- The weather turns for the worse today on the Ypres battlefield, with falling temperatures and heavy mist. A French counterattack by XVI Corps scheduled for 930am this morning to recapture Zwateleen does not occur until mid-afternoon, and makes no progress. As a result, Foch fires the commander of XVI Corps, a move after Joffre's heart. In the British lines Haig is appalled to learn that a number of I Corps' battalions abandon their forward defences under shellfire, returning only at night, and during the day several dozen soldiers are found behind the lines moving as quickly as possible away from the battlefield. Though morale in the BEF overall has held, given the constant combat over the past few weeks it is not surprising that for some the breaking point is almost at hand.
Meanwhile the Germans launch several infantry attacks along the line, but are everywhere repulsed. From the Entente side the attacks appear senseless and uncoordinated, but they are a part of the larger offensive operation, in that attacks now serve to pin down Entente forces so they cannot be redeployed to meet the main attack in a few days. Where the Germans do not attack they continue their artillery bombardment. Also today two Guards brigades arrive today, having marched from Arras, and are to be formed into a division named for its commander, General Arnold von Winckler.
- The Austro-Hungarian 5th and 6th Armies secure bridgeheads across the Drina River. Despite fierce resistance the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies are forced to fall back.
- Sidney Sonnino, the new Italian Foreign Minister appointed to replace the deceased Antonio di San Giuliano, is favourable to the cause of the Entente, as he reveals today in a conversation with the British Ambassador.
- In Egypt war with the Ottoman Empire is announced today, but because of pre-emptive measures taken in recent weeks there are no widespread pro-Ottoman demonstrations nor any significant organized opposition among nationalists. Further several hundred Egyptian officials with nationalist leanings have been arrested or exiled, and the parliament has been prorogued. The British are determined to maintain their control over Egypt.
- At Tsingtao, the Japanese prepare for the final assault on the German defences. Yesterday they had seized the trenches defending the forts on the three hills above the city, and today they are to capture the forts themselves. A furious artillery bombardment opens this morning, but after counter-fire from their own batteries the Germans raise the white flag. Given the Japanese success to date and ammunition shortages, there is no prospect of holding the final forts. So methodical and effective has been the Japanese advance that a siege the Germans had expected would take six months has been completed in six weeks. The other combatants would do well to study the Japanese method of conducting offensives in conditions of trench warfare - of course, that would require acknowledging the Japanese as their intellectual equals, which for racial reasons is obviously not in the cards.
Showing posts with label Tsingtao. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Tsingtao. Show all posts
Friday, November 07, 2014
Monday, November 03, 2014
November 3rd, 1914
- At Ypres General d'Urbal orders another French attack between Zonnebeke and Langemarck, to be undertaken by the 17th, 18th, and 31st Divisions. Unfortunately for the French, the Germans opposite have been reinforced by units that formerly were along the Yser, but whose presence there is no longer required due to the flooding. Not only is the French advance halted, but at Bixschoote they are actually forced backward, the village falling to German hands once more.
For the BEF there are no major enemy attacks today, though there is the usual sniping and shelling. General Haig attempts to compose a corps reserve, but so thin is his line that only three hundred men can be found. He also pulls some of his artillery back from the fighting, as there is no point in exposing them to shellfire when they lack sufficient ammunition to return fire.
On the German side Prince Rupprecht of 6th Army concludes that unless Army Group Fabeck is reinforced, no decisive success could be achieved at Ypres. To this end, he transfers more heavy artillery to Army Group Fabeck and allots it all of the ammunition assigned to 6th Army as a whole. He also issues orders for further reinforcements - 2nd and Bavarian Cavalry Divisions from 6th Army reserve are reassigned immediately to Army Group Fabeck, while several units elsewhere on the Western Front are instructed to redeploy to the Ypres battlefield.
- The Kaiser's edict that the High Seas Fleet is to remain on the defensive in the North Sea, issued in the aftermath of the Battle of the Heligoland Bight, does not extend to the battlecruisers, and thus an operation is ordered for four light cruisers to lay mines along the Norfolk coast, escorted by four battlecruisers under Admiral Franz von Hipper. The warships departed yesterday afternoon, and by dawn are are off the port of Yarmouth.
As the light cruiser Stralsund lays a line of mines, the German force stumbles upon the British minesweeping gunboat Halcyon, on patrol off Yarmouth. The Germans immediately open fire, and indeed all four battlecruisers target Halcyon and the destroyer Lively that comes to her aid - this is the first time any have sighted an enemy ship in wartime, and are eager to get their shots in. The problem is that with all of the shell splashes, it is impossible to tell which shells were fired from which ship, making accurate spotting impossible. At 740am Hipper decides that he is wasting his time going after such small warships, and turns to disengage. The battlecruisers fire a few shells in the direction of Yarmouth, but succeed only in rearranging sand on the beach. The only achievement of the raid comes when a British submarine strikes one of the German mines and is lost.
The response of the Admiralty to the initial report from Halcyon is to do nothing - no one can believe that the battlecruisers of the High Seas Fleet would sail into danger just to lob a few shells onto an English beach. The prevailing assumption is that it must be a diversion from another, more significant German operation. Thus for several hours no warships are ordered to pursue the Germans as they wait for the other shoe to drop. By the time they realize there is no other shoe, Hipper and his force have made their escape. There is no small amount of public commentary on the apparent ability of the Germans to sail to the English coast and escape. At the Admiralty it is decided to redeploy the Grand Fleet back to Scapa Flow - if it stays in its bases on the west coast of Scotland and the north coast of Ireland, it is simply too far away to respond to German action in the North Sea.
On the German side, the results were disappointing - when the Kaiser awards Hipper an Iron Cross for the operation, the latter declares, 'I won't wear it until I've done something.' The apparent ability of the German force to escape without being intercepted, however, is encouraging should further such operations be undertaken in the future.
- At the Admiralty Fisher convenes a meeting of naval officials and private shipbuilders to launch an emergency shipbuilding effort. Fisher's focus is on increasing the number of orders to the greatest amount possible, and in particular wants a significant expansion of the submarine force. To the Director of Contracts he threatened 'to make his wife a widow and his house a dunghill if he brought paper work or red tape into the picture; he wanted submarines, not contracts . . . if he did not get them within eight months, he would commit hara-kiri.' Commodore Roger Keyes, present at the meeting, laughs at Fisher's remark, at which point the latter turns on Keyes with a ferocious glare, saying 'If anyone thwarts me he had better commit hara-kiri too.' Such are Fisher's management techniques.
- Ludendorff begins today to plan for the next phase of operations in Poland. Falkenhayn believes that the chief of staff of Ober Ost is merely developing a local counter-attack, but such mundane operations are beneath Ludendorff, who only plans campaigns of sufficient breadth and audacity as suits his genius - at least, that's how Ludendorff sees it. His plan is to shift the bulk of 9th Army from the Krakow area to between Posen and Thorn to the northwest of Russian Poland, and attack towards Lodz, taking in flank the anticipated Russian invasion of Germany.
- In an effort to dissuade the Ottomans from entering the war on the side of German, the British government decides on a display of naval power, to illustrate Ottoman vulnerability should they stand against the Entente. Two British battlecruisers and two French battleships steam to the entrance to the Dardanelles and bombard the Ottoman fort protecting it, destroying its magazine. The effort makes no difference, however, as the war party are now in control in Constantinople.
- At dawn Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Nürnberg of the German East Asiatic Squadron enter the harbour at Valparaíso, while Leipzig and Dresden remain at sea escorting colliers. Admiral Spee and the men of his ship receive a rapturous welcome from the German community in the city, including from hundreds of German sailors on merchant ships who volunteer to join the squadron. Spee, however, is aware that, despite the crushing victory two days ago, there are still obstacles before his squadron. Both of his armoured cruisers used half of their ammo at Coronel, and there is no possibility of resupply short of returning home. Moreover, there could be no doubt that the British would redouble their efforts to hunt down and destroy his squadron.
Meanwhile, today the telegram from the British consul at Valparaíso, reporting the presence of the German East Asiatic Squadron but not of the battle, arrives at the Admiralty. Fisher urges reinforcements for Craddock's squadron, and a signal is sent to Craddock informing him that Defence was en route to join his warships. It was the order Craddock had long waited to receive, but of course it was no use to him now. As Churchill was later to write, 'we were already talking into the void.'
- Near Tanga the disorganized landing of Indian Expeditionary Force B continues this morning - the beach is a mass of confused and demoralized soldiers, battalions being hopelessly mixed up. An attempt begins at 430am to advance on Tanga with the first units landed, but co-ordinated progress in the dense bush proves impossible, and they are back at the beachhead by 10am.
At the same time, inland Indian Expeditionary Force C attempts its advance on German positions at Longido just south of Mount Kilimanjaro. After initial fighting checks IEF C short of its objective, it is forced to withdraw after its supply arrangements collapse and the soldiers are left without water.
The failure of IEF C allows Colonel Lettow-Vorbeck to deploy all but three of his companies of Schütztruppen to Tanga. By this evening Lettow-Vorbeck has arrived himself at the port and undertakes a personal reconnaissance of the British beachhead by bicycle. With seven companies now available, and a further two scheduled to arrive tomorrow, he decides to hold a line east of Tanga before the British while positioning his reserves on his right to take the enemy in their flank.
- For the past month, the Japanese force beseiging Tsingtao has been steadly advancing in the face of determined German resistance. In conducting their offensive, they apply the lessons learned during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 - instead of throwing their men against the German defences, they have conducted a methodical artillery bombardment, digging trenches as close to the enemy lines as possible, and attacking at night. The result is that the stout defences of Tsingtao are falling one by one. After seizing Prince Heinrich Hill earlier in October, since the 31st the Japanese have been bombarding the inner defences and the port itself, and today an assault carries the Japanese forces into position to assault the inner line of trenches protecting the last German forts on three hills just northeast of Tsingtao itself.
For the BEF there are no major enemy attacks today, though there is the usual sniping and shelling. General Haig attempts to compose a corps reserve, but so thin is his line that only three hundred men can be found. He also pulls some of his artillery back from the fighting, as there is no point in exposing them to shellfire when they lack sufficient ammunition to return fire.
On the German side Prince Rupprecht of 6th Army concludes that unless Army Group Fabeck is reinforced, no decisive success could be achieved at Ypres. To this end, he transfers more heavy artillery to Army Group Fabeck and allots it all of the ammunition assigned to 6th Army as a whole. He also issues orders for further reinforcements - 2nd and Bavarian Cavalry Divisions from 6th Army reserve are reassigned immediately to Army Group Fabeck, while several units elsewhere on the Western Front are instructed to redeploy to the Ypres battlefield.
- The Kaiser's edict that the High Seas Fleet is to remain on the defensive in the North Sea, issued in the aftermath of the Battle of the Heligoland Bight, does not extend to the battlecruisers, and thus an operation is ordered for four light cruisers to lay mines along the Norfolk coast, escorted by four battlecruisers under Admiral Franz von Hipper. The warships departed yesterday afternoon, and by dawn are are off the port of Yarmouth.
 |
| Yarmouth on the Norfolk coast of Britain. |
As the light cruiser Stralsund lays a line of mines, the German force stumbles upon the British minesweeping gunboat Halcyon, on patrol off Yarmouth. The Germans immediately open fire, and indeed all four battlecruisers target Halcyon and the destroyer Lively that comes to her aid - this is the first time any have sighted an enemy ship in wartime, and are eager to get their shots in. The problem is that with all of the shell splashes, it is impossible to tell which shells were fired from which ship, making accurate spotting impossible. At 740am Hipper decides that he is wasting his time going after such small warships, and turns to disengage. The battlecruisers fire a few shells in the direction of Yarmouth, but succeed only in rearranging sand on the beach. The only achievement of the raid comes when a British submarine strikes one of the German mines and is lost.
The response of the Admiralty to the initial report from Halcyon is to do nothing - no one can believe that the battlecruisers of the High Seas Fleet would sail into danger just to lob a few shells onto an English beach. The prevailing assumption is that it must be a diversion from another, more significant German operation. Thus for several hours no warships are ordered to pursue the Germans as they wait for the other shoe to drop. By the time they realize there is no other shoe, Hipper and his force have made their escape. There is no small amount of public commentary on the apparent ability of the Germans to sail to the English coast and escape. At the Admiralty it is decided to redeploy the Grand Fleet back to Scapa Flow - if it stays in its bases on the west coast of Scotland and the north coast of Ireland, it is simply too far away to respond to German action in the North Sea.
On the German side, the results were disappointing - when the Kaiser awards Hipper an Iron Cross for the operation, the latter declares, 'I won't wear it until I've done something.' The apparent ability of the German force to escape without being intercepted, however, is encouraging should further such operations be undertaken in the future.
- At the Admiralty Fisher convenes a meeting of naval officials and private shipbuilders to launch an emergency shipbuilding effort. Fisher's focus is on increasing the number of orders to the greatest amount possible, and in particular wants a significant expansion of the submarine force. To the Director of Contracts he threatened 'to make his wife a widow and his house a dunghill if he brought paper work or red tape into the picture; he wanted submarines, not contracts . . . if he did not get them within eight months, he would commit hara-kiri.' Commodore Roger Keyes, present at the meeting, laughs at Fisher's remark, at which point the latter turns on Keyes with a ferocious glare, saying 'If anyone thwarts me he had better commit hara-kiri too.' Such are Fisher's management techniques.
- Ludendorff begins today to plan for the next phase of operations in Poland. Falkenhayn believes that the chief of staff of Ober Ost is merely developing a local counter-attack, but such mundane operations are beneath Ludendorff, who only plans campaigns of sufficient breadth and audacity as suits his genius - at least, that's how Ludendorff sees it. His plan is to shift the bulk of 9th Army from the Krakow area to between Posen and Thorn to the northwest of Russian Poland, and attack towards Lodz, taking in flank the anticipated Russian invasion of Germany.
- In an effort to dissuade the Ottomans from entering the war on the side of German, the British government decides on a display of naval power, to illustrate Ottoman vulnerability should they stand against the Entente. Two British battlecruisers and two French battleships steam to the entrance to the Dardanelles and bombard the Ottoman fort protecting it, destroying its magazine. The effort makes no difference, however, as the war party are now in control in Constantinople.
- At dawn Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Nürnberg of the German East Asiatic Squadron enter the harbour at Valparaíso, while Leipzig and Dresden remain at sea escorting colliers. Admiral Spee and the men of his ship receive a rapturous welcome from the German community in the city, including from hundreds of German sailors on merchant ships who volunteer to join the squadron. Spee, however, is aware that, despite the crushing victory two days ago, there are still obstacles before his squadron. Both of his armoured cruisers used half of their ammo at Coronel, and there is no possibility of resupply short of returning home. Moreover, there could be no doubt that the British would redouble their efforts to hunt down and destroy his squadron.
Meanwhile, today the telegram from the British consul at Valparaíso, reporting the presence of the German East Asiatic Squadron but not of the battle, arrives at the Admiralty. Fisher urges reinforcements for Craddock's squadron, and a signal is sent to Craddock informing him that Defence was en route to join his warships. It was the order Craddock had long waited to receive, but of course it was no use to him now. As Churchill was later to write, 'we were already talking into the void.'
- Near Tanga the disorganized landing of Indian Expeditionary Force B continues this morning - the beach is a mass of confused and demoralized soldiers, battalions being hopelessly mixed up. An attempt begins at 430am to advance on Tanga with the first units landed, but co-ordinated progress in the dense bush proves impossible, and they are back at the beachhead by 10am.
At the same time, inland Indian Expeditionary Force C attempts its advance on German positions at Longido just south of Mount Kilimanjaro. After initial fighting checks IEF C short of its objective, it is forced to withdraw after its supply arrangements collapse and the soldiers are left without water.
The failure of IEF C allows Colonel Lettow-Vorbeck to deploy all but three of his companies of Schütztruppen to Tanga. By this evening Lettow-Vorbeck has arrived himself at the port and undertakes a personal reconnaissance of the British beachhead by bicycle. With seven companies now available, and a further two scheduled to arrive tomorrow, he decides to hold a line east of Tanga before the British while positioning his reserves on his right to take the enemy in their flank.
- For the past month, the Japanese force beseiging Tsingtao has been steadly advancing in the face of determined German resistance. In conducting their offensive, they apply the lessons learned during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 - instead of throwing their men against the German defences, they have conducted a methodical artillery bombardment, digging trenches as close to the enemy lines as possible, and attacking at night. The result is that the stout defences of Tsingtao are falling one by one. After seizing Prince Heinrich Hill earlier in October, since the 31st the Japanese have been bombarding the inner defences and the port itself, and today an assault carries the Japanese forces into position to assault the inner line of trenches protecting the last German forts on three hills just northeast of Tsingtao itself.
 |
| The defenses of the German naval base at Tsingtao in China. As of today the besieging Japanese are just before the 'Inner Line of Trenches' marked on the map. |
- Today the 'Manifesto of French Universities' is published in the French press. Endorsed by the faculty councils of all French public universities, the Manifesto is a line-by-line repudiation of the German appeal of October 4th, posing provocative questions including: Which nation had wanted war? Which nation had violated Belgian neutrality? Which nation had burned Louvain and bombarded Rheims cathedral? It is another salvo in the dispute over the origins and conduct of the war, in which the academic and intellectual elite vie with the most strident nationalists in their condemnation of the enemy.
Friday, October 17, 2014
October 17th, 1914
- In Flanders today the British III Corps advances to occupy the town of Armentières, while just to the south a brigade of II Corps seizes a portion of Aubers Ridge. A further French cavalry corps also arrive at Ypres to reinforce the Entente line. Though the advance is slow, both Ferdinand Foch and Sir John French see no reason to deviate from the overall objective of the operation - i.e. a sweep to and around Lille to outflank the German line. Aerial reconnaissance today reveals only that elements of the German III Reserve Corps are moving northwards, concentrating along the Channel coast. The British and French commanders have no idea that the reason for this redeployment of III Reserve Corps is to make way for the four new reserve corps that are about to descend on the Entente line.
- Ludendorff today orders Mackensen's XVII Corps to hold a line near Lovich west of Warsaw to cover the Russian 2nd Army advancing out of the city, in order to protect the northern flank of the rest of 9th Army.
- Admiral Jellicoe receives a report today that a German submarine has been sighted inside Scapa Flow, the main anchorage of the Grand Fleet. Though the report is later deemed false, it comes on the heels of the sinking of the armoured cruiser Hawke on the 15th and the three armoured cruisers sunk on September 22nd, and his fear of the submarine threat reaches a breaking point. He informs the Admiralty that he no longer considers Scapa Flow safe for use, and insists that he be allowed to take the fleet further west, away from the submarine threat. The Admiralty assigns the harbours at Loch-na-Kael on the Scottish west coast and Lough Swilly on the northeast Irish coast for use by the Grand Fleet. Both have narrow entrances that are easily defended, making it more difficult for submarines to penetrate them. Still, it moves the Grand Fleet further away from the North Sea, and it is worth noting that this 'retreat' is forced by German submarines while its High Seas Fleet remains in port.
- Tonight the German submarine S90 attacks the Japanese cruiser-minelayer Takashio at Tsingtao. Three torpedoes are launched, which strike the ship and detonate its cargo of mines. The resulting explosion destroys the ship and kills all but three of its crew of 253. However, the concussion wave from the blast cracks the hull of S90, which has to be abandoned.
- Ludendorff today orders Mackensen's XVII Corps to hold a line near Lovich west of Warsaw to cover the Russian 2nd Army advancing out of the city, in order to protect the northern flank of the rest of 9th Army.
- Admiral Jellicoe receives a report today that a German submarine has been sighted inside Scapa Flow, the main anchorage of the Grand Fleet. Though the report is later deemed false, it comes on the heels of the sinking of the armoured cruiser Hawke on the 15th and the three armoured cruisers sunk on September 22nd, and his fear of the submarine threat reaches a breaking point. He informs the Admiralty that he no longer considers Scapa Flow safe for use, and insists that he be allowed to take the fleet further west, away from the submarine threat. The Admiralty assigns the harbours at Loch-na-Kael on the Scottish west coast and Lough Swilly on the northeast Irish coast for use by the Grand Fleet. Both have narrow entrances that are easily defended, making it more difficult for submarines to penetrate them. Still, it moves the Grand Fleet further away from the North Sea, and it is worth noting that this 'retreat' is forced by German submarines while its High Seas Fleet remains in port.
- Tonight the German submarine S90 attacks the Japanese cruiser-minelayer Takashio at Tsingtao. Three torpedoes are launched, which strike the ship and detonate its cargo of mines. The resulting explosion destroys the ship and kills all but three of its crew of 253. However, the concussion wave from the blast cracks the hull of S90, which has to be abandoned.
Tuesday, October 14, 2014
October 14th, 1914
- Along the Channel coast, the retreating Belgians reach the Yser River, where they begin to entrench between Nieuport and Dixmude. To the east, the pursuing German III Reserve Corps occupies Bruges.
- Early today the British 3rd Cavalry Division makes contact with the British Cavalry Corps at Kemmel, linking the British force retreating from Antwerp with the BEF deploying between Béthune and Ypres. By this evening Rawlinson's 7th Division has taken position just east of Ypres, covering the arrival of the French 87th Territorial Division in the town. To the south the Cavalry Corps has secured village of Messines, while III Corps takes Bailleul, abandoned early by the Germans.
- As the XXII, XXIII, XXVI, and XXVII Reserve Corps begin their march west from Brussels today, Falkenhayn orders Rupprecht's 6th Army to halt offensive operations, to give time for the reserve corps to reach the front and to avoid giving the Entente indications of the coming attack. Instead, 6th Army will hold on a line from Menin southwards, and today the XIII and XIX Corps take up position between Menin and Armentières.
- At 7am this morning, the first ships of an important convoy arrive in Plymouth in southwest England. The ships had departed Quebec City on October 3rd, and contained twenty-five thousand volunteers for military service, as well as a further five hundred from the separate Dominion of Newfoundland. These soldiers comprised the Canadian Contingent, whose formation and organization had been agreed to in August. As in most other combatants, the onset of war had seen a rush of volunteers, and it was decided that, in addition to the existing militia, they would be sent to Britain for service on the Western Front. They will be a part of the British army, and initially Lord Kitchener wanted to scatter the Canadians throughout British divisions as replacements and individual battalions. This course of action was fiercely opposed by Sam Hughes, the Canadian Minister of Militia and a figure of considerable energy as well as controversy, in a meeting with Kitchener. After appeals to the British government the Canadians got their way - after several months training in England, the Canadian Contingent will be reformed as the 1st Canadian Division, and will operate as such in France.
- Despite the usefulness of its 75mm artillery pieces, the French army has been hindered in its operations over the first months of the war by an overall relative lack of artillery as compared to the German army. Today Joffre outlines what will become known as the 'October 14th Programme', which establishes the requirements of the French army with respect to heavy artillery. Joffre also stipulates that henceforth all artillery rounds use smokeless rather than black powder, as the smoke that results from the latter gives away the position of guns that fire it. This illustrates that the 'shells crisis' that has and will afflict all of the major combatants in the first phases of the war is not simply about the number of shells available, but also their quality as well as the availability of the most effective types of artillery pieces.
- In Britain, it was the navy that had priority on munitions, given the widespread assumption that in a future war it would be the fleet that would experience the most combat. Given the contrast between the continued commitment of the British Expeditionary Force to heavy fighting in France and the relative inactivity of the navy, the Admiralty reluctantly agrees to release a thousand tons of cordite from its reserves to the army for use in munitions production.
- In German Kamerun British forces undertake a second attempt to seize Jabassi. This time, the advancing columns are directing along both sides of the river to divide the German defenders, and the British commander accompanies the advance by boat to supervise their coordination. The result is the capture of Jabassi after a brief fight.
- A closer bombardment attempt at Tsingtao sees the British pre-dreadnought Triumph struck by a German shore battery.
- In the Pacific Japanese forces have landed on and captured the undefended German islands in the Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana island chains, formerly attached to the German New Guinea colony. This leaves only Tsingtao as the sole German colony in the Pacific still under their control. The British position is that the final disposition of these German colonies will be decided after the war; in practice, the Japanese have no intention of yielding them. Indeed, the islands they secured without casualties or combat in 1914 will cost the Americans thousands of lives to take in the course of the Second World War.
- At Easter Island the German light cruiser Leipzig arrives today to join the German East Asiatic Squadron. Having been off the west coast of North America upon the outbreak of war, it has brought three colliers with a thousand tons of coal each to the island, and the other German ships begin to top up their coal bunkers. The squadron is now composed of two armoured cruisers and three light cruisers.
- The Admiralty finally responds today to Rear-Admiral Craddock's two telegrams of October 8th and 11th. They signal their agreement with his suggestion of forming a separate squadron to cover the South Atlantic, and among the ships to be assigned to the new squadron is the armoured cruiser Defence. Crucially, this new squadron is to be a separate command, not under the direction of Craddock. By having the new squadron independent, and by assigning Defence to it rather than Craddock's command, the implication appears clear to the Rear-Admiral - the Admiralty believes that his squadron as presently constituted, and with only the old pre-dreadnought Canopus en route as reinforcement, is sufficient to engage the German East Asiatic Squadron.
- Early today the British 3rd Cavalry Division makes contact with the British Cavalry Corps at Kemmel, linking the British force retreating from Antwerp with the BEF deploying between Béthune and Ypres. By this evening Rawlinson's 7th Division has taken position just east of Ypres, covering the arrival of the French 87th Territorial Division in the town. To the south the Cavalry Corps has secured village of Messines, while III Corps takes Bailleul, abandoned early by the Germans.
- As the XXII, XXIII, XXVI, and XXVII Reserve Corps begin their march west from Brussels today, Falkenhayn orders Rupprecht's 6th Army to halt offensive operations, to give time for the reserve corps to reach the front and to avoid giving the Entente indications of the coming attack. Instead, 6th Army will hold on a line from Menin southwards, and today the XIII and XIX Corps take up position between Menin and Armentières.
- At 7am this morning, the first ships of an important convoy arrive in Plymouth in southwest England. The ships had departed Quebec City on October 3rd, and contained twenty-five thousand volunteers for military service, as well as a further five hundred from the separate Dominion of Newfoundland. These soldiers comprised the Canadian Contingent, whose formation and organization had been agreed to in August. As in most other combatants, the onset of war had seen a rush of volunteers, and it was decided that, in addition to the existing militia, they would be sent to Britain for service on the Western Front. They will be a part of the British army, and initially Lord Kitchener wanted to scatter the Canadians throughout British divisions as replacements and individual battalions. This course of action was fiercely opposed by Sam Hughes, the Canadian Minister of Militia and a figure of considerable energy as well as controversy, in a meeting with Kitchener. After appeals to the British government the Canadians got their way - after several months training in England, the Canadian Contingent will be reformed as the 1st Canadian Division, and will operate as such in France.
- Despite the usefulness of its 75mm artillery pieces, the French army has been hindered in its operations over the first months of the war by an overall relative lack of artillery as compared to the German army. Today Joffre outlines what will become known as the 'October 14th Programme', which establishes the requirements of the French army with respect to heavy artillery. Joffre also stipulates that henceforth all artillery rounds use smokeless rather than black powder, as the smoke that results from the latter gives away the position of guns that fire it. This illustrates that the 'shells crisis' that has and will afflict all of the major combatants in the first phases of the war is not simply about the number of shells available, but also their quality as well as the availability of the most effective types of artillery pieces.
- In Britain, it was the navy that had priority on munitions, given the widespread assumption that in a future war it would be the fleet that would experience the most combat. Given the contrast between the continued commitment of the British Expeditionary Force to heavy fighting in France and the relative inactivity of the navy, the Admiralty reluctantly agrees to release a thousand tons of cordite from its reserves to the army for use in munitions production.
- In German Kamerun British forces undertake a second attempt to seize Jabassi. This time, the advancing columns are directing along both sides of the river to divide the German defenders, and the British commander accompanies the advance by boat to supervise their coordination. The result is the capture of Jabassi after a brief fight.
- A closer bombardment attempt at Tsingtao sees the British pre-dreadnought Triumph struck by a German shore battery.
- In the Pacific Japanese forces have landed on and captured the undefended German islands in the Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana island chains, formerly attached to the German New Guinea colony. This leaves only Tsingtao as the sole German colony in the Pacific still under their control. The British position is that the final disposition of these German colonies will be decided after the war; in practice, the Japanese have no intention of yielding them. Indeed, the islands they secured without casualties or combat in 1914 will cost the Americans thousands of lives to take in the course of the Second World War.
- At Easter Island the German light cruiser Leipzig arrives today to join the German East Asiatic Squadron. Having been off the west coast of North America upon the outbreak of war, it has brought three colliers with a thousand tons of coal each to the island, and the other German ships begin to top up their coal bunkers. The squadron is now composed of two armoured cruisers and three light cruisers.
- The Admiralty finally responds today to Rear-Admiral Craddock's two telegrams of October 8th and 11th. They signal their agreement with his suggestion of forming a separate squadron to cover the South Atlantic, and among the ships to be assigned to the new squadron is the armoured cruiser Defence. Crucially, this new squadron is to be a separate command, not under the direction of Craddock. By having the new squadron independent, and by assigning Defence to it rather than Craddock's command, the implication appears clear to the Rear-Admiral - the Admiralty believes that his squadron as presently constituted, and with only the old pre-dreadnought Canopus en route as reinforcement, is sufficient to engage the German East Asiatic Squadron.
Monday, October 06, 2014
October 6th, 1914
- Realizing that the enemy line at Arras will hold, Rupprecht turns his attention northwards, hoping to accomplish the desired envelopment through Flanders. The French have held Arras, though at great cost - the Alpine Division, for instance, has suffered 75% casualties over the past week fighting to hold the city.
- Early this morning Belgian units attack the German bridgehead over the Nethe River. After initial progress, the Germans counterattack, and the Belgians are pushed back. At the same time, Fort Broechem is put out of action and is evacuated by its Belgian defenders. With the Nethe River line breached, the Belgians and the British Marine Brigade withdraw to a second defensive position half-way between the Nethe and the inner ring of forts around Antwerp. The new line to the south and southeast is only five to six miles outside of the city, which means that once the Germans bring their heavy artillery across the Nethe, they will be able to bombard the city itself.
Meanwhile, the two British Naval Brigades take up defensive positions between several of the inner forts protecting Antwerp. The trenches in these positions were shallow and rudimentary - their proximity to the Schelde River prevents digging any deeper due to the risk of flooding.
To the west of Antwerp, two German brigades attempt to force the crossing of the Schelde River. Termonde itself has been captured, but the Germans have failed to secure bridgeheads have been beaten back by the Belgian 4th Infantry Division, which has been reinforced by 6th Infantry Division sent from Antwerp itself. Despite the successes, it is clear that German pressure against the Schelde line will only increase.
At noon today General Rawlinson arrives at Antwerp, and with Churchill surveys the new defensive position taken between the Nethe and the inner forts. They conclude that the position cannot be held - the trenches were only partially prepared, and its flanks were open - and that it would be better to simply pull back further and defend at the line of the inner forts. They bring this conclusion to a meeting of the Belgian Council of Defense, held at 4pm and presided over by King Albert. The Council concurs with the British advice, and further Albert concludes both that the three-day period agreed to on the 3rd has passed without sufficient reinforcement, and that the defensive line along the inner forts does not require the full Belgian army to hold. As such, it is agreed that most of the Belgian field army will withdraw across the Schelde, where they can co-ordinate with any potential relieving force, while the inner forts and the lines between them will be held by the Belgian garrison and fortress troops, the Belgian 2nd Infantry Division, and the three British brigades. Both Rawlinson and Churchill depart Antwerp this evening, the former to meet with his 7th Infantry and 3rd Cavalry Divisions landing on the Belgian coast, and the latter en route to London.
- Japanese and British warships attempt the first bombardment of Tsingtao today, but achieve little due to the range from ship to shore being too great.
- In German Kamerun, though the British have seized the principal port of Duala, the proximity of German forces nearby leaves their hold on the town insecure. As a result, British forces push out from Duala towards Edea to the southwest, Jabassi to the northeast, and Dschang to the north. Today, Senegalese soldiers seize the bridge at Japoma along the railway to Edea, overcoming German resistance.
- Early this morning Belgian units attack the German bridgehead over the Nethe River. After initial progress, the Germans counterattack, and the Belgians are pushed back. At the same time, Fort Broechem is put out of action and is evacuated by its Belgian defenders. With the Nethe River line breached, the Belgians and the British Marine Brigade withdraw to a second defensive position half-way between the Nethe and the inner ring of forts around Antwerp. The new line to the south and southeast is only five to six miles outside of the city, which means that once the Germans bring their heavy artillery across the Nethe, they will be able to bombard the city itself.
Meanwhile, the two British Naval Brigades take up defensive positions between several of the inner forts protecting Antwerp. The trenches in these positions were shallow and rudimentary - their proximity to the Schelde River prevents digging any deeper due to the risk of flooding.
To the west of Antwerp, two German brigades attempt to force the crossing of the Schelde River. Termonde itself has been captured, but the Germans have failed to secure bridgeheads have been beaten back by the Belgian 4th Infantry Division, which has been reinforced by 6th Infantry Division sent from Antwerp itself. Despite the successes, it is clear that German pressure against the Schelde line will only increase.
At noon today General Rawlinson arrives at Antwerp, and with Churchill surveys the new defensive position taken between the Nethe and the inner forts. They conclude that the position cannot be held - the trenches were only partially prepared, and its flanks were open - and that it would be better to simply pull back further and defend at the line of the inner forts. They bring this conclusion to a meeting of the Belgian Council of Defense, held at 4pm and presided over by King Albert. The Council concurs with the British advice, and further Albert concludes both that the three-day period agreed to on the 3rd has passed without sufficient reinforcement, and that the defensive line along the inner forts does not require the full Belgian army to hold. As such, it is agreed that most of the Belgian field army will withdraw across the Schelde, where they can co-ordinate with any potential relieving force, while the inner forts and the lines between them will be held by the Belgian garrison and fortress troops, the Belgian 2nd Infantry Division, and the three British brigades. Both Rawlinson and Churchill depart Antwerp this evening, the former to meet with his 7th Infantry and 3rd Cavalry Divisions landing on the Belgian coast, and the latter en route to London.
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| Belgian civilians leaving Antwerp, October 6th, 1914. |
- Japanese and British warships attempt the first bombardment of Tsingtao today, but achieve little due to the range from ship to shore being too great.
- In German Kamerun, though the British have seized the principal port of Duala, the proximity of German forces nearby leaves their hold on the town insecure. As a result, British forces push out from Duala towards Edea to the southwest, Jabassi to the northeast, and Dschang to the north. Today, Senegalese soldiers seize the bridge at Japoma along the railway to Edea, overcoming German resistance.
Sunday, September 28, 2014
September 28th, 1914
- After initial setbacks, the French XXI and X corps have solidified a defensive line east of Albert along a line Maricourt-Fricourt-Thiepval. Realizing that 6th Army has been checked before Amiens, Falkenhayn today orders Rupprecht to attack to the north towards Arras in another effort to get around the flank of the Entente line.
- The siege of Antwerp begins in earnest today with the first major bombardment of its forts by the Germans. Falkenhayn has decided that Antwerp must be captured to ensure the security of the German right wing as it extends northwards into Flanders. Commanding the besiegers is General Hans von Beseler, whose III Reserve Corps consists of second-rate divisions and brigades, and is deemed insufficient to cross the Scheldt River to the west of the city to invest it completely. However, von Beseler also has at his disposal 173 heavy guns, and it is expected that the artillery will repeat its performances at Liège and Namur and crush the fortifications from long-range. Specifically, the first to be targeted are the forts of Wavre and Waelham to the south of Antwerp, to breach the outer defense line and allow the infantry to advance. The German bombardment is able to proceed entirely unmolested, as the Belgian artillery pieces lack the range to hit the German mortars. The attack is thus little more than target practice.
- Having failed to cross the Niemen River, the German 8th Army begins a withdrawal back towards the German border, as maintaining their current position would leave them in an exposed salient while not diverting Russian forces from Poland and Galicia. The Russian 1st and 10th armies begin a pursuit of the retreating Germans, and General Rennenkampf of the former shows energy that had been lacking in August.
- Having completed its assembly north of Krakow, the German 9th Army begins its advance northeast today in the direction of Ivangorod and Moscow. As of yet Ludendorff has no idea that the Russians are redeploying four armies to precisely the same place.
- In a speech today South African Prime Minister Louis Botha declares that if South African forces do not attack and occupy German South-West Africa, then the British will bring in other Imperial forces, such as the Australians or Indians, to undertake the operation. The statement is aimed at Boers uneasy with the invasion, suggesting that since it is going to happen it might as well be done to the benefit of South Africa directly.
- As they approach Tsingtao, Japanese forces seize today the first defensive line. They had been thinly held, however, and the Germans conduct an orderly retreat to the second defensive line in the Hai Po valley.
- The siege of Antwerp begins in earnest today with the first major bombardment of its forts by the Germans. Falkenhayn has decided that Antwerp must be captured to ensure the security of the German right wing as it extends northwards into Flanders. Commanding the besiegers is General Hans von Beseler, whose III Reserve Corps consists of second-rate divisions and brigades, and is deemed insufficient to cross the Scheldt River to the west of the city to invest it completely. However, von Beseler also has at his disposal 173 heavy guns, and it is expected that the artillery will repeat its performances at Liège and Namur and crush the fortifications from long-range. Specifically, the first to be targeted are the forts of Wavre and Waelham to the south of Antwerp, to breach the outer defense line and allow the infantry to advance. The German bombardment is able to proceed entirely unmolested, as the Belgian artillery pieces lack the range to hit the German mortars. The attack is thus little more than target practice.
- Having failed to cross the Niemen River, the German 8th Army begins a withdrawal back towards the German border, as maintaining their current position would leave them in an exposed salient while not diverting Russian forces from Poland and Galicia. The Russian 1st and 10th armies begin a pursuit of the retreating Germans, and General Rennenkampf of the former shows energy that had been lacking in August.
- Having completed its assembly north of Krakow, the German 9th Army begins its advance northeast today in the direction of Ivangorod and Moscow. As of yet Ludendorff has no idea that the Russians are redeploying four armies to precisely the same place.
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| The Eastern Front, September 28th to November 1st, 1914. |
- As they approach Tsingtao, Japanese forces seize today the first defensive line. They had been thinly held, however, and the Germans conduct an orderly retreat to the second defensive line in the Hai Po valley.
Thursday, September 18, 2014
September 18th, 1914
- The advance of the French IV and XIII Corps along the Oise River is halted today by the German IX Reserve Corps, aided by the arrival of II Corps, which was pulled from the Aisne front expressly for the purpose of extending the German flank northwards. An entrenched army needs fewer soldiers per mile to hold the line, which allows both sides to send forces into the open spaces north of Compiègne without fatally weakening their existing defensive positions. Indeed, this points to one of the paradoxes of trench warfare - it was adopted in September 1914 to facilitate, not hinder, further mobile operations by making more forces available to outflank the enemy. The problem, of course, is that this is equally true for both sides, so the 'mobile' formations created by both inevitably run into each other, and trench warfare replicates itself in order to provide further 'mobile' operations. Thus trench warfare spreads like a virus along the Western Front, ironically from a desire of both sides to continue a war of movement. It also feeds the perception of the generals that trench warfare is a temporary phenomenon (i.e. present only to facilitate future mobile operations, at which point trenches will no longer be needed) as opposed to becoming a permanent fixture.
- Further east, German attacks near Rheims continue to push back the French defenders. Today the Germans seize high ground east of the city, including the forts at Berru and Nogent-l'Abbesse. The French X Corps, which had begun to march west to join the effort to envelop the German flank past 6th Army, is ordered to return to Rheims to contain the German push.
- Joffre today scales back offensive operations along the Aisne River, it becoming clearer by the day that traditional frontal assaults by infantry on entrenched and prepared German positions are not achieving significant results. Meanwhile, General Castlenau's new 2nd Army begins to assemble near Amiens.
- The redeployment of the German 6th Army is planned today at a conference at OHL in Luxembourg between Falkenhayn and Rupprecht. The first corps will arrive on September 21st and bewill be tasked with sweeping away any French infantry between Roye and Montdidier. A second corps will arrive on September 23rd, and with further units trickling in subsequent days 6th Army as a whole is to turn the enemy flank. Rupprecht, however, is concerned that the French will be undertaking similar redeployments from east to west, and will benefit from having an intact railway system to move their units faster. Thus both Falkenhayn and Rupprecht agree that German attacks must be undertaken along the existing front line to tie down French forces and prevent them from redeploying in time to stymie 6th Army. In addition to further assaults between Compeigne and Rheims, two operations are planned in the Verdun sector. The first, to be undertaken by the Crown Prince's 5th army, is to attack into the Argonne Forest to the west of Verdun. The second is an offensive aiming to drive between Verdun to the north and Toul and Nancy to the south by capturing St. Mihiel and reaching the Meuse River. To facilitate the second operation, the left wing of the 5th Army, comprising those forces southeast of Verdun, is formed into Army Detachment Strantz, named for General Hermann von Strantz, commander of V Corps. By forming this detachment, there will be a separate command staff for each attack. In addition to forcing the French to keep significant forces in the east, the operations aim to isolate the fortifications around Verdun, which are the strongest in France and form a key 'hinge' of the French line.
- General Ludendorff meets today with General Conrad at Neu Sandec in Austrian Galicia today. The relationship between the two allies is frosty at best - Conrad blames the failures of his armies in Galicia on a perceived lack of support from Germany, and spends much of the meeting lecturing Ludendorff. The German army, conversely, believes that Tannenberg demonstrates that it has done more than its share - if nothing else, Ludendorff is convinced of his own genius - and that Conrad and the Austro-Hungarian army have demonstrated particularly impressive ineptitude. Indeed, so dismissive are the Germans of their putative allies that they have not even bothered to inform Conrad that Moltke has been replaced by Falkenhayn.
Despite the atmosphere of recrimination, agreement is reached for the next stage of operations. The defeat of the Austro-Hungarian armies in Galicia potentially exposes German Silesia to Russian invasion, which necessitates a German response. Ludendorff convinces Falkenhayn that a major German force is needed immediately, so 8th Army in East Prussia is reduced to two corps and the remainder redeployed near Cracow to form a new 9th Army of four corps, a reserve division, and a cavalry division. At Ludendorff's insistence Hindenburg is to directly command 9th Army with himself as Chief of Staff, and while command of 8th Army is transferred to General Richard von Schubert, Hindenburg and Ludendorff are to remain in a supervisory role over their old command. Conrad, meanwhile, agrees to assign the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army to co-operate with the German 9th Army, while the rest of his armies, after completing their retreat, will, it is hoped, go back over on the offensive.
Falkenhayn's conception of the role of 9th Army is simply to occupy the Russians and help their Austro-Hungarian allies survive - his attention is still primarily on the Western Front, seeking a decisive decision there. Hindenburg and Ludendorff, however, believe that the most effective route to victory is on Eastern Front. Their plan for 9th Army is to undertake a major offensive to seize the Russian fortress at Ivangorod and advance on Warsaw, seeking to crush the Russian armies just as they had done at Tannenberg. They believe that they should have priority for reinforcements, and they begin bombarding not only Falkenhayn but also the Kaiser for additional units for the East. Falkenhayn thus finds the duo of Hindenburg and Ludendorff to be rivals, not subordinates, and the latter are able to leverage the prestige gained from Tannenberg to raise their profile. German high command is thus fundamentally divided on grand strategy, divided between West and East.
- In London, the British Admiralty has fallen for Admiral Spee's deception at Samoa four days earlier, and believes that the German East Asiatic Squadron is returning to the West Pacific. Today they signal Rear Admiral Craddock in the South Atlantic with revised instructions: 'Situation changed . . . Gneisenau appeared off Samoa on 14th and left steering NW. German trade on west coast of America is to be attacked at once. Cruisers need not be concentrated. Two cruisers and an armed liner appear sufficient for Magellan Straits and west coast. Report what you propose about Canopus.' Crucially, the signal says nothing about the modern armoured cruiser Defence - the Admiralty has decided that with the German East Asiatic Squadron sailing westward, it is not needed in the South Atlantic, and can be retained on its present station in the Mediterranean. Craddock, however, assumes that Defence is still on its way, believing quite reasonably that if the Admiralty had changed its mind, it would have let him know.
- In China, the main portion of the Japanese expeditionary force sent to capture the German enclave at Tsingtao lands at Laoshan Bay, thirty miles from their objective. The Japanese aim is to assemble overwhelming force, especially in terms of artillery, before advancing on the German positions.
- Further east, German attacks near Rheims continue to push back the French defenders. Today the Germans seize high ground east of the city, including the forts at Berru and Nogent-l'Abbesse. The French X Corps, which had begun to march west to join the effort to envelop the German flank past 6th Army, is ordered to return to Rheims to contain the German push.
- Joffre today scales back offensive operations along the Aisne River, it becoming clearer by the day that traditional frontal assaults by infantry on entrenched and prepared German positions are not achieving significant results. Meanwhile, General Castlenau's new 2nd Army begins to assemble near Amiens.
- The redeployment of the German 6th Army is planned today at a conference at OHL in Luxembourg between Falkenhayn and Rupprecht. The first corps will arrive on September 21st and bewill be tasked with sweeping away any French infantry between Roye and Montdidier. A second corps will arrive on September 23rd, and with further units trickling in subsequent days 6th Army as a whole is to turn the enemy flank. Rupprecht, however, is concerned that the French will be undertaking similar redeployments from east to west, and will benefit from having an intact railway system to move their units faster. Thus both Falkenhayn and Rupprecht agree that German attacks must be undertaken along the existing front line to tie down French forces and prevent them from redeploying in time to stymie 6th Army. In addition to further assaults between Compeigne and Rheims, two operations are planned in the Verdun sector. The first, to be undertaken by the Crown Prince's 5th army, is to attack into the Argonne Forest to the west of Verdun. The second is an offensive aiming to drive between Verdun to the north and Toul and Nancy to the south by capturing St. Mihiel and reaching the Meuse River. To facilitate the second operation, the left wing of the 5th Army, comprising those forces southeast of Verdun, is formed into Army Detachment Strantz, named for General Hermann von Strantz, commander of V Corps. By forming this detachment, there will be a separate command staff for each attack. In addition to forcing the French to keep significant forces in the east, the operations aim to isolate the fortifications around Verdun, which are the strongest in France and form a key 'hinge' of the French line.
- General Ludendorff meets today with General Conrad at Neu Sandec in Austrian Galicia today. The relationship between the two allies is frosty at best - Conrad blames the failures of his armies in Galicia on a perceived lack of support from Germany, and spends much of the meeting lecturing Ludendorff. The German army, conversely, believes that Tannenberg demonstrates that it has done more than its share - if nothing else, Ludendorff is convinced of his own genius - and that Conrad and the Austro-Hungarian army have demonstrated particularly impressive ineptitude. Indeed, so dismissive are the Germans of their putative allies that they have not even bothered to inform Conrad that Moltke has been replaced by Falkenhayn.
Despite the atmosphere of recrimination, agreement is reached for the next stage of operations. The defeat of the Austro-Hungarian armies in Galicia potentially exposes German Silesia to Russian invasion, which necessitates a German response. Ludendorff convinces Falkenhayn that a major German force is needed immediately, so 8th Army in East Prussia is reduced to two corps and the remainder redeployed near Cracow to form a new 9th Army of four corps, a reserve division, and a cavalry division. At Ludendorff's insistence Hindenburg is to directly command 9th Army with himself as Chief of Staff, and while command of 8th Army is transferred to General Richard von Schubert, Hindenburg and Ludendorff are to remain in a supervisory role over their old command. Conrad, meanwhile, agrees to assign the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army to co-operate with the German 9th Army, while the rest of his armies, after completing their retreat, will, it is hoped, go back over on the offensive.
Falkenhayn's conception of the role of 9th Army is simply to occupy the Russians and help their Austro-Hungarian allies survive - his attention is still primarily on the Western Front, seeking a decisive decision there. Hindenburg and Ludendorff, however, believe that the most effective route to victory is on Eastern Front. Their plan for 9th Army is to undertake a major offensive to seize the Russian fortress at Ivangorod and advance on Warsaw, seeking to crush the Russian armies just as they had done at Tannenberg. They believe that they should have priority for reinforcements, and they begin bombarding not only Falkenhayn but also the Kaiser for additional units for the East. Falkenhayn thus finds the duo of Hindenburg and Ludendorff to be rivals, not subordinates, and the latter are able to leverage the prestige gained from Tannenberg to raise their profile. German high command is thus fundamentally divided on grand strategy, divided between West and East.
- In London, the British Admiralty has fallen for Admiral Spee's deception at Samoa four days earlier, and believes that the German East Asiatic Squadron is returning to the West Pacific. Today they signal Rear Admiral Craddock in the South Atlantic with revised instructions: 'Situation changed . . . Gneisenau appeared off Samoa on 14th and left steering NW. German trade on west coast of America is to be attacked at once. Cruisers need not be concentrated. Two cruisers and an armed liner appear sufficient for Magellan Straits and west coast. Report what you propose about Canopus.' Crucially, the signal says nothing about the modern armoured cruiser Defence - the Admiralty has decided that with the German East Asiatic Squadron sailing westward, it is not needed in the South Atlantic, and can be retained on its present station in the Mediterranean. Craddock, however, assumes that Defence is still on its way, believing quite reasonably that if the Admiralty had changed its mind, it would have let him know.
- In China, the main portion of the Japanese expeditionary force sent to capture the German enclave at Tsingtao lands at Laoshan Bay, thirty miles from their objective. The Japanese aim is to assemble overwhelming force, especially in terms of artillery, before advancing on the German positions.
Tuesday, September 02, 2014
September 2nd, 1914
- After the skirmish at Néry yesterday, Kluck briefly abandons his southeastern advance to attempt to pursue the BEF. Once again, however, the British escape, reaching the Marne River by nightfall. The German 1st Army thus resumes its march to the southeast. The temporary redirection of 1st Army, however, serves to confuse Kluck's intentions in the eyes of the French - does he still intend to change course back towards Paris?
- In the French capital, the government is advised by Joffre that it should abandon Paris as soon as possible. Doing so might lessen the attraction of Paris to the advancing Germans, and guarantee that the government remains functioning if the capital is lost. This evening, under the cloak of darkness, the entire French government boards a train bound for Bordeaux, where they will establish themselves. President Poincarè writes that it is 'the saddest event of my life.'
With the departure of the government, full military and civil authority is vested in General Gallieni as Military Governor of the city. He continues his vigourous work to ensure that Paris is defensible. No thought is given to declaring Paris an open city - indeed, in the event of attack its famous bridges over the Seine are to be dynamited to deny them to the Germans, and even the Eiffel Tower is to be destroyed.
Also, Joffre places 6th Army under the command of Gallieni. The army, retreating for several days from its initial assembly point at Amiens, arrives today at the defences of Paris. Its units are exhausted from both the rapid retreat and constant skirmishes with the advancing Germans. Still, Gallieni now has the army he deems essential to ensure the defence of Paris. Joffre, however, has the Minister of War place Paris and its forces under his authority as Commander-in-Chief.
- Joffre also issues revisions to his General Instruction No. 4 of yesterday, which for the first time states the possibility of the Paris garrison joining in the hoped-for French counteroffensive by advancing east in the direction of Meaux.
- This evening Moltke issues a new General Order to the armies on the Western Front. Moltke's attention is now on the centre of the line, where he believes a great victory was achieved yesterday against a French counteroffensive. In Lorraine, 6th and 7th armies are to continue to attack, while to the west of Verdun the 4th and 5th armies are to maintain pressure on the French armies opposite, and 3rd Army is to attack Foch's army detachment coming into the line. The key role is to be played by 2nd Army, driving southeast, forcing the French armies away from Paris and turning the flank of the French 5th Army. Finally, 1st was to protect the western flank of 2nd Army by positioning itself in echelon behind its neighbour - in essence, 1st Army was to station itself to the northwest of 2nd Army, protecting it from any French counter-attacks as it advances southeast. The General Order reflects Moltke's increasing focus on the centre of the line, not the right, and his desire to achieve a 'Cannae'. Gone are the ambitions to envelop Paris central to the Schlieffen Plan, and 1st Army, which was to have the most important role in the Plan, is relegated to a secondary role.
When the General Order reaches General Kluck at 1st Army headquarters, he is astonished by the instructions. He has no information about the larger war situation, only knowing that the British and French forces in front of him continue to retreat. Moreover, at present 1st Army is ahead of 2nd Army - to implement Moltke's General Order would require 1st Army not just to halt but to actually retreat. He believes that his army, not 2nd, is about to secure the destruction of the French 5th Army by turning its flank. Kluck thus decides to ignore the General Order, and continue his advance.
- In the French capital, the government is advised by Joffre that it should abandon Paris as soon as possible. Doing so might lessen the attraction of Paris to the advancing Germans, and guarantee that the government remains functioning if the capital is lost. This evening, under the cloak of darkness, the entire French government boards a train bound for Bordeaux, where they will establish themselves. President Poincarè writes that it is 'the saddest event of my life.'
With the departure of the government, full military and civil authority is vested in General Gallieni as Military Governor of the city. He continues his vigourous work to ensure that Paris is defensible. No thought is given to declaring Paris an open city - indeed, in the event of attack its famous bridges over the Seine are to be dynamited to deny them to the Germans, and even the Eiffel Tower is to be destroyed.
Also, Joffre places 6th Army under the command of Gallieni. The army, retreating for several days from its initial assembly point at Amiens, arrives today at the defences of Paris. Its units are exhausted from both the rapid retreat and constant skirmishes with the advancing Germans. Still, Gallieni now has the army he deems essential to ensure the defence of Paris. Joffre, however, has the Minister of War place Paris and its forces under his authority as Commander-in-Chief.
- Joffre also issues revisions to his General Instruction No. 4 of yesterday, which for the first time states the possibility of the Paris garrison joining in the hoped-for French counteroffensive by advancing east in the direction of Meaux.
- This evening Moltke issues a new General Order to the armies on the Western Front. Moltke's attention is now on the centre of the line, where he believes a great victory was achieved yesterday against a French counteroffensive. In Lorraine, 6th and 7th armies are to continue to attack, while to the west of Verdun the 4th and 5th armies are to maintain pressure on the French armies opposite, and 3rd Army is to attack Foch's army detachment coming into the line. The key role is to be played by 2nd Army, driving southeast, forcing the French armies away from Paris and turning the flank of the French 5th Army. Finally, 1st was to protect the western flank of 2nd Army by positioning itself in echelon behind its neighbour - in essence, 1st Army was to station itself to the northwest of 2nd Army, protecting it from any French counter-attacks as it advances southeast. The General Order reflects Moltke's increasing focus on the centre of the line, not the right, and his desire to achieve a 'Cannae'. Gone are the ambitions to envelop Paris central to the Schlieffen Plan, and 1st Army, which was to have the most important role in the Plan, is relegated to a secondary role.
When the General Order reaches General Kluck at 1st Army headquarters, he is astonished by the instructions. He has no information about the larger war situation, only knowing that the British and French forces in front of him continue to retreat. Moreover, at present 1st Army is ahead of 2nd Army - to implement Moltke's General Order would require 1st Army not just to halt but to actually retreat. He believes that his army, not 2nd, is about to secure the destruction of the French 5th Army by turning its flank. Kluck thus decides to ignore the General Order, and continue his advance.
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| The Western Front, Sept. 2nd, 1914 |
- The westward retreat of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army, broken after the Battle of Gnipa Lupa, continues - Lemberg, fourth-largest city of the Dual Monarchy, is given up without a fight as 3rd Army retreats 32 kilometres today. Conrad, however, sees in this retreat an opportunity to envelop and destroy the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies. More of 2nd Army has arrived from the Serbian front, deploying to the south of 3rd Army, and is ordered to attack north into the southern flank of the two advancing Russian armies. Meanwhile, believing the Russian 5th Army was comprehensively defeated at the Battle of Zamość-Komarów, Conrad orders 4th Army to turn southeast and attack the northern flank of the two Russian armies. It is an enormously ambitious plan, and one completely beyond the capabilities of the Austro-Hungarians - they were exhausted by lengthy marches and had already suffered heavy casualties. But Conrad was never one to let such details get in the way of his ambitious schemes.
- The first of sixty thousand Japanese soldiers come ashore today at Lungkow, the first step in the campaign against the German naval base at Tsingtao on the Chinese coast. Since the entrances to Tsingtao have been heavily mined by the Germans, the Japanese land in nearby Chinese territory, and begin a methodical advance towards the German base. Though China has declared itself neutral in the war, the Japanese have no great respect for Chinese authority, and have no compunction about violating Chinese neutrality to further their war effort.
Saturday, August 23, 2014
August 23rd, 1914
- The French 5th Army fights a desperate battle for survival, as crises mount by the hour. The roads were choked with Belgian refugees, making rapid redeployment of units impossible. At noon news arrived that the Belgians were evacuating Namur, which was to fall to the Germans later in the day. The German 2nd Army launches a series of ferocious attacks which push elements of 5th Army southwards, while during the day the full force of the German 3rd Army is felt, as it seizes river crossings on the Meuse and directly threatens 5th Army's right flank. Bits of news arriving by telegram of action elsewhere on the frontiers suggest the Germans are gaining all along the line, leaving him without any support. He sees his worst nightmares coming true before his eyes - 5th Army trapped and annihilated between the two German armies, leaving France completely exposed to the German invasion of the north. Lanrezac feels that the survival of 5th Army is essential to the survival of France itself. At 930pm, Lanrezac informs Joffre that he has given the order to retreat.
As bad as the days events have been for 5th Army, they could have gone much worse. General Bülow of the German 2nd Army had instructed General Hausen of 3rd Army to attack directly westwards across the Meuse, in support of his own push from the north. Hausen complied with Bülow's order, instead of with a directive from OHL to move southwest towards Givet. Had 3rd Army attempted OHL's manoeuvre instead, they would have been able to advance into the French 5th Army's rear, cutting its line of retreat and forcing its destruction. By attacking frontally, Lanrezac's army is able to escape.
- When the commanders of the 3rd and 4th Armies report this morning on the devastating results of the prior day's fighting, Joffre at first cannot believe it. So much has been invested in Plan XVII, in the notion that French infantry with sufficient elan can sweep all before them, that he can hardly comprehend that the attacks have failed. Joffre orders both armies to resume the offensive. As both armies struggle to resume the attack, German counter-attacks worsen the situation. Just after noon, V Corps of 3rd Army is driven back eight miles, and to avoid envelopment the rest of 3rd Army retires the same distance. To the north, the battered Colonial Corps of 4th Army withdraws from Neufchâteau at 5am, uncovering the flank of XII Corps which is also forced to retreat. By the end of the day, all but two corps of 3rd and 4th armies have been driven back to the line from which they had started their offensive.
- The only decent news for the French comes from Lorraine where, despite its mauling, the French 2nd Army has managed to extricate itself and form a strong defensive line west of the Meurthe River, its northern flank anchored at Nancy and its southern linked to 1st Army.
- This evening, as the terrible news from along the front accumulates, Joffre struggles to understand the magnitude of what has transpired. In a telegram to the War Minister, he suggests that he has been only 'momentarily checked' and that the offensive will be resumed. The reality is that the French army has been defeated. All of its pre-war planning and training, its emphasis on morale and infantry assaults, its unyielding faith in elan and the offensive, has been for nought. In four days fighting, from Rupprecht's counterattack on the 20th to Lanrezac's order to retreat this evening, Plan XVII has disastrously miscarried. Over those four days, the French army has suffered more than 140 000 casualties, and is now in retreat.
- As the French army endures a series of defeats, the British Expeditionary Force sees its first fighting of the campaign. Acceding to Lanrezac's request, the BEF holds the line of the Mons Canal. They are significantly outnumbered - the German 1st Army bearing down on them has four corps and three cavalry divisions, to the BEF's two corps. Further, Smith-Dorrien's II Corps, on the left of the line, bears the brunt of the fighting, while Haig's I Corps on the right is not attacked at all. Balancing the numbers are the quality of the British soldiers. While the BEF is pitifully small compared to the armies of the Continental powers, it is also the only army composed of long-service regulars, instead of conscripts. These are men who have made soldiering their profession - they train constantly, with a particular emphasis on rapid and accurate rifle fire. Further, experience in the Boer War taught the British army the crucial importance of entrenchment and rifle accuracy. Together this means the BEF is able to punch above its weight despite being heavily outnumbered.
The battle opens at 9am when German artillery begin firing on the British entrenchments south of the canal, followed shortly by infantry attacks. Kluck's orders to maintain contact with 2nd Army to the east means he is unable to stretch his army westward to find and turn the BEF's flank. As a result, 1st Army spends the day throwing itself at the British in frontal attacks. Further, the attacks come in piecemail - 1st Army is still in marching formation, strung out along the Belgian road network, and is unable to concentrate when they stumble across the British. Two corps of 1st Army never even engage the enemy today. The German infantry who do enter the battle find themselves under intense rifle fire of such accuracy and frequency that some regiments report being halted by machine-gun fire instead. By afternoon sections of the British line are being painfully forced back from the canal line, but the BEF is able to execute an orderly withdrawal to a second line of prepared entrenchments. The Germans, for their part, are too exhausted to give chase.
As evening falls, the soldiers of the BEF take satisfaction in having blunted a major German attack. Though the British have suffered 1600 casualties, German casualties have been approximately 5000. Further, a day has been lost for 1st Army, which has the furthest to travel. Sir John French and his staff plan for a second day of fighting at Mons, continuing to cover the left flank of the French army.
- At 4am, the train carrying Ludendorff stops at Hanover station, where Hindenburg boards. It is the first time the two men have met. On the train Ludendorff explains the orders he has already issued, and Hindenburg approves, setting the pattern of the relationship between the two men. Later today they arrive at 8th Army headquarters in East Prussia. Meanwhile, I Corps completes its entrainment, an operation that has required precise coordination between five different railway stations. The corps now begins its movement to the south to face the Russian 2nd Army.
- Russian operations in East Prussia reflect a fundamental misunderstanding of the strategic situation. Zhilinskii at North-West Front, as well as both Rennenkampf (1st Army) and Samsonov (2nd Army) believe that the Germans have been beaten, and are withdrawing behind the Vistula River. Thus Zhilinskii's top priority is to hurry the advance of 2nd Army, so it can cut off the German 8th Army before it can extract itself from East Prussia. To achieve this, one corps of 2nd Army is left in Poland to cover the western flank, and a second corps is detailed to the Masurian Lakes to cover the eastern flank. This reduces the strength of 2nd Army to three corps as its advance continues.
Meanwhile, Rennenkampf is in no hurry to advance westwards. Indeed, he fears that a rapid advance to allow 1st Army to catch up to the Germans would result in another German defeat that hastens their withdrawal from East Prussia before 2nd Army can close the trap. Thus, though 1st Army begins to move today, its progress is extremely slow, and its cavalry is completely unable to discern that the German 8th Army is no longer in front of them - indeed, there is only a single German cavalry division left. Moreover, Rennenkampf directs 1st Army northwestward towards the major German fortress of Königsberg in order to lay siege and potentially trap a portion of the German 8th Army he believes may have retreated there. This movement draws 1st Army even further away from 2nd Army, leaving the latter increasingly exposed.
- The first major encounter on the Galician frontier begins today when the Russian 4th Army, advancing south, runs into the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army, moving north, in the Battle of Kraśnik. In the pitched battle near the San River just inside Russian territory, it is the Austro-Hungarians who draw first blood. Russian cavalry had completely failed to find the approaching enemy, and the corps of 4th Army were strung out and unable to provide mutual assistance. One Russian corps is badly mauled, one of its divisions losing half its strength. The Russians, however, do not view the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army as part of an invasion of Russian Poland, but rather the northern flank of the expected Austro-Hungarian concentration around Lemberg. Pre-war expectations thus sow confusion among the Russian command structure. In particular, there is no awareness that a second Austro-Hungarian army - 4th - is also advancing north on 1st Army's eastern flank.
- Their ultimatum having expired, Japan declares war on Germany. Japan feels no special attachment to the cause of the Entente - their war aims are limited to the Pacific, and indeed would have been equally pleased if Germany had acceded to Japanese demands peacefully. As it is, Japan begins preparations for a campaign against Tsingtao.
As bad as the days events have been for 5th Army, they could have gone much worse. General Bülow of the German 2nd Army had instructed General Hausen of 3rd Army to attack directly westwards across the Meuse, in support of his own push from the north. Hausen complied with Bülow's order, instead of with a directive from OHL to move southwest towards Givet. Had 3rd Army attempted OHL's manoeuvre instead, they would have been able to advance into the French 5th Army's rear, cutting its line of retreat and forcing its destruction. By attacking frontally, Lanrezac's army is able to escape.
- When the commanders of the 3rd and 4th Armies report this morning on the devastating results of the prior day's fighting, Joffre at first cannot believe it. So much has been invested in Plan XVII, in the notion that French infantry with sufficient elan can sweep all before them, that he can hardly comprehend that the attacks have failed. Joffre orders both armies to resume the offensive. As both armies struggle to resume the attack, German counter-attacks worsen the situation. Just after noon, V Corps of 3rd Army is driven back eight miles, and to avoid envelopment the rest of 3rd Army retires the same distance. To the north, the battered Colonial Corps of 4th Army withdraws from Neufchâteau at 5am, uncovering the flank of XII Corps which is also forced to retreat. By the end of the day, all but two corps of 3rd and 4th armies have been driven back to the line from which they had started their offensive.
- The only decent news for the French comes from Lorraine where, despite its mauling, the French 2nd Army has managed to extricate itself and form a strong defensive line west of the Meurthe River, its northern flank anchored at Nancy and its southern linked to 1st Army.
- This evening, as the terrible news from along the front accumulates, Joffre struggles to understand the magnitude of what has transpired. In a telegram to the War Minister, he suggests that he has been only 'momentarily checked' and that the offensive will be resumed. The reality is that the French army has been defeated. All of its pre-war planning and training, its emphasis on morale and infantry assaults, its unyielding faith in elan and the offensive, has been for nought. In four days fighting, from Rupprecht's counterattack on the 20th to Lanrezac's order to retreat this evening, Plan XVII has disastrously miscarried. Over those four days, the French army has suffered more than 140 000 casualties, and is now in retreat.
- As the French army endures a series of defeats, the British Expeditionary Force sees its first fighting of the campaign. Acceding to Lanrezac's request, the BEF holds the line of the Mons Canal. They are significantly outnumbered - the German 1st Army bearing down on them has four corps and three cavalry divisions, to the BEF's two corps. Further, Smith-Dorrien's II Corps, on the left of the line, bears the brunt of the fighting, while Haig's I Corps on the right is not attacked at all. Balancing the numbers are the quality of the British soldiers. While the BEF is pitifully small compared to the armies of the Continental powers, it is also the only army composed of long-service regulars, instead of conscripts. These are men who have made soldiering their profession - they train constantly, with a particular emphasis on rapid and accurate rifle fire. Further, experience in the Boer War taught the British army the crucial importance of entrenchment and rifle accuracy. Together this means the BEF is able to punch above its weight despite being heavily outnumbered.
The battle opens at 9am when German artillery begin firing on the British entrenchments south of the canal, followed shortly by infantry attacks. Kluck's orders to maintain contact with 2nd Army to the east means he is unable to stretch his army westward to find and turn the BEF's flank. As a result, 1st Army spends the day throwing itself at the British in frontal attacks. Further, the attacks come in piecemail - 1st Army is still in marching formation, strung out along the Belgian road network, and is unable to concentrate when they stumble across the British. Two corps of 1st Army never even engage the enemy today. The German infantry who do enter the battle find themselves under intense rifle fire of such accuracy and frequency that some regiments report being halted by machine-gun fire instead. By afternoon sections of the British line are being painfully forced back from the canal line, but the BEF is able to execute an orderly withdrawal to a second line of prepared entrenchments. The Germans, for their part, are too exhausted to give chase.
 |
| German infantry advance towards Mons in the dense formations that made them such easy targets for the British regulars, Aug. 23rd, 1914. |
As evening falls, the soldiers of the BEF take satisfaction in having blunted a major German attack. Though the British have suffered 1600 casualties, German casualties have been approximately 5000. Further, a day has been lost for 1st Army, which has the furthest to travel. Sir John French and his staff plan for a second day of fighting at Mons, continuing to cover the left flank of the French army.
- At 4am, the train carrying Ludendorff stops at Hanover station, where Hindenburg boards. It is the first time the two men have met. On the train Ludendorff explains the orders he has already issued, and Hindenburg approves, setting the pattern of the relationship between the two men. Later today they arrive at 8th Army headquarters in East Prussia. Meanwhile, I Corps completes its entrainment, an operation that has required precise coordination between five different railway stations. The corps now begins its movement to the south to face the Russian 2nd Army.
- Russian operations in East Prussia reflect a fundamental misunderstanding of the strategic situation. Zhilinskii at North-West Front, as well as both Rennenkampf (1st Army) and Samsonov (2nd Army) believe that the Germans have been beaten, and are withdrawing behind the Vistula River. Thus Zhilinskii's top priority is to hurry the advance of 2nd Army, so it can cut off the German 8th Army before it can extract itself from East Prussia. To achieve this, one corps of 2nd Army is left in Poland to cover the western flank, and a second corps is detailed to the Masurian Lakes to cover the eastern flank. This reduces the strength of 2nd Army to three corps as its advance continues.
Meanwhile, Rennenkampf is in no hurry to advance westwards. Indeed, he fears that a rapid advance to allow 1st Army to catch up to the Germans would result in another German defeat that hastens their withdrawal from East Prussia before 2nd Army can close the trap. Thus, though 1st Army begins to move today, its progress is extremely slow, and its cavalry is completely unable to discern that the German 8th Army is no longer in front of them - indeed, there is only a single German cavalry division left. Moreover, Rennenkampf directs 1st Army northwestward towards the major German fortress of Königsberg in order to lay siege and potentially trap a portion of the German 8th Army he believes may have retreated there. This movement draws 1st Army even further away from 2nd Army, leaving the latter increasingly exposed.
- The first major encounter on the Galician frontier begins today when the Russian 4th Army, advancing south, runs into the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army, moving north, in the Battle of Kraśnik. In the pitched battle near the San River just inside Russian territory, it is the Austro-Hungarians who draw first blood. Russian cavalry had completely failed to find the approaching enemy, and the corps of 4th Army were strung out and unable to provide mutual assistance. One Russian corps is badly mauled, one of its divisions losing half its strength. The Russians, however, do not view the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army as part of an invasion of Russian Poland, but rather the northern flank of the expected Austro-Hungarian concentration around Lemberg. Pre-war expectations thus sow confusion among the Russian command structure. In particular, there is no awareness that a second Austro-Hungarian army - 4th - is also advancing north on 1st Army's eastern flank.
- Their ultimatum having expired, Japan declares war on Germany. Japan feels no special attachment to the cause of the Entente - their war aims are limited to the Pacific, and indeed would have been equally pleased if Germany had acceded to Japanese demands peacefully. As it is, Japan begins preparations for a campaign against Tsingtao.
Friday, August 15, 2014
August 15th, 1914
- Joffre issues Special Instruction No. 10 at 7pm this evening, regarding the operations of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Armies. The first two are to concentrate on the forthcoming offensive through the Ardennes, while 5th Army is to have one corps facing northeast to support the advance. The rest of 5th Army, however, is to advance northwards into the triangle between the Meuse and Sambre Rivers, south of Namur, to cover the northern flank of the French line against German forces moving through Belgium. It is the first acknowledgement by Joffre that the German invasion of Belgium necessitates alterations to Plan XVII, and reflects both intelligence indications from Belgium and the pressure of General Lanrazac of 5th Army. However, Joffre's focus remains on the offensives undertaken by 1st through 4th Armies - he still believes that few Germans will move west of the Meuse, and indeed welcomes the notion of a strong German right wing, as he believes it means the centre at the Ardennes will be weakened, where the main French attack will shortly commence.
- The advance of the French 1st and 2nd Armies continues into Lorraine. The Germans continue to fall back as planned, which gives the impression to the French commanders that their tactics and strategy are working. However, there are indications that not all is well. When the Germans do stand and fight, the French infantry take terrible losses, while German artillery are causing additional casualties. The 2nd Army commander reports that defended positions require extensive artillery bombardment - this contrasts with pre-war doctrine, which believes that superior French morale and elan can defeat any defending force. However, the continued German retreat ensures that no reassessment of tactics occurs.
- Field Marshal Sir John French meets French President Raymond Poincarè in Paris today. The British general, unable to speak more than a few words of French, informs the French President that the British Expeditionary Force will not be prepared for action until August 24th. French is taking Kitchener's instructions to heart - wanting to ensure the preservation of his command, he does not wish to risk it in battle until it is fully prepared and unless it is necessary. Poincarè is horrified - he fears the BEF will not be able to take the field in time.
- The Russian advance into East Prussia begins today when 1st Army crosses the border. The Russians aim to make a virtue of the delayed advance of 2nd Army, which will not reach the German frontier until August 20th. Advancing westwards north of the Masurian Lakes, the objective of 1st Army is to force the Germans to battle, and pin them on their front, after which 2nd Army, advancing northwards west of the Masurian Lakes, will attack the Germans on their flank and roll them up. The plan has several significant flaws. First, in their haste to attack Germany as quickly as possible to aid their French allies, the Russian armies are advancing without adequate supply. Second, there is an almost complete lack of communication between the commanders of the two armies and front headquarters, ensuring that each army operates largely in the dark regarding the location and intentions of the other. Finally, what communications do take place are transmitted in the clear, giving the Germans a vital insight into their enemy's intentions.
- Conrad has his last audience with Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna today before his departure for the fortress of Przemysl in Galicia, where he will establish his headquarters. The Emperor's final words were 'God willing, all will go well, but even if it all goes wrong, I'll see it through.' Not exactly the most inspiring words on the eve of titanic battles that may decide the fate of Austria-Hungary.
- The entirety of Austro-Hungarian cavalry assigned to Galicia crosses over the Russian frontier in an effort to ascertain the dispositions of the Russian army. In this task they fail completely. When Russians were encountered, the cavalry dismounted to fight, eliminating their mobility, and in such fights failed to penetrate the Russian screens and thus missed the bulk of the Russian forces. Moreover, the Austro-Hungarians wore a saddle best suited for the parade ground, but which on campaign rubbed the backs of their horses raw. Half of the cavalry strength of the Austro-Hungarian army has vanished before the main fighting has even begun.
- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army finally crosses the Drina River in strength, and advances southeast, where it runs into the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies. The Serbs are entrenched in excellent defensive positions among the rough terrain; Austro-Hungarian soldiers, badly-supplied and poorly-equipped for mountain warfare, advance uphill in blistering heat and under constant fire from Serbian soldiers and guerrillas. 5th Army is unable to make any headway, held up on the Cer plateau, and takes heavy losses.
- Japan submits an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it turn over its Chinese base at Tsingtao or face war. The Germans are given seven days to respond. Japan has been an ally of Britain since 1902, but the ultimatum makes no reference to the alliance. Instead, the Japanese government has decided to join the war in pursuit of its own objectives, independent of the war in Europe. Their primary goal is the seizure of Tsingtao, and secondly the conquest of further German colonies in the Pacific. Japan has no intention whatsoever of getting involved in the fighting in Europe itself. The British, for their part, appreciate that a Japanese entry into the war will ensure Entente naval supremacy in the Far East, but are wary of Japan's wider goals in China and the Pacific, where they may conflict with not only British interests but those of Australia and New Zealand.
- A small German detachment seizes today the village of Taveta, southeast of Mount Kilimanjaro just inside British East Africa, and an important assembly point for any British advance into German East Africa.
- The advance of the French 1st and 2nd Armies continues into Lorraine. The Germans continue to fall back as planned, which gives the impression to the French commanders that their tactics and strategy are working. However, there are indications that not all is well. When the Germans do stand and fight, the French infantry take terrible losses, while German artillery are causing additional casualties. The 2nd Army commander reports that defended positions require extensive artillery bombardment - this contrasts with pre-war doctrine, which believes that superior French morale and elan can defeat any defending force. However, the continued German retreat ensures that no reassessment of tactics occurs.
- Field Marshal Sir John French meets French President Raymond Poincarè in Paris today. The British general, unable to speak more than a few words of French, informs the French President that the British Expeditionary Force will not be prepared for action until August 24th. French is taking Kitchener's instructions to heart - wanting to ensure the preservation of his command, he does not wish to risk it in battle until it is fully prepared and unless it is necessary. Poincarè is horrified - he fears the BEF will not be able to take the field in time.
- The Russian advance into East Prussia begins today when 1st Army crosses the border. The Russians aim to make a virtue of the delayed advance of 2nd Army, which will not reach the German frontier until August 20th. Advancing westwards north of the Masurian Lakes, the objective of 1st Army is to force the Germans to battle, and pin them on their front, after which 2nd Army, advancing northwards west of the Masurian Lakes, will attack the Germans on their flank and roll them up. The plan has several significant flaws. First, in their haste to attack Germany as quickly as possible to aid their French allies, the Russian armies are advancing without adequate supply. Second, there is an almost complete lack of communication between the commanders of the two armies and front headquarters, ensuring that each army operates largely in the dark regarding the location and intentions of the other. Finally, what communications do take place are transmitted in the clear, giving the Germans a vital insight into their enemy's intentions.
- Conrad has his last audience with Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna today before his departure for the fortress of Przemysl in Galicia, where he will establish his headquarters. The Emperor's final words were 'God willing, all will go well, but even if it all goes wrong, I'll see it through.' Not exactly the most inspiring words on the eve of titanic battles that may decide the fate of Austria-Hungary.
- The entirety of Austro-Hungarian cavalry assigned to Galicia crosses over the Russian frontier in an effort to ascertain the dispositions of the Russian army. In this task they fail completely. When Russians were encountered, the cavalry dismounted to fight, eliminating their mobility, and in such fights failed to penetrate the Russian screens and thus missed the bulk of the Russian forces. Moreover, the Austro-Hungarians wore a saddle best suited for the parade ground, but which on campaign rubbed the backs of their horses raw. Half of the cavalry strength of the Austro-Hungarian army has vanished before the main fighting has even begun.
- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army finally crosses the Drina River in strength, and advances southeast, where it runs into the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies. The Serbs are entrenched in excellent defensive positions among the rough terrain; Austro-Hungarian soldiers, badly-supplied and poorly-equipped for mountain warfare, advance uphill in blistering heat and under constant fire from Serbian soldiers and guerrillas. 5th Army is unable to make any headway, held up on the Cer plateau, and takes heavy losses.
- Japan submits an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it turn over its Chinese base at Tsingtao or face war. The Germans are given seven days to respond. Japan has been an ally of Britain since 1902, but the ultimatum makes no reference to the alliance. Instead, the Japanese government has decided to join the war in pursuit of its own objectives, independent of the war in Europe. Their primary goal is the seizure of Tsingtao, and secondly the conquest of further German colonies in the Pacific. Japan has no intention whatsoever of getting involved in the fighting in Europe itself. The British, for their part, appreciate that a Japanese entry into the war will ensure Entente naval supremacy in the Far East, but are wary of Japan's wider goals in China and the Pacific, where they may conflict with not only British interests but those of Australia and New Zealand.
- A small German detachment seizes today the village of Taveta, southeast of Mount Kilimanjaro just inside British East Africa, and an important assembly point for any British advance into German East Africa.
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