much higher than the east, holding the river line itself here is not possible.  South and east of Przemysl sit 8th and 11th Armies, the latter connecting with 9th Army still conducting its offensive in the Bukovina.  Reinforcements are also en route; General Alexeyev has begrudgingly allowed XV Corps, formerly part of Northwest Front, to redeploy southwards, and it is to come into the line between 4th and 3rd Armies.

The German and Austro-Hungarian advance towards Jaroslau and Przemysl, May 13th to 16th, 1915.

- In east Galicia the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army continues its retreat to the Pruth River, and by nightfall most of its elements are across.  The west and centre wings were able to pull back relatively unmolested, but the east wing came under heavy attack, especially by the Russian XXXIII Corps, as it did so.  Here at least the Russians are having some success in the Carpathians, and the offensive has forced the Austro-Hungarians to divert III Corps, initially intended to garrison the frontier with Italy, to Bukovina.  Beyond this, however, it has had no impact on the larger strategic picture; Falkenhayn for one knows that if Mackensen and 11th Army continues to achieve success, and in particular force the San River line, the Russian position in the Bukovina will be outflanked and nothing that happens there will matter.

The Battle of Dniester, May 13th, 1915.

- At 5pm the Italian cabinet reconvenes, and since yesterday's meeting Salandra has met with party leaders over the question of peace or war.  He reports to the cabinet that only one - Leonida Bissolati of the moderate Socialists - supported intervention.  The cabinet then spends the next four hours debate the issue back and forth.  One concern is that if the cabinet, and by convention the king, endorses war, but then is repudiated by parliament, a constitutional crisis may ensue.  To clear the air and force the issue, Salandra proposes the government's resignation; his hope is that efforts to cobble together an alternative anti-war government will fail, and thus by default committing Italy to war.  At 9pm the cabinet agrees, and Salandra immediately drives to the royal palace at Villa Savoia to offer their resignations.  At 1030pm news of the resignation becomes public; the moment of decision is at hand.

- Today the German submarine U21 arrives at the Austro-Hungarian naval base of Cattaro, after several weeks at sea.  Due to its lengthy journey from Germany it had only barely made it to port, with only 1.8 tons out of the original 56.5 tons of fuel remaining.  Once refueled and resupplied, the Germans will have their first active ocean-going submarine in the Mediterrean (UB-8 is a much smaller coastal submarine).

- For weeks Entente warships have pounded Ottoman positions on Gallipoli with impunity, as none of the shore batteries could fire shells capable of penetrating the armour of the old pre-dreadnoughts.  Given their numbers, the Entente fleet has also shown no real concern with naval opposition, and largely assume they may sail and anchor as they please.  Overnight, the Ottomans do their best to disabuse the British and French admirals of their misplaced faith in their invulnerability.  With a full moon and heavy mist reducing visibility, the Ottoman destroy Muavenet, captained by a German, snuck through the straits and moved up the European coast of Gallipoli.  In Morto Bay, not a hundred yards offshore, the destroyer comes across the British pre-dreadnought Goliath at anchor, where it is waiting to continue its shore bombardment at dawn.  Surging forward, Muavenet fires three torpedoes and disappears back into the night and through the straits before anyone can react.  The torpedoes strike home, and within minutes rolls over and sinks.  Because the current here is four to five knots and moving away from shore, none of the British sailors in the water can swim ashore.  Five hundred and seventy drown, and only one hundred and eight survive.  It is a striking accomplishment for the Ottomans: the Sultan awards each sailor on Muavenet a gold watch and a purse filled with gold.

The sinking of Goliath shows that the waters off the Dardanelles are now contested, and the aftershocks of the loss of the pre-dreadnought reach London this afternoon, where news of the sinking prompts a passionate outburst from Admiral Fisher.  For months he has worried over the potential loss of warships during the Dardanelles campaign, and in particular is concerned about Queen Elizabeth, Britain's newest and most advanced battleship.  The loss of Goliath stokes these fears to a fever pitch, and Fisher insists that Queen Elizabeth be ordered to return to home waters immediately.  Churchill accedes to the First Sea Lord's demand, but later this evening the argument is joined by Kitchener when he visits the Admiralty on a different matter.  When the Secretary of War learns of Queen Elizabeth's recall, he goes into a rage, accusing the navy of abandoning the army after the army had come to the aid of the navy after the latter's failure to force the Dardanelles.  Fisher, never one to back down from a fight, fires right back at Kitchener, declaring that Queen Elizabeth will sail for home this instant or he would resign on the spot.  Kitchener returns to the War Office and pens an aggressive note to Asquith, but for now Fisher has won the argument: the orders for Queen Elizabeth's recall stand.  The crisis over the Dardanelles, however, is just beginning.

- In German South-West Africa the advance of South African forces from Swakopmund on the coast and from the south has been slow and irregular, disrupted by supply difficulties more than German opposition.  After several months, however, today the northern detachment, under the direct command of Prime Minister Botha, enters Windhoek, the capital of the German colony.  In doing so the South Africans also seize the main wireless station, disrupting communications between the remaining German forces in the colony, now retreating northeast along the lone railway, and the outside world.

April 24th, 1915

- After a short artillery bombardment, the Germans at Ypres launch a second gas attack, releasing the deadly clouds to drift over the British and Canadian lines at and north of St. Julien.  From 5am the Germans launch a series of heavy assaults on the battered 3rd Canadian Brigade.  Gassed for the second time, it has reached the limits of its endurance, and under overwhelming pressure fall back.  After midday they withdraw 700 yards south of St. Julien, yielding the village to the enemy.  To the east 2nd Canadian Brigade, commanded by General Arthur Currie, has to pull back its left wing, much as 3rd Canadian Brigade had done two days earlier.

The line at Ypres at midnight, April 24th, 1915, showing the ground yielded by 3rd Canadian Brigade today.

Still, though the Canadian line bends and ground is yielded to the enemy, it does not shatter.  Even though it is only two days since the first gas attack, already countermeasures are being improvised.  Soldiers quickly learn that chlorine gas, heavier than hair, clings to the earth, and that remaining in low ground is fatal.  Similarly, running from the gas, by making one breath more heavily, simply makes one more susceptible to its effects.  Finally, cloths soaked in urine negate much of the effect of the gas.  Though the chlorine gas still causes casualties, it is not the completely unknown terror it was on the 22nd.  Never again will a gas attack have the same psychological impact.  At Gravenstafel in particular, the Canadian 8th Battalion makes a valiant stand and, though heavily outnumbered, fights the Germans to a standstill, preventing a breakthough that could have swept behind the British 28th Division east of Ypres and unhinged the entire defence of the salient.  Again, though the Germans have gained additional ground, they have not won a decisive success, and further Entente reinforcements are en route.

French soldiers using improvised gas masks in the 2nd Battle of Ypres.

- In the St.-Mihiel salient the German counterattack shifts focus slightly to advance southwest of Les Éparges, and achieves a notable success: the capture of four kilometres of the French first trench line, two kilometres of the French second trench line, and even a battery of 75-mm artillery pieces.  General Dubail of the Provisional Group of the East reports to Joffre that the German success was due to the profligate use of artillery and trench mortars.

- At a meeting of the German and Austro-Hungarian leadership at Conrad's headquarters today, Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warns Foreign Minister Count Burián that the Austro-Hungarians can not count on any German military aid to fight Italy should the latter enter the war, and that such a circumstance could lead to defeat.  The one hope those assembled cling to is that impending German offensive near Gorlice and Tarnow, if successful, will perhaps convince the Italians to hold back.

The ongoing arrival of elements of the German 11th Army east of Krakow, April 24th, 1915.

- Today the harbour at Mudros on Lemnos in the eastern Mediterranean is barely-controlled chaos as final preparations are completed for the landings on Gallipoli.  One by one the transports leave the anchorage, bound for a rendezvous either at the island of Imbros or Tenedos.  The two destinations are a reflection of the plan adopted by General Sir Ian Hamilton, which calls for two main landings to be undertaken tomorrow.  The first, assigned to the ANZACs assembling at Imbros, is to land on the western side of the peninsula north of Gaba Tepe, where resistance is expected to be light.  After securing the beaches the ANZACs are to advance eastward to control part of the Sari Bair range before seizing the hill at Mal Tepe and taking Kilid Bahr, the high point on Gallipoli, on the second day.  Meanwhile, the British 29th Division and the Plymouth battalion of the Royal Naval Division, assembling at Tenedos, will be landing at a number of beaches around the Helles tip of the peninsula.  Though these positions were known to be well-defended by the Ottomans, it is hoped that naval gunfire will be able to overcome resistance.  By the end of the first day these forces are to have seized the heights at Achi Baba behind the village of Krithia, and on the second will join the ANZACs in capturing Kilid Bahr.  Once the high ground along the centre of the peninsula is seized, the Dardanelles coast can be clearing of enemy artillery and the minesweepers can finally complete their work.  At the same time as the main landings, diversionary attacks will be made by the French at Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore and elsewhere to confuse and distract the Ottomans.  It is a complex operation, and Hamilton hopes that by conducting so many landings simultanously the Ottomans will be unable to concentrate overwhelming force against any of them.  In practice, what Hamilton has done is divided his own force such that none will be able to achieve its objectives.

- Cevdet Bey reports to Constantinople today that the Armenian rebels in the city of Van number four thousand, have barricaded themselves in the Armenian quarter, and are proving impossible to dislodge.  As artillery is brought in to bombard Van, the Ottomans allow fifteen thousand Armenian civilians escaping massacres in the countryside to join the besieged rebels.  This is not done out of any sense of mercy, of course; rather, the hope is that the more mouths there are to feed in Van, the quicker they will all starve to death.

With the rebellion continuing in Van, the Young Turk leadership moves to implement further measures against the Armenian population.  Talat Pasha, the Minister of the Interior, issues orders for the arrest of all prominent Armenians in Constantinople, while Enver Pasha, the Minister of War, sends orders to army commanders in eastern Anatolia to deport the Armenian population in those regions where they are in open revolt.  The key dispatch, however, is a second message written by Talat Pasha, sent to the commander of 4th Army in the Caucasus.  The Minister of Interior states that deporting Armenians to the Konya region, as has been done in the past, is no longer feasible, since concentrating substantial numbers of Armenians in such a location would simply create further problems.  Instead, those Armenians 'whose expulsion from places like Iskenderun, Dörtyol, Adana, Haçin, Zeytûm, and Sis has been deemed necessary, to the southeast of Haleb, Zor, and Urfa'.  The vilyats named by Talat are to be found in the Syrian interior; in other words, Talat is ordering the Armenian population in the region of Van to be relocated into the desert and left to their own devices.

April 22nd, 1915

- For the past two days, German artillery has been shelling the town of Ypres, but otherwise there has been little activity in the salient.  It has been a pleasant spring day, clear with only a light breeze blowing from the northeast.  However, the idyllic conditions are also ideal for the long-planned German gas attack, and a new terror is about to be unleashed on the modern battlefield.

At 6pm the gas canisters are opened along the front held by the German XXIII and XXVI Reserve Corps, and in the evening breeze the yellow-green cloud slowly rolls towards the enemy line between the Yser Canal and Poelcappelle.  Here the trenches are held by the French 87th Territorial and 45th Algerian Divisions.  The French and colonial soldiers have no idea what the strange cloud approaching them is, and when it begins to seep into their trenches, pandemonium ensues.  The chlorine gas blinds and chokes, the lungs blistering and filling with fluid until the victim, unable to breath, dies.  The French and Algerians pay the price for the earlier dismissal of warnings regarding the German attack; the only choices they have is die or flee.  Survivors flee southward, choking and half-blinded, presenting a terrifying spectacle to the British and Canadian soldiers they pass by.

German chlorine gas drifts towards Entente lines during the 2nd Battle of Ypres, April 1915.

At 615, the German infantry attacks, following in the wake of the gas clouds.  In front of XXIII Corps, the gas attack was not entirely successful, and 45th and 46th Reserve Divisions have a hard fight before they are able to seize the village of Steenstraate, though later in the evening German forces are able to push across the Yser Canal at Het Sas.  On the other side of the German attack, the gas is largely ineffective in front of 51st Reserve Division of XXVI Reserve Corps, and the right of 45th Algerian Division and the left of 1st Canadian Dvision are able to put up stiff resistance before the Germans are able to seize the village of Langemarck.  In between, however, the attack has been completely successful.  Here the gas completely routed the French and Algerians, and when 52nd Reserve Division advances, they encounter no resistance.  By 640pm, or less than thirty minutes after their advance had begun, 52nd Reserve Division reaches the hills near Pilkem.  They have advanced almost three kilometres, a stunning gain on the Western Front, and reflects the extent of the German accomplishment.  The use of chlorine gas has completely shattered the Entente line, blowing a hole several kilometres wide between the Yser Canal and Poelcappelle.  Before the Germans are little more than the fleeing remnants of the French and Algerian divisions.  It is a breakthrough that dwarfs those accomplished on two occasions during the First Battle of Ypres.

However, again like those two desperate moments during the first battle, when the outcome hung in the balance, the Germans are unable to fully exploit their advantage.  Here the problem is simply a lack of forces: only a couple of brigades are available to send through the breach in the enemy line.  No further reserves are immediately for two reasons.  First, the impact of chlorine gas has exceeded even the most optimistic expectations of the Germans; quite simply, no one thought its use would open such an enormous gap.  Second, the operation was never intended to be a major offensive designed to win a decisive and strategic victory.  Instead, the attack at Ypres was primarily designed to test the combat utility of chlorine gas and distract the British and French from the flow of German forces from west to east to support the upcoming Gorlice-Tarnow offensive.  Indeed, Falkenhayn had refused the request of the commander of 4th Army for an additional division to be held in reserve near the line; the thinking of the Chief of Staff was that given how the gas attack was dependent on the weather, he could not afford to have a valuable division tied up waiting for the attack to happen, and a significant exploitation of any success was not the point anyway.  It is one of the few occasions during the war when either side will underestimate the potential for an offensive to succeed, and as a result the opportunity to drive to Ypres and inflict a crushing defeat slips away.

Regardless, the surviving Entente forces still find themselves in a desperate struggle to hold back the Germans who are advancing.  Along the Yser Canal the remnants of the French 87th Territorial Division, aided by the Belgians to the north, struggle to prevent the Germans from exploiting their bridgehead at Hen Sas.  East of Langemarck, 3rd Canadian Brigade of 1st Canadian Division, on whose flank the Algerians had formally held the line, bends its left wing back until it runs south towards St. Julien in an effort to prevent the Germans from turned their flank and driving further eastward.  Despite suffering from the gas, the Canadians recover from the initial shock of the attack, and in places are able to recover lost ground.  In the gap, the first reinforcements to arrive are two Canadian battalions, the reserve of 1st Brigade and stationed nearby when the attack began.  They plunge into woods near St. Julien and, massively outnumbered, engage in desperate combat and briefly check the Germans before being forced back.  Other reinforcements have already been ordered to the front, but they are still en route at midnight, and the hole in the Entente line remains, a gaping wound that, to the eyes of French and British commanders, threatens disaster.

The position at Ypres at midnight on April 22nd, 1915, showing the extent of the German breakthrough seized this evening.

- As the date for the German offensive in the Gorlice-Tarnow region approaches, Falkenhayn believes that surprise is vital to the operation's success.  Should the Russians anticipate the German attack, he explains to Conrad today, the operation may fail.

April 16th, 1915

- Today the Belgian army passes on to the French intelligence that a German unit in the Ypres salient having received special training in the use of gas.  Despite this report and that of the deserter of the 14th, the French army does not believe the Germans will launch an attack using chemical weapons, believing the deserter to have been a plant and that the Germans would not so brazenly violate the Hague Conventions outlawing the use of asphyxiating gases.

- Shortages of artillery shells are not the only problem plaguing the major combatants; artillery pieces themselves are often in short supply.  As of today, the French army has lost 805 more of the vital 75-mm cannon than have been produced.

- As preparations continue for the major offensive to be launched in the Gorlice-Tarnow region, Falkenhayn orders Hindenburg at OberOst to plan a series of diversionary attacks, to launched on the Eastern Front north of central Poland, designed to confuse the Russians as to German intentions and tie down Russian reserves.

- Today Count Burián, the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, formally rejects the territorial demands made by Italy on the 10th, and states that the most the Dual Monarchy is willing to cede above its initial offer of South Tyrol is perhaps a portion of Trentino.  This 'concession' does not come close to meeting the terms required by Italy in exchange for continued neutrality.

- Simultaneously, Austro-Hungarian army headquarters instructs General Franz Rohr, commander of garrison units along the Italian border, to concentrate resistance along the Isonzo River should the Italians attempt to invade.  It is not the last time this river shall figure in the war . . .

April 15th, 1915

- The German 4th Army had designated today as the earliest possible date at which the planned gas attack on the Ypres salient could be undertaken by XXVI Reserve Corps and 46th Reserve Division.  However, throughout the day the winds are totally calm, and the attack is postponed.

- At the start of the war the enormous pressure to increase artillery shell production led to a willingness to comprise quality in the name of quantity, by allowing automobile factories to bore out shell casings with a turning-lathe instead of an hydraulic press.  While the new method meant significantly more factories could be switched immediately to shell production, the new shells have a range of problems.  The fuses on some shells fail to fire properly; in January a German officer had calculated that 50% of French shells fired in a given day were duds.  In other cases, faulty shells exploded prematurely; whereas before the war one artillery piece burst for every 500 000 rounds, by this spring one gun bursts for every 3000 rounds.  Thus the issue of munitions production is not simply one of quantity - there is little point in increasing output if the resulting shells are defective.  In response to the defects in French artillery shells, the government today reimposes the pre-war standard regarding the use of forged steel.

- When the morning dawns at Shaiba in Mesopotamia, the Ottoman forces have disappeared completely, and such was their haste to retreat that they left behind their camps and everything from rifles to cooked food.  For his part, the Ottoman commander felt sufficiently disgraced by the defeat that he assembled his officers and promptly shot himself in front of them.  Indeed, the British victory at the Battle of Shaiba results in a growing disinclination among many Arabs to answer the Ottoman call to jihad; indeed, the retreating Ottoman forces are harried by Arabs for a hundred miles up the Euphrates River.  The British, however, are unable to immediately follow up their victory by pursuit, the cavalry unprepared to run down the beaten foe.  Indeed, the battle itself, for a time on the 14th, hung in the balance, as the British were held up by the Ottoman trench line.  Even the British admitted the Ottoman soldiers fought bravely and resolutely, and only a last-minute bayonet charge by the Dorsets had been enough to capture the trench and turn the tide.

April 14th, 1915

- Overnight a German deserter makes his way across No Man's Land near Langemarck on the northeastern face of the Ypres salient.  He informs the French infantry who capture him that the Germans intend to use asphyxiating gases in an imminent attack, and shows the French a crude gas mask.  Sufficiently alarmed, the commander of the French division participates personally in the interrogation of the German deserter, and passes the information to his corps commander and a liaison officer from Joffre's headquarters.

- While Joffre agrees with General Dubail's request to continue the offensive against the St.-Mihiel salient, the French Commander-in-Chief today orders the removal of two infantry corps from the Provisional Group of the East, which has the practical consequence of ending large-scale French attacks.  This effectively brings to a close the main fighting of the Battle of the Woevre.

- For the past month, the German 11th Army has been planning for a major offensive operation on the Western Front.  However, given yesterday's decision to shift the next major offensive from the west to the east, today Falkenhayn orders 11th Army and its eight divisions to the east, where it will spearhead the forthcoming operation at the beginning of May.  As its commander Falkenhayn assigns General August von Mackensen, whose talents have been on display on the Eastern Front since the outbreak of the war.

- This evening, after a summons from Falkenhayn, Conrad arrives in Berlin to discuss the situation on the Eastern Front.  Only now, two weeks after examination began, does Falkenhayn inform Conrad that the Germans will be undertaking a major offensive operation in the Gorlice-Tarnow region of western Galicia.  Naturally Conrad is pleased, but there remains the thorny issue of the command structure.  As the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will be co-operating with the German 11th Army in the operation, Falkenhayn insists that the former take orders from Mackensen.  In exchange, Mackensen himself will be under the direction of Conrad, though with the caveat that important decisions are to be taken in consultation with Falkenhayn.

- By dawn today the British defenders at Shaiba realize that the larger portion of the Ottoman force has begun to withdraw.  Unwilling to allow the enemy to retreat unmolested, at 930am most of the British force at Shaiba sorties in pursuit.  The Ottoman outposts are easily overrun, but by 1030 the British reach Barjisiyeh woods to find the Ottoman entrenched.  There follows several hours of bitter fighting, as repeated assaults on the enemy positions fail.  Only by late afternoon, as both water and ammunition run low, do the Dorsets carry the first line of the Ottoman trenches.  Exhausted, the British abandon their pursuit, and by sundown have returned to their initial lines at Shaiba.

April 11th, 1915

- The Germans have completed the installation of chlorine gas cylinders between the villages of Poelcappelle and Steenstraat on the northeastern face of the Ypres salient, and now await a favourable wind make use of them for the first time.

- For the past week the French have launched regular attacks on the German lines at Vauquois in the Argonne, in order to draw German reserves away from the St.-Mihiel salient as the French offensive there continues.  However, the operations against Vauquois have not only failed to distract the Germans, but have not gained any significant ground whatsoever.

- At the end of March, General Ruzskii had finally been dismissed as commander of North-West Front.  His replacement was General Mikhail Alexeyev, formerly Ivanov's chief of staff for South-West Front.  Despite his former working relationship with Ivanov, he proves no more willing to co-operate than Ruzskii had been, jealously guarding the units assigned to North-West Front from perceived efforts to reassign them southwards.  Today Russian army headquarters warns Alexeyev that western Galicia, in the area of Gorlice and Tarnow, might be threatened with attack.  Alexeyev ignores the message, likely believing that it is simply another plot by Ivanov to steal more of his divisions.  Though this area is precisely that being examined by the Germans, the warning is premature, given that Falkenhayn has not even decided whether to send more forces to the Eastern Front.  Nevertheless, the irony of Alexeyev's non-response is telling of the muddle in the Russian command structure.

- General Nixon, the new commander of Indian forces in southern Mesopotamia, decides today to send the just-arrived 30th Brigade from Basra west to reinforce the defensive position at the village of Shaiba.  Unknown to Nixon, the commander of Ottoman forces in the region, Suleiman Askeri Bay, has assembled a force of 4000 regulars and 18 000 Arab-Kurdish irregulars to target Shaiba in the first significant counteroffensive since the British occupied Basra and the surrounding territory.  Their advance is observed by the Indian garrison today, and their British commander sends warning to Nixon that an enemy attack is imminent.

January 31st, 1915

- General Sarrail, commander of the French 3rd Army in the Argonne, reports to Joffre today on the recent fighting.  He notes how the French line has been pushed back, yielding a portion of the heights overlooking the Verdun railway to the Germans.  Six separate counterattacks have failed to dislodge the enemy, while the French have suffered 2400 casualties.  Sarrail complains that the effect of the recent fighting has had a negative impact on the morale of the infantry, which can only be restored by a major offensive.  While Joffre is sympathetic, he remains focused primarily on operations in the Champagne.

- In central Poland the German 9th Army launch a minor attack today near Bolimów, southwest of Warsaw.  The battle is notable for being the first time the Germans attempt to use gas in combat, but it is a thorough failure.  The only way to use gas on the battlefield is to open canisters and have the wind blow it towards the enemy; however, the wind shifts and the gas clouds pass back over the German infantry.  Luckily for the Germans, the extremely cold weather renders the gas ineffective.  Indeed, such is the extent of the failure that the Russians did not even realize that the Germans were attempting to gas them, an oversight that will come to haunt their allies on the Western Front in several months time.

- In Galicia, though the mixed Austro-Hungarian units under General Szurmay have taken Uszok Pass itself, the heights to the north remain in Russian hands, threatening their control over the vital transit point through the Carpathians.  In an effort to restart the general offensive by 3rd and push onwards towards Przemysl, Szurmay today orders his forces to seize the heights.

Austro-Hungarian infantry in the Uszok Pass.

- After evacuating northern Persia a month ago when the crisis in the Caucasus was at its most acute, the crushing triumph at Sarikamish has allowed the Russians to return, pushing out the weak and poorly-organized Ottoman forces and retaking Tabriz today.

- A small German force attacks South African forces at Kakamas near the border today, in an effort to support Boer rebels.  Not only does the attack fail, but it had already been rendered pointless given Kemp's surrender of yesterday.