- N-Abt, the intelligence department of OHL, produces a report today on the Entente armies on the Western Front. They estimate that the current size of the French army, including the class of 1916, to be approximately three million, which was four hundred thousand less than the size of the army at the outbreak of war. N-Abt further estimates that under normal conditions the French are losing seventy thousand men per month. At this rate, they estimate that the French will be experiencing severe shortages by September 1916 and will be forced to call up younger classes earlier and earlier to meet shortfalls in manpower - for instance, they anticipate the Class of 1918 being called up in June 1916.
The strength of the British army, however, is more difficult for N-Abt to assess. They estimate that the British currently deploys approximately forty-two divisions consisting of 1 057 000 men, including 270 000 regulars, 170 000 Territorials, 400 000 in the 'New Armies', 60 000 Indians, and 47 000 Canadians. However, though it is understood that the British army will grow to about seventy divisions, N-Abt is not able to conclude when this would occur.
Overall, N-Abt's report demonstrates that the Entente are numerically superior to the Germans on the Western Front, and that manpower shortages in the French army will in time be compensated by the growth of the British army. This assessment of the balance of strength on the Western Front will be at the forefront of Falkenhayn's thoughts as they turn to planning operations on the Western Front in 1916.
- Today the commander of the Italian 2nd Army, Lieutenant-General Pietro Frugoni, orders VI Corps to continue the offensive west of Görz. Seeing the setback yesterday at Oslavija as emblematic of the exhaustion of his soldiers, Lieutenant-General Luigi Capello, commander of VI Corps, objects to the order, writing to Cadorna that in the miserable conditions his men are little more than walking clumps of mud, and that further attacks would be pointless. Cadorna sides with Capello, and suspends operations at Görz. To the south, however, the Italian 3rd army continues its attempt to capture Mt. San Michelle. In the heaviest fighting of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo to date, attacks are launched from both flanks towards the summit, but by the end of the day all the Italians have gained is a small stretch of the first enemy trench southwest of St. Martino. Here the Austro-Hungarians simply establish a new trench line two hundred yards east of their old position, and otherwise nothing changes. However, repulsing the enemy assaults costs the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps over 1700 casualties today, and 5th Army sends forward three battalions from reserves.
- Meeting in Rome, the Italian cabinet discusses the evolving situation in the Balkans. Their French allies have requested the deployment of an Italian contingent to Salonika, which Cadorna supports (on the basis that tying down enemy forces here keeps them from the Italian Front). His political masters, however, have their eyes focused on Albania, both closer and seen by the government as within Italy's sphere of influence. Cadorna's advice is ignored, and the formation of an expedition to deploy to Albania is agreed upon.
- The German battlecruiser Goeben is attacked by the Russian submarine Morzh off the Bosphorus while escorting transports. The German warship only narrowly avoids Russian torpedoes, and the decision is made that despite the marked inferiority of the Ottoman navy, Goeben cannot be risked as a mere escort for steamers.
Showing posts with label Italy. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Italy. Show all posts
Saturday, November 14, 2015
Monday, October 19, 2015
October 19th, 1915
- Today Conrad achieves one of the great objectives of the war, one that however has nothing to do with the battlefield; instead it is marriage to his longtime mistress, Gina von Reininghaus. They first met in 1907, when Conrad had become hopelessly smitten with Gina, who was less than half his age. That Gina was already married with six children was but a mere inconvenience to Conrad, and he urged her to divorce her husband even as the two became lovers. Conrad believed that if were victorious in war, his prestige and prominence would sweep aside all obstacles to making Gina his wife. The current war, of course, has seen an unending succession of debacles, exposing his abysmal strategic judgement and the incompetence of the Austro-Hungarian army - the only victories he has achieved have occurred either due to Italian ineptitude (Cadorna is one of the few who legitimately rivals the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff in stubborness and detachment from the realities of war) or through German leadership. What he has been unable to accomplish through battlefield glory has been accomplished through legal trickery: having divorced her husband, she has converted to Protestantism through a sham adoption by a sympathetic general, allowing her to skirt the Catholic Church's restrictions on divorce and remarriage. Today's union legitimizes a relationship that Conrad and Gina had carried on openly and become the subject of mockery in Viennese social circles. Unfortunately for the suffering Austro-Hungarian army, marital bliss does not confer martial ability on Conrad.
- In Serbia, on the western flank of the German XXII Reserve Corps the advance of 26th Division brings it into contact with the Austro-Hungarian 53rd Division of XIX Corps, held short of Obrenovac since its initial crossing of the Save River. The arriving Germans turn the flank of the Serbian defenders, who pull back and allow the trapped Austro-Hungarians to finally break out. To the east, the German 105th Division of IV Reserve Corps breaks through Serbian positions in the hills east of Lucić, suffering heavy casualties to overcome the fierce enemy resistance. Meanwhile, however, the Germans score a coup when 232rd Reserve Regiment of 107th Division captures a Serbian patrol and an engineer detachment with orders to destroy the railway bridge over the Mlava River to the south. Intelligence gleaned from the prisoners allow the Germans to capture the bridge intact, which will aid further advances. To the south, while the Bulgarian 1st Army continues to be held up in the mountain passes east of Niš, to the south the Bulgarian 2nd Army has made much more progress, and today reaches the Vardar River at Veleš and cuts the railway linking Niš and Salonika.
- Both Russia and Italy formally declare war on Bulgaria today.
- The Serbian government has been pressuring General Sarrail to move his forces north from Salonika and concentrate them at Niš, to oppose the Bulgarians attacking from the east. Sarrail knows that such a movement is impossible with the forces at his disposal, but recognizes that a gesture (beyond the deployment at the Strumica rail station) is needed. As a result, he orders an infantry regiment and artillery battery, newly arrived at Salonika and from the French 57th Division, to move north to Krivolak, on the Salonika-Skopje railway thirty kilometres north of the Strumica rail station and south of Veleš.
- The Italian preliminary artillery bombardment along the lower Isonzo River is joined today by Italian aircraft, which this morning strike the Austro-Hungarian airbase at Aisovizza and begin airstrikes on marching columns and railway stations. These raids are largely unopposed, as the Austro-Hungarian aircraft on the Italian Front are primarily designed for reconnaissance, not aerial combat.
- The government of Japan adheres to the Pact of London today, which had originally been signed on September 5th, 1914 by Russia, France, and Britain and by which they had pledged not to sign a separate peace with Germany. Japan's agreement to remain in the war until the end does not, however, signal an expansion of the Japanese contribution to the war effort of the Entente. Instead, the Japanese government hopes that adhering to the pact will secure it a seat at the peace conference at the end of the war and allow Japanese negotiators to secure the permanent transfer of captured German colonies in Asia and the Pacific to Japan.
- In Serbia, on the western flank of the German XXII Reserve Corps the advance of 26th Division brings it into contact with the Austro-Hungarian 53rd Division of XIX Corps, held short of Obrenovac since its initial crossing of the Save River. The arriving Germans turn the flank of the Serbian defenders, who pull back and allow the trapped Austro-Hungarians to finally break out. To the east, the German 105th Division of IV Reserve Corps breaks through Serbian positions in the hills east of Lucić, suffering heavy casualties to overcome the fierce enemy resistance. Meanwhile, however, the Germans score a coup when 232rd Reserve Regiment of 107th Division captures a Serbian patrol and an engineer detachment with orders to destroy the railway bridge over the Mlava River to the south. Intelligence gleaned from the prisoners allow the Germans to capture the bridge intact, which will aid further advances. To the south, while the Bulgarian 1st Army continues to be held up in the mountain passes east of Niš, to the south the Bulgarian 2nd Army has made much more progress, and today reaches the Vardar River at Veleš and cuts the railway linking Niš and Salonika.
- Both Russia and Italy formally declare war on Bulgaria today.
- The Serbian government has been pressuring General Sarrail to move his forces north from Salonika and concentrate them at Niš, to oppose the Bulgarians attacking from the east. Sarrail knows that such a movement is impossible with the forces at his disposal, but recognizes that a gesture (beyond the deployment at the Strumica rail station) is needed. As a result, he orders an infantry regiment and artillery battery, newly arrived at Salonika and from the French 57th Division, to move north to Krivolak, on the Salonika-Skopje railway thirty kilometres north of the Strumica rail station and south of Veleš.
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| The French advance from Salonika, October 1915. |
- The Italian preliminary artillery bombardment along the lower Isonzo River is joined today by Italian aircraft, which this morning strike the Austro-Hungarian airbase at Aisovizza and begin airstrikes on marching columns and railway stations. These raids are largely unopposed, as the Austro-Hungarian aircraft on the Italian Front are primarily designed for reconnaissance, not aerial combat.
- The government of Japan adheres to the Pact of London today, which had originally been signed on September 5th, 1914 by Russia, France, and Britain and by which they had pledged not to sign a separate peace with Germany. Japan's agreement to remain in the war until the end does not, however, signal an expansion of the Japanese contribution to the war effort of the Entente. Instead, the Japanese government hopes that adhering to the pact will secure it a seat at the peace conference at the end of the war and allow Japanese negotiators to secure the permanent transfer of captured German colonies in Asia and the Pacific to Japan.
Sunday, September 27, 2015
September 27th, 1915
- Despite the failure of 21st and 24th Divisions yesterday, Haig has decided to continue the offensive and a further attack today is to be undertaken by the Guards Division, which relieved the former two overnight east of Loos. At 150pm orders go out to the three brigades of the Guards Division, which are to attack the German line from the Chalk Pits and Puit 14 (a factory building) in the north to Hill 70 in the south, with the attack on the former two going first to prevent the German defenders there firing into the flank of 3rd Guards Brigade as it advances up Hill 70. The Guards Division is almost a complete opposite to the 'New Army' divisions who they have replaced and who were decimated yesterday - the Guards are the elite of the British army, with the highest standards of professionalism and training. Weighing against them, however, is a wholly inadequate artillery bombardment of the German line beforehand, the result of a lack of ammunition at the front. Moreover, to the north of the Guards elements of the German 14th Division launch a counterattack which seizes Fosse 8 southwest of Haisnes from the British 9th Division in an action in which the latter's commanding officer is killed. Given the setback, Haig cancels the Guards' attack, but the usual communication delays prevent the orders from reaching the brigades by 345pm, when the infantry move forward.
In the first phase of the advance, undertaken by 2nd Guards Brigade, 2/Irish Guards successfully captures the Chalk Pit, but much heavier resistance is encountered at Puit 14. In desperate fighting over open ground swept by machine-gun fire, only a small detachment of 1/Scots Guards and a platoon of 3/Grenadiers are able to reach the factory building, which they find provides insufficient cover. It soon becomes clear that Puit 14 cannot be held, and the survivors pull back. As a result, when 3rd Brigade attacks Hill 70 at 530pm, they take murderous fire from the direction of Puit 14 on their northern flank, and are unable to seize the German defences on the crest. After several hours of fighting 2/Scot Guards and the Welsh Guards entrench about a hundred yards down the western slope of Hill 70. Though the attack of the Guards has largely failed to achieve its objectives, the presence of the veteran soldiers at the front has at least solidified the British gains around the village of Loos.
Among the British casualties today is Lieutenant John Kipling, only son of the famed British poet Rudyard Kipling. The younger Kipling had attempted to enlist as a reserve officer in the 'New Armies' in August 1914, but had been rejected due to poor eyesight. However, the older Kipling, one of the leading imperialists of pre-war Britain, called in a favour from Lord Roberts, one of the foremost Victorian military heroes, who was also Colonel of the Irish Guards. Though largely a ceremonial role without combat responsibilities, the post does allow its holder the right to intervene on personnel decisions, and through Roberts' intervention John Kipling is gazetted as an ensign (later promoted to Lieutenant) in the Irish Guards. By September 1915, though just a month past his 18th birthday, Lieutenant Kipling commands 5 Platoon of 2/Irish Guards in its attack on the Chalk Pit and Puit 14, and in the course of the fighting reaches the far side of the ruined factory building. He is seen to fall wounded, and when the British survivors pull back from Puit 14, Kipling is not amongst them. He is reported as Missing in Action, and within a month it becomes clear that he was not taken prisoner by the Germans today. The death of his only son hits Rudyard Kipling hard, given his personal responsibility for John's acceptance into the army - his perspective on the First World War will never be the same.
To the south of the British at Loos, the southern corps of the French 10th Army reorganize to release forces to move northwards, while the northernmost launch attacks at Angres, Giesler Hill, and Neuville-St. Vaast, largely to show the British that they are not attacking alone. The French attacks, however, get nowhere.
In Champagne, General Castlenau believes that the German defenders have been 'severely shaken' by the prior two days of fighting, and believes another attack will push through the enemy reserve line. To support the advance, the French have moved forward some of their heavy artillery batteries, and Joffre has placed three reserve divisions at Castlenau's disposal. The Germans, however, have recovered from their shock on the 25th, and the reinforcements sent forward by Falkenhayn have now reinforced the front. As a result, when the main French attack goes in at 400pm after an all-day artillery bombardment, the French are only able to secure a few hundred yards of ground south of Ste. Marie à Py, which does not break the stalemate that has reasserted itself on the battlefield. Afterwards, Pétain reports to Castlenau that the reserve German line is sufficiently strong that it can only be penetrated in strength 'only by a meticulously detailed preparation like that executed on the first [German] position.' Moreover, the divisions that have been involved in the first three days of the offensive will need to be replaced by fresh forces, as 'their losses have been considerable, their leaders have for the most part disappeared, and their offensive value is greatly reduced.'
- As the pursuit of the Russian 8th Army continues, General Linsingen realizes today that the speed of the Russian withdrawal, coupled with the inability of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army to fix the Russians in place, will prevent his forces coming southeast from the Army of the Bug from enveloping the northern flank of 8th Army. Instead, he issues orders for the German XXIV Corps to adjust the line of its advance to the east and northeast, to prevent Russian cavalry from getting around their northern flank.
- This morning the old Italian pre-dreadnought Benedetto Brin explodes and sinks while at anchor in Brindisi harbour, killing most of its crew, including Rear-Admiral Rubin de Cervin. To prevent harming public morale news of the warship's destruction is kept from the Italian public while the explosion is ascribed to unstable ammunition.
- On the Tigris River west of Kut-al-Amara, 16th and 17th Indian Brigades demonstrate against the Ottoman positions opposite for the second day, attempting to convince the enemy that the main British assault will fall here. After nightfall, however, the two brigades prepare to cross to the north bank of the Tigris and execute General Townshend's planned envelopment of the Ottoman line from the north.
In the first phase of the advance, undertaken by 2nd Guards Brigade, 2/Irish Guards successfully captures the Chalk Pit, but much heavier resistance is encountered at Puit 14. In desperate fighting over open ground swept by machine-gun fire, only a small detachment of 1/Scots Guards and a platoon of 3/Grenadiers are able to reach the factory building, which they find provides insufficient cover. It soon becomes clear that Puit 14 cannot be held, and the survivors pull back. As a result, when 3rd Brigade attacks Hill 70 at 530pm, they take murderous fire from the direction of Puit 14 on their northern flank, and are unable to seize the German defences on the crest. After several hours of fighting 2/Scot Guards and the Welsh Guards entrench about a hundred yards down the western slope of Hill 70. Though the attack of the Guards has largely failed to achieve its objectives, the presence of the veteran soldiers at the front has at least solidified the British gains around the village of Loos.
Among the British casualties today is Lieutenant John Kipling, only son of the famed British poet Rudyard Kipling. The younger Kipling had attempted to enlist as a reserve officer in the 'New Armies' in August 1914, but had been rejected due to poor eyesight. However, the older Kipling, one of the leading imperialists of pre-war Britain, called in a favour from Lord Roberts, one of the foremost Victorian military heroes, who was also Colonel of the Irish Guards. Though largely a ceremonial role without combat responsibilities, the post does allow its holder the right to intervene on personnel decisions, and through Roberts' intervention John Kipling is gazetted as an ensign (later promoted to Lieutenant) in the Irish Guards. By September 1915, though just a month past his 18th birthday, Lieutenant Kipling commands 5 Platoon of 2/Irish Guards in its attack on the Chalk Pit and Puit 14, and in the course of the fighting reaches the far side of the ruined factory building. He is seen to fall wounded, and when the British survivors pull back from Puit 14, Kipling is not amongst them. He is reported as Missing in Action, and within a month it becomes clear that he was not taken prisoner by the Germans today. The death of his only son hits Rudyard Kipling hard, given his personal responsibility for John's acceptance into the army - his perspective on the First World War will never be the same.
To the south of the British at Loos, the southern corps of the French 10th Army reorganize to release forces to move northwards, while the northernmost launch attacks at Angres, Giesler Hill, and Neuville-St. Vaast, largely to show the British that they are not attacking alone. The French attacks, however, get nowhere.
In Champagne, General Castlenau believes that the German defenders have been 'severely shaken' by the prior two days of fighting, and believes another attack will push through the enemy reserve line. To support the advance, the French have moved forward some of their heavy artillery batteries, and Joffre has placed three reserve divisions at Castlenau's disposal. The Germans, however, have recovered from their shock on the 25th, and the reinforcements sent forward by Falkenhayn have now reinforced the front. As a result, when the main French attack goes in at 400pm after an all-day artillery bombardment, the French are only able to secure a few hundred yards of ground south of Ste. Marie à Py, which does not break the stalemate that has reasserted itself on the battlefield. Afterwards, Pétain reports to Castlenau that the reserve German line is sufficiently strong that it can only be penetrated in strength 'only by a meticulously detailed preparation like that executed on the first [German] position.' Moreover, the divisions that have been involved in the first three days of the offensive will need to be replaced by fresh forces, as 'their losses have been considerable, their leaders have for the most part disappeared, and their offensive value is greatly reduced.'
- As the pursuit of the Russian 8th Army continues, General Linsingen realizes today that the speed of the Russian withdrawal, coupled with the inability of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army to fix the Russians in place, will prevent his forces coming southeast from the Army of the Bug from enveloping the northern flank of 8th Army. Instead, he issues orders for the German XXIV Corps to adjust the line of its advance to the east and northeast, to prevent Russian cavalry from getting around their northern flank.
- This morning the old Italian pre-dreadnought Benedetto Brin explodes and sinks while at anchor in Brindisi harbour, killing most of its crew, including Rear-Admiral Rubin de Cervin. To prevent harming public morale news of the warship's destruction is kept from the Italian public while the explosion is ascribed to unstable ammunition.
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| The Italian pre-dreadnought Benedetto Brin, sunk by internal explosion at Brindisi, Sept. 27th, 1915. |
- On the Tigris River west of Kut-al-Amara, 16th and 17th Indian Brigades demonstrate against the Ottoman positions opposite for the second day, attempting to convince the enemy that the main British assault will fall here. After nightfall, however, the two brigades prepare to cross to the north bank of the Tigris and execute General Townshend's planned envelopment of the Ottoman line from the north.
Saturday, September 26, 2015
September 26th, 1915
- At 1am, the German counterattack around Loos is undertaken by the reserve forces of 6th Army, newly-arrived at the front. Though 8th Infantry Division, attacking from the direction of Lens, is unable to gain any significant ground, 26th Brigade attacking from the northeast has more success; their advance happens to be directed at a weak point in the new British line where reinforcements are in the process of arriving, and they manage to push the British back five hundred yards and recapture the Quarries northwest of Hulluch. The Germans also score a coup when they capture the commander of the British 27th Brigade.
Meanwhile, the British 21st and 24th Divisions continue to struggle across the broken terrain of the old No Man's Land towards the new front line. Due to the communication delays endemic to the modern battlefield, Haig's order of 827pm for the two divisions to take up position between Hulluch and Hill 70 does not even arrive at the headquarters of the latter until 2am this morning, and the former receives the directive even later. By the time they reach the new position and sort out the confusion caused by the march, it is already dawn. Haig has assumed that the two divisions would reach the line Hulluch-Hill 70 much earlier overnight and would have had time to rest before they attack this morning. In reality, the men are already exhausted without a shot having been fired in anger.
Haig's plan for the second day of the British offensive is to attack what is perceived to be the weakest point of the German line, that stretching from Hill 70 to just north of Hulluch, where the British had secured the greatest gains yesterday. On the northern end, I Corps is instructed to capture the village of St Elie, while IV Corps is ordered to seize Hulluch as well as recapture the high ground of Hill 70. In between these two points, 21st and 24th Divisions of XI Corps are to drive over the second German trench line, advancing three miles to the Haute Deule Canal. The most important advance is thus of the 'fresh' 21st and 24th Divisions. Both formations are part of Kitchener's 'New Armies', composed of men who volunteered for military service in the first months of the war. This is not the first time divisions of the 'New Armies' will enter combat - two of the six divisions that had attacked yesterday were from the 'New Armies'. However, those formations had been given substantial time to prepare an attack against defences that had been subject to a four-day bombardment. Today's attack by 21st and 24th Divisions, however, are to be undertaken by already-exhausted formations against German defences that will have been bombarded for only a couple of hours. Such circumstances are hardly ideal, but Haig believes the Germans remain weak, and regardless the two divisions are the only reserves immediately at hand: if the offensive is to be continued, they need to be committed to the attack.
The orders for the preliminary attack on Hill 70 only reach the involved battalions at 7am, leaving little time for preparations for the attack scheduled for 9am. More seriously, the artillery bombardment is hindered by a lack of ammunition: batteries that had moved forward to Loos overnight cannot be resupplied over roads that are clogged with the debris of battle and under constant German artillery fire, and thus can contribute only the shells they brought with them. Confusion over where exactly the front line was, combined with the delay in communication orders, also means that a few of the British shells fall short among their own infantry. When the infantry attack Hill 70 at 9am, a morning mist that had impeded the artillery bombardment lifts just in time for the German machine gunners to take a terrible toll on the advancing infantry. Some manage to get into the redoubt on the top of Hill 70, but in bitter close-quarters fighting are unable to push the Germans back, and the survivors soon retreat westwards. Attempts by the British to attack again are futile - four senior officers, starting with the Lieutenant-Colonel commanding 10/Green Howards, climb out of the trenches to encourage the infantry to advance once more. Each of the four is killed in turn, and the soldiers prefer to take what cover is possible from the growing tide of German fire.
Despite the failure to take Hill 70, the commander of XI Corps orders the main attack by 21st and 24th Divisions to go ahead as planned. Here too the preliminary bombardment is ineffective - in the chaoes of the battlefield the artillery of the two divisions had struggled to get forward, and when the morning mist clears at 9am they find that they have positioned themselves in full view of the German lines. The result is that the Germans pour artillery fire of their own on the British guns, and the latter are understandibly unable to provide much of a preliminary bombardment of their own. At exactly 11am the infantry of the two divisions leave the trenches hastily-constructed early this morning and begin to cross the thousand yards that separate them from the second German trench line. This position is not nearly as elaborate as the old first German line - it lacks the usual support or communication trenches - but otherwise the Germans are in a favourable position. Though the counterattack overnight largely failed, 8th Division is now available to aid 117th Division in repelling the British attack. Artillery of both divisions, supported by fire from Hill 70, tear great holes in the ranks of the advancing infantry, and German machine guns sweep back and forth, felling hundreds at a time. Despite the horrendous losses and the horrific baptism of fire, the British infantry continue to advance eastward. The German trench is protected by great belts of barbed wire, which the preliminary bombardment has done nothing to disperse. The survivors who reach the barbed wire can find no way through, and while their search for a way forward losses continue to mount. Officers capable of coordinating attacks fall - five of the eight battalion commanders of 24th Division that went over the top are killed or wounded - and communications to the rear were nonexistant. No formal order is given for the divisions to retire - there hardly remains anyone alive to even give such an order - but slowly the survivors begin to pull back from the German wire and return to the trenches from which they had departed. The German defenders are impressed by the determination and bravery of the British infantry in making it as far as they did in the face of murderous fire, and so great has been the slaughter that out of compassion for a thoroughly beaten foe the German machine guns fall silent as the British withdraw. German medics even move into No Man's Land to minister to those British wounded not yet beyond aid, and allow them to return to their lines unmolested. The Germans refer to the battle as der Leichenfel von Loos - the Field of Corpses of Loos. Of the 15 000 men of 21st and 24th Divisions, over 8000 have been killed or wounded in just four hours of fighting - for all intents and purposes, the two divisions have been destroyed.
When the first news of the attack reach Lieutenant General R. C. B. Haking of XI Corps, he simply cannot believe that it has been such an abject and thorough failure. Neither can Haig, present at Haking's headquarters, and a staff officer is sent forward to ascertain the actual state of affairs. When he returns shortly after 4pm, the report he provides extinguishes hope that any success has been accomplished by the attack. The most significant reserve force available to Haig has thus failed to maintain the momentum of yesterday. The only other reserve that remains is the Guards Division, which remained under Field Marshal French's control when 21st and 24th Divisions had been ordered forward on the 25th. Now orders go out to the Guards to advance to the new British line from which the two 'New Army' divisions had attacked this morning. They are to prevent a German counterattack against the shattered divisions from retaking the ground gained yesterday while also placing them in position to resume the offensive. Again, orders are delayed and movement across the battlefield is painfully slow: it is not until 6pm that the Guards reach the old British front line trench from which the offensive had begun yesterday, and only reach the new front line after dusk, where they being to relieve the shattered remnants of 21st and 24th Divisions.
- To the south of the British 1st Army, the two northernmost corps of the French 10th Army attack at 110pm this afternoon after an artillery bombardment this morning, and though they are able to capture the pulverized ruins of Souchez, they are unable to advance further. The attacks south of Arras yesterday, however, are not renewed, General d'Urbal having concluded, with Foch's agreement, that the offensive should only be continued where there was reasonable prospects of success, which existed only where 10th Army had gained ground the prior day. Future operations of 10th Army are further limited as a result of a meeting of Joffre and Foch south of Amiens at 3pm, where the former remarkably instructs the latter to 'stop the attacks of 10th Army but avoid giving the British the impression that we are leaving them to attack alone, or the Germans that our offensive is slackening off.' Believing that the operation in Champagne has the greatest chance of succeeding, Joffre wants to concentrate all resources there and draw down the commitment to Artois. The meeting is also a telling reflection of Joffre's opinion of his British ally.
For their part, while Foch and d'Urbal narrow the scope of 10th Army's activities, they do not completely abandon offensive operations, if only to show the British that they are doing something. There is a momentary surge of optimism late today when a message reaches 10th Army headquarters that XII Corps has broken through near Neuville. The report, however, is mistaken, and such misinformation is another consequence of the chaos and interruption of communication on the modern battlefield - in such conditions, reports from subordinate formations of minor advances can become exaggerated and reflect instead the hopes of recipients. Before the report can be corrected, orders are issued to two corps in the centre of 10th Army to attack, and though the orders are cancelled before they can be carried out, the corps are left sufficiently disordered to be unable to participate in other operations tomorrow.
- In Champagne, Falkenhayn believes that the German 5th Army under Crown Prince Wilhelm reacted better to the French offensive than 3rd Army, and that the command staff of the latter largely lost control of the battle and had made no attempt to inform itself of the state of VIII Reserve Corps. The German chief of staff thus decides to place 3rd Army under the direction of Crown Prince Wilhelm, so that the efforts of the two armies could be better coordinated. When news of the change in the command structure is telephoned to 3rd Army headquarters, the chief of staff of 3rd Army objects to serving under 5th Army's chief of staff, who by rank is his junior. Falkenhayn's reply is to fire 3rd Army's chief of staff and replace him with Colonel Fritz von Lossberg, deputy chief of the Operations Section at OHL. Arriving at 3rd Army headquarters at 330pm, he receives a call from General Fleck of VIII Reserve Corps, asking whether the withdrawal he proposed yesterday is to be carried out. Keeping in mind his instructions from Falkenhayn to hold the line, Lossberg instead replies that 'VIII Reserve Corps must stand and die in its current position.' A later tour of VIII Reserve Corps' line convinces Lossberg that it can hold on with reinforcements now arriving at the front, though he also orders the construction of a new reserve line several kilometres to the north. He also instructs that the primary responsibility for halting French attacks is to fall on the artillery, which is to cut down the attacking infantry before they reached the German line. This reflects not only the superiority of artillery on the modern battlefield but also acknowledges the heavy losses VIII Reserve Corps has already suffered.
On the French side, after their gains yesterday the inner wings of 2nd and 4th Armies resume their attacks this morning, focusing on the reserve defensive line of the battered VIII Reserve Corps north of Souain and Perthes. Though this position is not nearly as fortified as the primary line the French overran yesterday morning, the one advantage it does have is that it is on the reverse slope of the Py Valley, which prevents French observation. As a result, artillery bombardment early this morning is less effective, and most of the belts of barbed wire remain in place. The French XIV Corps of 2nd Army attacks twice this morning, but is halted both times just north of Tahure. Another attempt is made this afternoon, and in bitter fighting a brigade manages to work its way through the second line of trenches. By this time, however, reinforcements ordered to the front yesterday by Falkenhayn are reaching the scene, and elements of the newly-arrived German 56th Division drives the French brigade back. To the west, the French VI Corps, ordered into the line yesterday, attacks at 230pm, but barbed wire belts up to sixty meters deep prevent the infantry from reaching the German trenches. Some success is achieved further to the west, where the French VII Corps, which had not gained ground yesterday, pushes through the first German trench line and reaches the second line, bringing it level with II Colonial Corps. Though its efforts to fight through the reserve line are also frustrated, its advance raises hopes that another push tomorrow will finally break the German lines.
- Given Falkenhayn's instructions of yesterday and the inability of the German 10th Army to advance further past Vilna, Ludendorff acknowledges the inevitable and calls his September, or Sventsiany, offensive to an end. Instead the armies of OberOst are instructed to establish a permanent line of trenches on which they will stand for the foreseeable future.
Ludendorff's decision to call off the offensive of the German 10th Army effectively brings an end to German operations on the Eastern Front, which had originated in the attack of Mackensen's 11th Army at Gorlice-Tarnow at the beginning of May. In the months since, the Russian army has been forced to evacuate Poland while the Russian pressure on Austria-Hungary has been relieved. Though the Russian army escaped the massive envelopment envisioned by Ludendorff, they have still suffered crushing losses: since the spring, the Russian army has lost over two million men, including a million prisoners of war. Of almost equal significance, the fighting since May has reinforced the belief among Russian generals that the German soldier is inherently superior to his Russian counterpart, which has left them extremely reluctant to undertake offensive operations against the Germans. Thus, despite the fact that the Russians still have a marked numerical superiority over the Germans - the former has seventy-five divisions arrayed against the forty-five divisions under Ludendorff - Falkenhayn has accomplished his objective of destroying the offensive capability of the Russian army, a victory as psychological as material. This is the necessary prerequisite for offensive operations planned by Falkenhayn in other theatres - even if the Russians have not been knocked out of the war, they have been sufficiently damaged to allow for a significant redeployment of German divisions elsewhere. It is also a vindication of Falkenhayn's operational approach of eschewing grand envelopments in favour of concentrating firepower to crush the enemy line and grinding the enemy down.
- This morning the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army discovers the Russians on the opposite bank of the Styr River have retreated overnight, but their own pursuit is delayed by a lack of bridges and boats, and it is not until evening that significant elements of the army have crossed to the east bank. As a result, though Lutsk is recaptured, 4th Army has completely lost touch with the withdrawing Russian 8th Army. Meanwhile, to the north the German XXIV Reserve Corps, the core of a group under General Friedrich Gerok sent from the Army of the Bug, crosses the Styr River at Kolki.
- With the imminent Anglo-French expedition to Salonika, Italian Prime Minister Sydney Sonnino asks his military advisors whether Italian forces can be commited to the operation. Given that Italian governments have traditionally seen the southwestern Balkans as properly within their sphere of influence, an Entente deployment to the region without Italian participation may be detrimental to Italy's long-term interests. Lieutenant-General Vittorio Zupelli, the war minister, argues that nothing can be spared from the Italian Front and that supplies to support such an expedition do not exist and are beyond the capability of Italian industry to produce. Lieutenant-General Luigi Cadorna, the Italian chief of staff, takes the opposite view, believing that Austro-Hungarian forces tied down fighting in the Balkans means fewer defenders along the Isonzo River. Though he is planning a major offensive for October, Cadorna states that afterwards he will be able to spare 20 000 men for the Balkans.
- West of Kut-al-Amara the British 6th Indian Division approaches the Ottoman defences, with 16th and 17th Brigades on the south bank and only 18th Brigade on the north bank. Opposing them are two Ottoman divisions, one on either bank, with further battalions in reserve. The British force, however, outnumbers the Ottomans almost two to one, at eleven thousand men to six thousand. The two British brigades on the south bank establish a very conspicuous deception camp, and successfully convince the Ottomans that the main British attack will come south of the Tigris River, Ottoman artillery firing shells into the 'camp'. The British had also hoped to encourage Ottoman guns north of the Tigris to fire, since it is here that the main British effort will actually be made and it is desirable to know the location of enemy guns so they can be knocked out when the main attack goes in on the 28th. However, the British deception has been too effective; thinking there are no valuable targets north of the Tigris, the Ottoman artillery here remains silent. The British here resort to any number of ruses to get the Ottomans to fire, including one captain who walks out into the open and, in full view of the Ottomans, sits on the desert ground and proceeds to read The Times. Even the captain, though, was not tempting enough for the Ottoman gunners.
Meanwhile, the British 21st and 24th Divisions continue to struggle across the broken terrain of the old No Man's Land towards the new front line. Due to the communication delays endemic to the modern battlefield, Haig's order of 827pm for the two divisions to take up position between Hulluch and Hill 70 does not even arrive at the headquarters of the latter until 2am this morning, and the former receives the directive even later. By the time they reach the new position and sort out the confusion caused by the march, it is already dawn. Haig has assumed that the two divisions would reach the line Hulluch-Hill 70 much earlier overnight and would have had time to rest before they attack this morning. In reality, the men are already exhausted without a shot having been fired in anger.
Haig's plan for the second day of the British offensive is to attack what is perceived to be the weakest point of the German line, that stretching from Hill 70 to just north of Hulluch, where the British had secured the greatest gains yesterday. On the northern end, I Corps is instructed to capture the village of St Elie, while IV Corps is ordered to seize Hulluch as well as recapture the high ground of Hill 70. In between these two points, 21st and 24th Divisions of XI Corps are to drive over the second German trench line, advancing three miles to the Haute Deule Canal. The most important advance is thus of the 'fresh' 21st and 24th Divisions. Both formations are part of Kitchener's 'New Armies', composed of men who volunteered for military service in the first months of the war. This is not the first time divisions of the 'New Armies' will enter combat - two of the six divisions that had attacked yesterday were from the 'New Armies'. However, those formations had been given substantial time to prepare an attack against defences that had been subject to a four-day bombardment. Today's attack by 21st and 24th Divisions, however, are to be undertaken by already-exhausted formations against German defences that will have been bombarded for only a couple of hours. Such circumstances are hardly ideal, but Haig believes the Germans remain weak, and regardless the two divisions are the only reserves immediately at hand: if the offensive is to be continued, they need to be committed to the attack.
The orders for the preliminary attack on Hill 70 only reach the involved battalions at 7am, leaving little time for preparations for the attack scheduled for 9am. More seriously, the artillery bombardment is hindered by a lack of ammunition: batteries that had moved forward to Loos overnight cannot be resupplied over roads that are clogged with the debris of battle and under constant German artillery fire, and thus can contribute only the shells they brought with them. Confusion over where exactly the front line was, combined with the delay in communication orders, also means that a few of the British shells fall short among their own infantry. When the infantry attack Hill 70 at 9am, a morning mist that had impeded the artillery bombardment lifts just in time for the German machine gunners to take a terrible toll on the advancing infantry. Some manage to get into the redoubt on the top of Hill 70, but in bitter close-quarters fighting are unable to push the Germans back, and the survivors soon retreat westwards. Attempts by the British to attack again are futile - four senior officers, starting with the Lieutenant-Colonel commanding 10/Green Howards, climb out of the trenches to encourage the infantry to advance once more. Each of the four is killed in turn, and the soldiers prefer to take what cover is possible from the growing tide of German fire.
Despite the failure to take Hill 70, the commander of XI Corps orders the main attack by 21st and 24th Divisions to go ahead as planned. Here too the preliminary bombardment is ineffective - in the chaoes of the battlefield the artillery of the two divisions had struggled to get forward, and when the morning mist clears at 9am they find that they have positioned themselves in full view of the German lines. The result is that the Germans pour artillery fire of their own on the British guns, and the latter are understandibly unable to provide much of a preliminary bombardment of their own. At exactly 11am the infantry of the two divisions leave the trenches hastily-constructed early this morning and begin to cross the thousand yards that separate them from the second German trench line. This position is not nearly as elaborate as the old first German line - it lacks the usual support or communication trenches - but otherwise the Germans are in a favourable position. Though the counterattack overnight largely failed, 8th Division is now available to aid 117th Division in repelling the British attack. Artillery of both divisions, supported by fire from Hill 70, tear great holes in the ranks of the advancing infantry, and German machine guns sweep back and forth, felling hundreds at a time. Despite the horrendous losses and the horrific baptism of fire, the British infantry continue to advance eastward. The German trench is protected by great belts of barbed wire, which the preliminary bombardment has done nothing to disperse. The survivors who reach the barbed wire can find no way through, and while their search for a way forward losses continue to mount. Officers capable of coordinating attacks fall - five of the eight battalion commanders of 24th Division that went over the top are killed or wounded - and communications to the rear were nonexistant. No formal order is given for the divisions to retire - there hardly remains anyone alive to even give such an order - but slowly the survivors begin to pull back from the German wire and return to the trenches from which they had departed. The German defenders are impressed by the determination and bravery of the British infantry in making it as far as they did in the face of murderous fire, and so great has been the slaughter that out of compassion for a thoroughly beaten foe the German machine guns fall silent as the British withdraw. German medics even move into No Man's Land to minister to those British wounded not yet beyond aid, and allow them to return to their lines unmolested. The Germans refer to the battle as der Leichenfel von Loos - the Field of Corpses of Loos. Of the 15 000 men of 21st and 24th Divisions, over 8000 have been killed or wounded in just four hours of fighting - for all intents and purposes, the two divisions have been destroyed.
When the first news of the attack reach Lieutenant General R. C. B. Haking of XI Corps, he simply cannot believe that it has been such an abject and thorough failure. Neither can Haig, present at Haking's headquarters, and a staff officer is sent forward to ascertain the actual state of affairs. When he returns shortly after 4pm, the report he provides extinguishes hope that any success has been accomplished by the attack. The most significant reserve force available to Haig has thus failed to maintain the momentum of yesterday. The only other reserve that remains is the Guards Division, which remained under Field Marshal French's control when 21st and 24th Divisions had been ordered forward on the 25th. Now orders go out to the Guards to advance to the new British line from which the two 'New Army' divisions had attacked this morning. They are to prevent a German counterattack against the shattered divisions from retaking the ground gained yesterday while also placing them in position to resume the offensive. Again, orders are delayed and movement across the battlefield is painfully slow: it is not until 6pm that the Guards reach the old British front line trench from which the offensive had begun yesterday, and only reach the new front line after dusk, where they being to relieve the shattered remnants of 21st and 24th Divisions.
- To the south of the British 1st Army, the two northernmost corps of the French 10th Army attack at 110pm this afternoon after an artillery bombardment this morning, and though they are able to capture the pulverized ruins of Souchez, they are unable to advance further. The attacks south of Arras yesterday, however, are not renewed, General d'Urbal having concluded, with Foch's agreement, that the offensive should only be continued where there was reasonable prospects of success, which existed only where 10th Army had gained ground the prior day. Future operations of 10th Army are further limited as a result of a meeting of Joffre and Foch south of Amiens at 3pm, where the former remarkably instructs the latter to 'stop the attacks of 10th Army but avoid giving the British the impression that we are leaving them to attack alone, or the Germans that our offensive is slackening off.' Believing that the operation in Champagne has the greatest chance of succeeding, Joffre wants to concentrate all resources there and draw down the commitment to Artois. The meeting is also a telling reflection of Joffre's opinion of his British ally.
For their part, while Foch and d'Urbal narrow the scope of 10th Army's activities, they do not completely abandon offensive operations, if only to show the British that they are doing something. There is a momentary surge of optimism late today when a message reaches 10th Army headquarters that XII Corps has broken through near Neuville. The report, however, is mistaken, and such misinformation is another consequence of the chaos and interruption of communication on the modern battlefield - in such conditions, reports from subordinate formations of minor advances can become exaggerated and reflect instead the hopes of recipients. Before the report can be corrected, orders are issued to two corps in the centre of 10th Army to attack, and though the orders are cancelled before they can be carried out, the corps are left sufficiently disordered to be unable to participate in other operations tomorrow.
- In Champagne, Falkenhayn believes that the German 5th Army under Crown Prince Wilhelm reacted better to the French offensive than 3rd Army, and that the command staff of the latter largely lost control of the battle and had made no attempt to inform itself of the state of VIII Reserve Corps. The German chief of staff thus decides to place 3rd Army under the direction of Crown Prince Wilhelm, so that the efforts of the two armies could be better coordinated. When news of the change in the command structure is telephoned to 3rd Army headquarters, the chief of staff of 3rd Army objects to serving under 5th Army's chief of staff, who by rank is his junior. Falkenhayn's reply is to fire 3rd Army's chief of staff and replace him with Colonel Fritz von Lossberg, deputy chief of the Operations Section at OHL. Arriving at 3rd Army headquarters at 330pm, he receives a call from General Fleck of VIII Reserve Corps, asking whether the withdrawal he proposed yesterday is to be carried out. Keeping in mind his instructions from Falkenhayn to hold the line, Lossberg instead replies that 'VIII Reserve Corps must stand and die in its current position.' A later tour of VIII Reserve Corps' line convinces Lossberg that it can hold on with reinforcements now arriving at the front, though he also orders the construction of a new reserve line several kilometres to the north. He also instructs that the primary responsibility for halting French attacks is to fall on the artillery, which is to cut down the attacking infantry before they reached the German line. This reflects not only the superiority of artillery on the modern battlefield but also acknowledges the heavy losses VIII Reserve Corps has already suffered.
On the French side, after their gains yesterday the inner wings of 2nd and 4th Armies resume their attacks this morning, focusing on the reserve defensive line of the battered VIII Reserve Corps north of Souain and Perthes. Though this position is not nearly as fortified as the primary line the French overran yesterday morning, the one advantage it does have is that it is on the reverse slope of the Py Valley, which prevents French observation. As a result, artillery bombardment early this morning is less effective, and most of the belts of barbed wire remain in place. The French XIV Corps of 2nd Army attacks twice this morning, but is halted both times just north of Tahure. Another attempt is made this afternoon, and in bitter fighting a brigade manages to work its way through the second line of trenches. By this time, however, reinforcements ordered to the front yesterday by Falkenhayn are reaching the scene, and elements of the newly-arrived German 56th Division drives the French brigade back. To the west, the French VI Corps, ordered into the line yesterday, attacks at 230pm, but barbed wire belts up to sixty meters deep prevent the infantry from reaching the German trenches. Some success is achieved further to the west, where the French VII Corps, which had not gained ground yesterday, pushes through the first German trench line and reaches the second line, bringing it level with II Colonial Corps. Though its efforts to fight through the reserve line are also frustrated, its advance raises hopes that another push tomorrow will finally break the German lines.
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| French artillery firing during the 2nd Battle of Champagne, Sept. 26th, 1915. |
- Given Falkenhayn's instructions of yesterday and the inability of the German 10th Army to advance further past Vilna, Ludendorff acknowledges the inevitable and calls his September, or Sventsiany, offensive to an end. Instead the armies of OberOst are instructed to establish a permanent line of trenches on which they will stand for the foreseeable future.
Ludendorff's decision to call off the offensive of the German 10th Army effectively brings an end to German operations on the Eastern Front, which had originated in the attack of Mackensen's 11th Army at Gorlice-Tarnow at the beginning of May. In the months since, the Russian army has been forced to evacuate Poland while the Russian pressure on Austria-Hungary has been relieved. Though the Russian army escaped the massive envelopment envisioned by Ludendorff, they have still suffered crushing losses: since the spring, the Russian army has lost over two million men, including a million prisoners of war. Of almost equal significance, the fighting since May has reinforced the belief among Russian generals that the German soldier is inherently superior to his Russian counterpart, which has left them extremely reluctant to undertake offensive operations against the Germans. Thus, despite the fact that the Russians still have a marked numerical superiority over the Germans - the former has seventy-five divisions arrayed against the forty-five divisions under Ludendorff - Falkenhayn has accomplished his objective of destroying the offensive capability of the Russian army, a victory as psychological as material. This is the necessary prerequisite for offensive operations planned by Falkenhayn in other theatres - even if the Russians have not been knocked out of the war, they have been sufficiently damaged to allow for a significant redeployment of German divisions elsewhere. It is also a vindication of Falkenhayn's operational approach of eschewing grand envelopments in favour of concentrating firepower to crush the enemy line and grinding the enemy down.
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| The Eastern Front at the end of the German offensives of 1915. |
- This morning the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army discovers the Russians on the opposite bank of the Styr River have retreated overnight, but their own pursuit is delayed by a lack of bridges and boats, and it is not until evening that significant elements of the army have crossed to the east bank. As a result, though Lutsk is recaptured, 4th Army has completely lost touch with the withdrawing Russian 8th Army. Meanwhile, to the north the German XXIV Reserve Corps, the core of a group under General Friedrich Gerok sent from the Army of the Bug, crosses the Styr River at Kolki.
- With the imminent Anglo-French expedition to Salonika, Italian Prime Minister Sydney Sonnino asks his military advisors whether Italian forces can be commited to the operation. Given that Italian governments have traditionally seen the southwestern Balkans as properly within their sphere of influence, an Entente deployment to the region without Italian participation may be detrimental to Italy's long-term interests. Lieutenant-General Vittorio Zupelli, the war minister, argues that nothing can be spared from the Italian Front and that supplies to support such an expedition do not exist and are beyond the capability of Italian industry to produce. Lieutenant-General Luigi Cadorna, the Italian chief of staff, takes the opposite view, believing that Austro-Hungarian forces tied down fighting in the Balkans means fewer defenders along the Isonzo River. Though he is planning a major offensive for October, Cadorna states that afterwards he will be able to spare 20 000 men for the Balkans.
- West of Kut-al-Amara the British 6th Indian Division approaches the Ottoman defences, with 16th and 17th Brigades on the south bank and only 18th Brigade on the north bank. Opposing them are two Ottoman divisions, one on either bank, with further battalions in reserve. The British force, however, outnumbers the Ottomans almost two to one, at eleven thousand men to six thousand. The two British brigades on the south bank establish a very conspicuous deception camp, and successfully convince the Ottomans that the main British attack will come south of the Tigris River, Ottoman artillery firing shells into the 'camp'. The British had also hoped to encourage Ottoman guns north of the Tigris to fire, since it is here that the main British effort will actually be made and it is desirable to know the location of enemy guns so they can be knocked out when the main attack goes in on the 28th. However, the British deception has been too effective; thinking there are no valuable targets north of the Tigris, the Ottoman artillery here remains silent. The British here resort to any number of ruses to get the Ottomans to fire, including one captain who walks out into the open and, in full view of the Ottomans, sits on the desert ground and proceeds to read The Times. Even the captain, though, was not tempting enough for the Ottoman gunners.
Thursday, September 24, 2015
September 24th, 1915
- Overnight violent thunderstorms strike Flanders, and heavy rains turn the trench floors into mud, slowly the final movement of supplies up to the front for the British offensive scheduled for tomorrow. At dawn visibility is reduced by low clouds and ground fog, preventing aerial bombing or reconnaissance, though artillery firing on pre-selected and pre-sighted targets. The British bombardment of identified German artillery batteries is believed to be particularly successful, given that many of the positions targeted have ceased firing. In practice, however, the Germans silenced their batteries voluntarily to give the impression that they have been knocked out. They only await the main British attack before they resume firing. Meanwhile, on the British side two field batteries per division are attached to their horses this evening, in expectation of immediately following the infantry as they advance tomorrow.
Meanwhile at the headquarters of the British 1st Army, Haig waits with his corps commanders Rawlinson and Gough for the latest weather updates, to see if conditions at dawn tomorrow will allow for the use of chlorine gas. This afternoon Captain Gold reports that based on the morning's observations, there was a possibility only of a fair wind tomorrow morning. As the hours passed and more recent observations could be added to his report, Gold become confident that the weather would cooperate for tomorrow - at 9pm he informed Haig that there was a favourable chance of a wind blowing west at ten miles per hour at ground level tomorrow morning. With this assurance, Haig issues orders for chlorine gas to be used prior to the main infantry assault.
- In Artois the Entente artillery bombardment reaches a crescendo today, with the greatest volume directed against the German VI Corps in the Loos sector. Further confirmation of the imminent enemy offensive comes via a French deserter, who is captured west of Vimy Ridge and reports that the French will attack at 5am tomorrow.
- In Champagne, French patrols enter No Man's Land to clear French wire, inspect and clear the remaining German wire, and observe the state of the enemy line. Though they frequently come under fire from German defenders, it allows the French call down artillery fire on these surviving positions. To this point most of the assault infantry have been kept several kilometres behind the front, to avoid casualties from German artillery fire, but after sundown they move up to their jumping-off points and prepare for the attack, scheduled for 915am tomorrow morning
- At Metz today, Falkenhayn receives reports during the day of continued heavy bombardments of the German 6th Army in Artois and the 3rd and 5th Armies in Champagne. In response, the German chief of staff transfers several heavy artillery batteries to 3rd Army, and further agrees that 5th Division, scheduled to depart for the Balkans for the Serbian campaign, will instead be kept behind 3rd Army. Nevertheless, Falkenhayn continues to have doubts that the Entente actually intend to launch an major offensive - in a telephone conversation with General Karl von Einem, commander of 3rd Army, that the French 'did not have the willpower' to attack. Falkenhayn has allowed what he wants the French to do to cloud his judgement of what the French will actually do - his campaigns in the East and the Balkans are based on the premise that the forces left on the Western Front are sufficient to hold the line, and thus does not want to see an Entente offensive that could upset the delicate balance.
- On the northern flank of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, elements of the Austro-Hungarian 1st, 2nd, and 9th Cavalry Divisions clear Russian forces out of the Okonsk-Jablonka area as well as Borowicy and Kopyli on the Styr River, opening the path for the German XXIV Reserve Corps advancing rapidly from the north.
- At the request of Franz Joseph, Mackensen journeys to Vienna today to meet the aged Austro-Hungarian emperor, where he is awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephan and the two have a thirty-minute private audience after dinner. Both Franz Joseph and his military retinue are won over by Mackensen's natural charm and character, as well as his reputation for success on the Eastern Front. Mackensen is practically alone among his fellow German officers in being viewed positively by the Austro-Hungarian leadership (neither Falkenhayn nor Ludendorff can hide their oft-justified contempt), ensuring a degree of co-operation, even at times harmony, in the forthcoming Serbian campaign that is unimaginable had any other German general been in command.
- As the French Council of Ministers debates a French expedition to the Balkans to aid Serbia, Minister of War Alexandre Millerand sends a note to the French commander at Gallipoli, informing him that a division may be shortly ordered to cover the railway from the Greek port of Salonika to the de facto Serbian capital at Niš. Meanwhile, Joffre advises the government that while he recognizes the desirability of propping up their Serbian allies, an expedition should be composed of four divisions - two French and two British - drawn from Gallipoli. From his perspective, it is simply a case of redeploying the force already in the Near East from one theatre (the Dardanelles) to another (the Balkans). This also has the advantage, from his perspective, of not requiring the withdrawal of forces from the Western Front to make up the expedition.
- The hesitant performance of the Italian navy to date has come in for criticism in the Italian press, and the unease claims a victim today as Vice-Admiral Leone Viale, the minister of marine, resigns today. Ostensibly stepping aside for health reasons, having just undergone minor surgery, in practice he had quarrelled with Vice-Admiral Paolo Count Thaon di Revel and was increasingly left out of the loop regarding operational decisions.
- The British 6th Indian Division has completed its assembly at Sannaiyat on the Tigris River, and begins today the advance towards the Ottoman defensive line east of Kut-al-Amara. Given the overall strength of the Ottoman position, General Townshend has decided on deception: the bulk of the division today moves slowly westward on the southern bank of the Euphrates River, giving the impression that it is here that the British intend to concentrate their attack. On the north bank only 18th Brigade remains, which is deployed between the Tigris and Suwada Marsh. North of Suwada Marsh sits another Ottoman defensive position, three redoubts supported by a trench system leading up to another marsh - Ataba - to the north. This is the northernmost section of the Ottoman line, but reconnaissance has informed Townshend that Ataba Marsh is rapidly drying out, and that a gap of three hundred yards has emerged between the end of the Ottoman trenches and the start of the swamp. It is this gap that has caught Townshend's attention and is to be the key point of the assault. After the force on the southern bank makes a suitable demonstration of British intent to convince the Ottomans to keep significant strength here, this force is to cross over to the north bank at night and pass behind both 18th Brigade and Suwada Marsh where it will split into two forces: the first to assault the three Ottoman redoubts, and the second to pass through the gap to the north. This force is intended to roll up the Ottoman line from the north, resulting in the capture of the Ottoman 35th Division deployed on the north bank. It is a plan that would be inconceivable on the Western Front, but the conditions of the war in the Middle East - fewer soldiers and greater supply difficulties - means that flanks exist and can be turned.
Meanwhile at the headquarters of the British 1st Army, Haig waits with his corps commanders Rawlinson and Gough for the latest weather updates, to see if conditions at dawn tomorrow will allow for the use of chlorine gas. This afternoon Captain Gold reports that based on the morning's observations, there was a possibility only of a fair wind tomorrow morning. As the hours passed and more recent observations could be added to his report, Gold become confident that the weather would cooperate for tomorrow - at 9pm he informed Haig that there was a favourable chance of a wind blowing west at ten miles per hour at ground level tomorrow morning. With this assurance, Haig issues orders for chlorine gas to be used prior to the main infantry assault.
- In Artois the Entente artillery bombardment reaches a crescendo today, with the greatest volume directed against the German VI Corps in the Loos sector. Further confirmation of the imminent enemy offensive comes via a French deserter, who is captured west of Vimy Ridge and reports that the French will attack at 5am tomorrow.
- In Champagne, French patrols enter No Man's Land to clear French wire, inspect and clear the remaining German wire, and observe the state of the enemy line. Though they frequently come under fire from German defenders, it allows the French call down artillery fire on these surviving positions. To this point most of the assault infantry have been kept several kilometres behind the front, to avoid casualties from German artillery fire, but after sundown they move up to their jumping-off points and prepare for the attack, scheduled for 915am tomorrow morning
- At Metz today, Falkenhayn receives reports during the day of continued heavy bombardments of the German 6th Army in Artois and the 3rd and 5th Armies in Champagne. In response, the German chief of staff transfers several heavy artillery batteries to 3rd Army, and further agrees that 5th Division, scheduled to depart for the Balkans for the Serbian campaign, will instead be kept behind 3rd Army. Nevertheless, Falkenhayn continues to have doubts that the Entente actually intend to launch an major offensive - in a telephone conversation with General Karl von Einem, commander of 3rd Army, that the French 'did not have the willpower' to attack. Falkenhayn has allowed what he wants the French to do to cloud his judgement of what the French will actually do - his campaigns in the East and the Balkans are based on the premise that the forces left on the Western Front are sufficient to hold the line, and thus does not want to see an Entente offensive that could upset the delicate balance.
- On the northern flank of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, elements of the Austro-Hungarian 1st, 2nd, and 9th Cavalry Divisions clear Russian forces out of the Okonsk-Jablonka area as well as Borowicy and Kopyli on the Styr River, opening the path for the German XXIV Reserve Corps advancing rapidly from the north.
- At the request of Franz Joseph, Mackensen journeys to Vienna today to meet the aged Austro-Hungarian emperor, where he is awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephan and the two have a thirty-minute private audience after dinner. Both Franz Joseph and his military retinue are won over by Mackensen's natural charm and character, as well as his reputation for success on the Eastern Front. Mackensen is practically alone among his fellow German officers in being viewed positively by the Austro-Hungarian leadership (neither Falkenhayn nor Ludendorff can hide their oft-justified contempt), ensuring a degree of co-operation, even at times harmony, in the forthcoming Serbian campaign that is unimaginable had any other German general been in command.
- As the French Council of Ministers debates a French expedition to the Balkans to aid Serbia, Minister of War Alexandre Millerand sends a note to the French commander at Gallipoli, informing him that a division may be shortly ordered to cover the railway from the Greek port of Salonika to the de facto Serbian capital at Niš. Meanwhile, Joffre advises the government that while he recognizes the desirability of propping up their Serbian allies, an expedition should be composed of four divisions - two French and two British - drawn from Gallipoli. From his perspective, it is simply a case of redeploying the force already in the Near East from one theatre (the Dardanelles) to another (the Balkans). This also has the advantage, from his perspective, of not requiring the withdrawal of forces from the Western Front to make up the expedition.
- The hesitant performance of the Italian navy to date has come in for criticism in the Italian press, and the unease claims a victim today as Vice-Admiral Leone Viale, the minister of marine, resigns today. Ostensibly stepping aside for health reasons, having just undergone minor surgery, in practice he had quarrelled with Vice-Admiral Paolo Count Thaon di Revel and was increasingly left out of the loop regarding operational decisions.
- The British 6th Indian Division has completed its assembly at Sannaiyat on the Tigris River, and begins today the advance towards the Ottoman defensive line east of Kut-al-Amara. Given the overall strength of the Ottoman position, General Townshend has decided on deception: the bulk of the division today moves slowly westward on the southern bank of the Euphrates River, giving the impression that it is here that the British intend to concentrate their attack. On the north bank only 18th Brigade remains, which is deployed between the Tigris and Suwada Marsh. North of Suwada Marsh sits another Ottoman defensive position, three redoubts supported by a trench system leading up to another marsh - Ataba - to the north. This is the northernmost section of the Ottoman line, but reconnaissance has informed Townshend that Ataba Marsh is rapidly drying out, and that a gap of three hundred yards has emerged between the end of the Ottoman trenches and the start of the swamp. It is this gap that has caught Townshend's attention and is to be the key point of the assault. After the force on the southern bank makes a suitable demonstration of British intent to convince the Ottomans to keep significant strength here, this force is to cross over to the north bank at night and pass behind both 18th Brigade and Suwada Marsh where it will split into two forces: the first to assault the three Ottoman redoubts, and the second to pass through the gap to the north. This force is intended to roll up the Ottoman line from the north, resulting in the capture of the Ottoman 35th Division deployed on the north bank. It is a plan that would be inconceivable on the Western Front, but the conditions of the war in the Middle East - fewer soldiers and greater supply difficulties - means that flanks exist and can be turned.
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| The First Battle of Kut-al-Amara, September 24th to 29th, 1915. |
Thursday, September 10, 2015
September 10th, 1915
- On the Eastern Front, the corps of the Austro-Hungarian 4th and 1st Armies are ordered by Conrad to make 'an immediate, decisive attack' on the northern wing of the Russian 8th Army, in yet another attempt to turn the Russian flank and envelop the enemy line. Given the deteriorating situation to the south, a successful assault here is imperative if the offensive is to be successful. Conrad's demands, however, overlook the battered and exhausted state of 4th and 1st Army, both having suffered heavy losses in near-constant combat over the past two weeks. Supplies have been drawn by horse-cart over poor roads from rail-heads that are two hundred kilometres to the west, and even food is running short.
To the south, the situation worsens for the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army. After XIII Corps on its northern wing was forced back yesterday, the Russian 9th Army strikes at a scratch corps commanded by General Johann Henriquez, forcing its 15th Division back to the confluence of the Strypa and Dniester Rivers. The Russians now threaten to drive over the Dniester between XIII Corps and Henriquez's command, with only half a cavalry division covering the growing gap between them.
- As part of the military convention with Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary had pledged to dispatch six divisions from the Eastern Front for operations against Serbia, the same number promised by Germany. The rapidly deteriorating situation of the Austro-Hungarian armies participating in Conrad's ill-fated offensive makes it uncertain whether the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff can afford to pull six divisions out of the fight to transfer to the Balkans. Falkenhayn recognizes the difficulty of his ally, and writes to Conrad today to offer German divisions to take the place of the Austro-Hungarians. He cannot resist, however, commenting on the apparent necessity of the German army once again bailing out their ally after the latter botches yet another operation: 'Certainly such a change in plans won't make up for the political and military damage already inflicted. However, it may avert even more unfavourable results, which to me seems all the more important because of the affect on the morale of the Russian army and on Romania.' Conrad thus decides that VI Corps, which had been about to board trains for the Serbian front, will instead be dispatched to reinforce the faltering 7th Army.
- There is growing unease regarding the performance, or more accurately the lack thereof, of the Italian navy to date in the war. Expecting dramatic victories over the Austro-Hungarian foe, instead the first months have been marked by hesitancy and embarrassment. Today a leading article appears in the newspaper Giornale d'Italia penned by Enrico Arlotta, a Deputy in the Italian parliament. Sharply critical of the navy, it questions the adequacy of pre-war preparations and questions whether those responsible for the navy have all the 'desirable mental agility'. Given not only that the article was allowed to be published by government censors, but that it appeared in a newspaper associated with Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, it suggests that dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war at sea has reached the highest political circles.
To the south, the situation worsens for the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army. After XIII Corps on its northern wing was forced back yesterday, the Russian 9th Army strikes at a scratch corps commanded by General Johann Henriquez, forcing its 15th Division back to the confluence of the Strypa and Dniester Rivers. The Russians now threaten to drive over the Dniester between XIII Corps and Henriquez's command, with only half a cavalry division covering the growing gap between them.
- As part of the military convention with Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary had pledged to dispatch six divisions from the Eastern Front for operations against Serbia, the same number promised by Germany. The rapidly deteriorating situation of the Austro-Hungarian armies participating in Conrad's ill-fated offensive makes it uncertain whether the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff can afford to pull six divisions out of the fight to transfer to the Balkans. Falkenhayn recognizes the difficulty of his ally, and writes to Conrad today to offer German divisions to take the place of the Austro-Hungarians. He cannot resist, however, commenting on the apparent necessity of the German army once again bailing out their ally after the latter botches yet another operation: 'Certainly such a change in plans won't make up for the political and military damage already inflicted. However, it may avert even more unfavourable results, which to me seems all the more important because of the affect on the morale of the Russian army and on Romania.' Conrad thus decides that VI Corps, which had been about to board trains for the Serbian front, will instead be dispatched to reinforce the faltering 7th Army.
- There is growing unease regarding the performance, or more accurately the lack thereof, of the Italian navy to date in the war. Expecting dramatic victories over the Austro-Hungarian foe, instead the first months have been marked by hesitancy and embarrassment. Today a leading article appears in the newspaper Giornale d'Italia penned by Enrico Arlotta, a Deputy in the Italian parliament. Sharply critical of the navy, it questions the adequacy of pre-war preparations and questions whether those responsible for the navy have all the 'desirable mental agility'. Given not only that the article was allowed to be published by government censors, but that it appeared in a newspaper associated with Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, it suggests that dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war at sea has reached the highest political circles.
Thursday, August 20, 2015
August 20th, 1915
- For several months Kitchener has resisted complying with the request of Joffre for a major British attack to accompany the fall French offensive, preferring the British contribution to be limited to a heavy artillery bombardment that would not waste large numbers of infantry in futile assaults. A discussion of operations on the Western Front at the Dardanelles Committee today, however, shows that events have conspired to wear down the opposition of the Secretary of State for War. On the Eastern Front, the recent fall of Warsaw seems to indicate that the Russians face a fresh series of disasters, and a strong effort by Britain and France is needed to prop up Russian morale. Such a success is not to be found on Gallipoli, however, given the failure of the big push over the past two weeks. The French themselves, Kitchener suggests to the committee, need to go on the attack to preserve morale, and that the hesitancy of the British to attack is leading the French 'to have grave doubts about us.' The nightmare scenario of Russia and/or France seeking a separate peace is even raised. In such circumstances, Kitchener, with the utmost reluctance, now states that the British Expeditionary Force needs to undertake a major attack along the French this fall, even though, as he replies to a colleague, 'the odds were against a great success.' The circumstances of the war have forced the British hand; as he informs the committee, 'we must make war as we must, not as we should like.' With such sentiments are thousands of British infantry condemned to die; indeed, it is an appropriate summary of how all sides view the ongoing struggle.
- On the Eastern Front only the German 12th Army is able to make significant progress today, seizing Nurec and Bielsk; the army groups of Prince Leopold and Mackensen are largely held up by strong Russian resistance. Even where the Russians are pulling back, however, the pace of the German advance is slowing, as casualty lists grow and logistical difficulties multiply; since the beginning of the month, General Gallwitz's 12th Army has suffered 60 000 losses while supplies now have to be hauled 125 kilometres by cart from the nearest railheads.
- Though it had declared war on Austria-Hungary in May, it is only today that the Italian government formally declares war on the Ottoman Empire, and technically remains at peace with Germany.
- Having successfully evaded Russian patrols in eastern Persia, the German mission to Afghanistan reaches the border at Herat today. The Germans enter the city in formal dress; the governor of the town is polite but unimpressed, and decides to hold the mission in the town while awaiting instructions from the emir of Afghanistan in Kabul.
- On the Eastern Front only the German 12th Army is able to make significant progress today, seizing Nurec and Bielsk; the army groups of Prince Leopold and Mackensen are largely held up by strong Russian resistance. Even where the Russians are pulling back, however, the pace of the German advance is slowing, as casualty lists grow and logistical difficulties multiply; since the beginning of the month, General Gallwitz's 12th Army has suffered 60 000 losses while supplies now have to be hauled 125 kilometres by cart from the nearest railheads.
- Though it had declared war on Austria-Hungary in May, it is only today that the Italian government formally declares war on the Ottoman Empire, and technically remains at peace with Germany.
- Having successfully evaded Russian patrols in eastern Persia, the German mission to Afghanistan reaches the border at Herat today. The Germans enter the city in formal dress; the governor of the town is polite but unimpressed, and decides to hold the mission in the town while awaiting instructions from the emir of Afghanistan in Kabul.
Wednesday, August 19, 2015
August 19th, 1915
- Recently-promoted Brigadier-General Hugh Trenchard is appointed today to command the Royal Flying Corps on the Western Front. Having learned to fly in 1912 at the age of thirty-nine and served as second in command of the Central Flying School before the war, Trenchard was a protege of Kitchener, the two being similar in temperament, for better and worse. With the RFC subordinate to the War Office, Kitchener appreciated Trenchard's opinion that the primary role of the RFC was to support the BEF. It is an important milestone in the rise of Trenchard, who will become the most important figure in the wartime and postwar RFC.
- Lieutenant Oswald Boelcke gets his first kill today in his new Eindecker fighter. He and Immelmann, both members of Abteilung 62 based at Douai, regularly fly together, and violate protocol by flying over enemy lines in search of enemy aircraft, instead of waiting for them to cross the front.
- For the past several months, a series of communications have traveled back and forth between Berlin and Washington, attempting to resolve the dispute over unrestricted submarine warfare which had emerged after the sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania in May, and the two sides are approaching agreement on the basis of Bethmann-Hollweg's declaration of June 1st that neutral ships, and passenger ships of all countries, are to be spared. However, diplomatic discussions and theoretical limitations on the limits to submarine warfare take little account of the practical reality of naval combat in the North Atlantic, and the difficulty U-boat commanders can have reconciling such instructions with the necessity to ensure the safety of their submarine. Off Kinsale, Ireland today the captain of U-20 encounters precisely this dilemma, and his choice torpedoes the diplomatic efforts since May. The German U-boat stops the British steamer Durnsley, permitting the crew to enter their lifeboats before detonating bombs in the vessel's hold. All of this is perfectly 'legitimate' submarine warfare, even in the eyes of the American, but it is what happens next that this problematic. Durnsley takes a long time to sink, and as it does so the large passenger steamer Arabic of the White Star line appears, bound for New York. The captain of U-20 recalls that his submarine had been fired upon by a large steamer five days earlier, and decides that Arabic is not just a target but a potential threat. Rather than remain on the surface, possibly exposing itself to fire from the steamer, the captain orders U-20 to submerge and attack, firing a torpedo that strikes and sinks Arabic. Forty-four passengers drown, including three Americans. News of the sinking outrages American public opinion; not only does it make it seem that German submariners are ignoring instructions issued by their own government, but that the German government had been duping the Americans into believing they were making concessions regarding unrestricted submarine warfare that they either never intended to follow through on or could not be enforced. Either way, the diplomatic progress of the past few months sinks with Arabic.
- For the past eleven days German artillery, directed by General Beseler, has been systematically reducing the fortifications around Novogeorgievsk. Their work has been aided by the poor state of the defences - one fort was blown up by a single shell. The siege ends today with the surrender of the surviving Russian garrison, and while the Russian armies in the field suffer from munition shortages, over a million shells fall unused into German hands, and the fall of Novogeorgievsk provides yet another example of how fortified positions, on their own, are no match for the power and range of modern artillery.
- On the Eastern Front, Ludendorff issues orders for the German 10th Army to push its left wing from Kovno towards Vilna, with the Army of the Niemen covering ths northern flank of the advance by pushing towards the Dvina River. On the southern flank 8th and 12th Armies are instructed to push to the northeast, and the former seizes the town of Bocki today. Meanwhile, Prince Leopold's army group runs up against a new Russian defensive line running from Tokary to Nurec, and is held up. Stiff resistance is also encountered west of Brest-Litovsk by Russian forces on both sides of the Bug River as they attempt to cover the withdrawal of soldiers and wagons still in front of the fortress, and the German 11th Army is able to make only marginal gains today. Upriver from Brest-Litovsk, however, the German 1st Division on the southern wing of the Army of the Bug is able to break through the Russian defenders along the Bug at Wlodawa and drive eastward to Piszcza by this evening.
The Austro-Hungarian offensive towards Kowel opens today with the advance of the cavalry corps commanded by the German General Ernst von Heydebreck and consisting of the German 5th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th and 11th Honved Cavalry Divisions. The ground opposite is lightly defended, as the Russian 13th Army has been pulled northwards to maintain contact with 3rd Army and cover the lines of communication with Brest-Litovsk. The only substantial Russian force in the area is XXXI Corps near Kowel, and it too is in the process of retreating northwards, its rear threatened by the advance of the Army of the Bug. Otherwise, only cavalry rear guards remain to impede the German and Austro-Hungarian advance, and given the paucity of defenders the cavalry is able to cover significant ground.
- As General Cadorna assesses the failure of the first two offensives along the Isonzo River, his ire is drawn to Italian aviation and the director-general of the air corps, Colonel Maurizio Moris. A myriad of difficulties has prevented the air corps from adequately supporting Cadorna's attacks: it is short of manpower, poorly organized, and the few Farman aircraft that are available are limited by a low ceiling. The result has been poor observation of targets, preventing adequate counter-battery fire, and Cadorna writes to the war minister today insisting that the problems had to be fixed, and that Moris ought to go. While the performance of the air corps has certainly failed to live up to expectations, the same could be said for the entire Italian war effort, and one cannot help but wonder the extent to which Cadorna is attempting to pass on blame that ought to rest on his shoulders.
- Lieutenant Oswald Boelcke gets his first kill today in his new Eindecker fighter. He and Immelmann, both members of Abteilung 62 based at Douai, regularly fly together, and violate protocol by flying over enemy lines in search of enemy aircraft, instead of waiting for them to cross the front.
- For the past several months, a series of communications have traveled back and forth between Berlin and Washington, attempting to resolve the dispute over unrestricted submarine warfare which had emerged after the sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania in May, and the two sides are approaching agreement on the basis of Bethmann-Hollweg's declaration of June 1st that neutral ships, and passenger ships of all countries, are to be spared. However, diplomatic discussions and theoretical limitations on the limits to submarine warfare take little account of the practical reality of naval combat in the North Atlantic, and the difficulty U-boat commanders can have reconciling such instructions with the necessity to ensure the safety of their submarine. Off Kinsale, Ireland today the captain of U-20 encounters precisely this dilemma, and his choice torpedoes the diplomatic efforts since May. The German U-boat stops the British steamer Durnsley, permitting the crew to enter their lifeboats before detonating bombs in the vessel's hold. All of this is perfectly 'legitimate' submarine warfare, even in the eyes of the American, but it is what happens next that this problematic. Durnsley takes a long time to sink, and as it does so the large passenger steamer Arabic of the White Star line appears, bound for New York. The captain of U-20 recalls that his submarine had been fired upon by a large steamer five days earlier, and decides that Arabic is not just a target but a potential threat. Rather than remain on the surface, possibly exposing itself to fire from the steamer, the captain orders U-20 to submerge and attack, firing a torpedo that strikes and sinks Arabic. Forty-four passengers drown, including three Americans. News of the sinking outrages American public opinion; not only does it make it seem that German submariners are ignoring instructions issued by their own government, but that the German government had been duping the Americans into believing they were making concessions regarding unrestricted submarine warfare that they either never intended to follow through on or could not be enforced. Either way, the diplomatic progress of the past few months sinks with Arabic.
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| The British passenger steamer Arabic, torpedoed and sunk today by the German submarine U-20 off Kinsale, Ireland. |
- For the past eleven days German artillery, directed by General Beseler, has been systematically reducing the fortifications around Novogeorgievsk. Their work has been aided by the poor state of the defences - one fort was blown up by a single shell. The siege ends today with the surrender of the surviving Russian garrison, and while the Russian armies in the field suffer from munition shortages, over a million shells fall unused into German hands, and the fall of Novogeorgievsk provides yet another example of how fortified positions, on their own, are no match for the power and range of modern artillery.
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| Russian artillery captured by the Germans after the fall of Novogeorgievsk. |
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| German infantry occupying the Russian fortress of Novogeorgievsk after its capture. |
- On the Eastern Front, Ludendorff issues orders for the German 10th Army to push its left wing from Kovno towards Vilna, with the Army of the Niemen covering ths northern flank of the advance by pushing towards the Dvina River. On the southern flank 8th and 12th Armies are instructed to push to the northeast, and the former seizes the town of Bocki today. Meanwhile, Prince Leopold's army group runs up against a new Russian defensive line running from Tokary to Nurec, and is held up. Stiff resistance is also encountered west of Brest-Litovsk by Russian forces on both sides of the Bug River as they attempt to cover the withdrawal of soldiers and wagons still in front of the fortress, and the German 11th Army is able to make only marginal gains today. Upriver from Brest-Litovsk, however, the German 1st Division on the southern wing of the Army of the Bug is able to break through the Russian defenders along the Bug at Wlodawa and drive eastward to Piszcza by this evening.
The Austro-Hungarian offensive towards Kowel opens today with the advance of the cavalry corps commanded by the German General Ernst von Heydebreck and consisting of the German 5th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th and 11th Honved Cavalry Divisions. The ground opposite is lightly defended, as the Russian 13th Army has been pulled northwards to maintain contact with 3rd Army and cover the lines of communication with Brest-Litovsk. The only substantial Russian force in the area is XXXI Corps near Kowel, and it too is in the process of retreating northwards, its rear threatened by the advance of the Army of the Bug. Otherwise, only cavalry rear guards remain to impede the German and Austro-Hungarian advance, and given the paucity of defenders the cavalry is able to cover significant ground.
- As General Cadorna assesses the failure of the first two offensives along the Isonzo River, his ire is drawn to Italian aviation and the director-general of the air corps, Colonel Maurizio Moris. A myriad of difficulties has prevented the air corps from adequately supporting Cadorna's attacks: it is short of manpower, poorly organized, and the few Farman aircraft that are available are limited by a low ceiling. The result has been poor observation of targets, preventing adequate counter-battery fire, and Cadorna writes to the war minister today insisting that the problems had to be fixed, and that Moris ought to go. While the performance of the air corps has certainly failed to live up to expectations, the same could be said for the entire Italian war effort, and one cannot help but wonder the extent to which Cadorna is attempting to pass on blame that ought to rest on his shoulders.
Sunday, July 05, 2015
July 5th, 1915
- General Alexeiev of North-West Front meets with Grand Duke Nicholas, the Russian chief of staff, today at Siedlec to discuss the situation on the Eastern Front. Both recognize the very real danger that a continued German thrust northwards between the Vistula and Bug Rivers poses to the Russian position in central Poland. Alexeiev requests, and is given, permission to withdraw the armies still west of the Vistula to the east at his discretion. He intends, however, to hold off retreating until it is necessary, in order to slow any potential German advance and make them fight for any territory they are able to capture.
- In southern Poland the Russian 3rd Grenadier and Ural Cossack Divisions launch a counterattack early this morning against the lines of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army near Urzedow. Though X Corps is initially forced back, reinforcements are sent to the threatened sector, and the Russian advance is contained. The apparent failure of the Russian attack today, combined with a further advance of the right wing of 4th Army, convinces its commander that the Russians opposite remain a beaten force, and orders are issued to continue the pursuit tomorrow.
- Today the Italian army introduces a new cipher for encoding radio transmissions. Intended to enhance signal security, it has the opposite effect: even before it is introduced the code had already been acquired by Austro-Hungarian intelligence and broken, meaning the Austro-Hungarians can read Italian signals as soon as the cipher is implemented.
- Meanwhile, at the front today sees the crescendo of the Italian offensive along the Isonzo River, as VI Corps launches what is intended to be an overwhelming attack between Mt. Sabotino and Lucinico towards the city of Görz. Despite being outnumbered six to one, the Austro-Hungarian defenders hold, in no small part due to the disorganization of the Italian assaults, and the latter suffer several thousand casualties. To the south the Italian X Corps, reinforced be half of 22nd Division from XI Corps, advances against the Karst plateau, though after heavy fighting the attack is defeated. Though the Austro-Hungarians have held, they have suffered significant losses as well, most battalions on the Karst plateau have now lost over half their strength. General Borevic of the Austro-Hungarian 5th Army rushes reinforcements to the front to reinforce the hard-pressed defenders.
- For the past week Ottoman forces at Cape Helles have been counterattacking the British positions seized on Gully Spur on June 28th. Despite thousands of casualties, the Ottomans have been unsuccessful, and today the assaults are called off. The operation is an undoubted British victory, but one barren of strategic consequence; advancing the front line several hundred yards is insufficient to give the Entente control of Gallipoli and allow the fleet to pass through the Dardanelles.
- In southern Poland the Russian 3rd Grenadier and Ural Cossack Divisions launch a counterattack early this morning against the lines of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army near Urzedow. Though X Corps is initially forced back, reinforcements are sent to the threatened sector, and the Russian advance is contained. The apparent failure of the Russian attack today, combined with a further advance of the right wing of 4th Army, convinces its commander that the Russians opposite remain a beaten force, and orders are issued to continue the pursuit tomorrow.
- Today the Italian army introduces a new cipher for encoding radio transmissions. Intended to enhance signal security, it has the opposite effect: even before it is introduced the code had already been acquired by Austro-Hungarian intelligence and broken, meaning the Austro-Hungarians can read Italian signals as soon as the cipher is implemented.
- Meanwhile, at the front today sees the crescendo of the Italian offensive along the Isonzo River, as VI Corps launches what is intended to be an overwhelming attack between Mt. Sabotino and Lucinico towards the city of Görz. Despite being outnumbered six to one, the Austro-Hungarian defenders hold, in no small part due to the disorganization of the Italian assaults, and the latter suffer several thousand casualties. To the south the Italian X Corps, reinforced be half of 22nd Division from XI Corps, advances against the Karst plateau, though after heavy fighting the attack is defeated. Though the Austro-Hungarians have held, they have suffered significant losses as well, most battalions on the Karst plateau have now lost over half their strength. General Borevic of the Austro-Hungarian 5th Army rushes reinforcements to the front to reinforce the hard-pressed defenders.
- For the past week Ottoman forces at Cape Helles have been counterattacking the British positions seized on Gully Spur on June 28th. Despite thousands of casualties, the Ottomans have been unsuccessful, and today the assaults are called off. The operation is an undoubted British victory, but one barren of strategic consequence; advancing the front line several hundred yards is insufficient to give the Entente control of Gallipoli and allow the fleet to pass through the Dardanelles.
Saturday, May 23, 2015
May 23rd, 1915
- Though Prime Minister Salandra has long desired Italian entry into the war on the side of the Entente, he has kept knowledge of the timing of a declaration of war a closely guarded secret; notably, the armed forces have not been informed when war is to commence. Indeed, for several weeks the heads of the army and navy have been pleading with Salandra for information on when war is expected to begin, but to no avail. Only at noon today does the naval general staff learn that hostilities will commence at midnight, and only through an informal telephone call from an official at the foreign ministry. Meanwhile, at 430pm Salandra officially notifies the minister of war that the declaration of war is about to be handed to the Austro-Hungarian government. Salandra's reasoning has been to avoid any preparatory measure that might allow Austria-Hungary to argue that Italy had committed an act of aggression prior to a declaration of war. In practice, however, it leads to the astonishing situation where the Italian government has known for four weeks that Italy is going to enter the war, but the armed forces are actually unprepared to commence hostilities when the day comes.
Meanwhile, this morning Foreign Minister Sonnino learns that the Italian ambassador in Vienna never received yesterday's telegram containing the declaration of war, and confesses to his fellow ministers that it all likelihood it was intercepted and deciphered by the Austro-Hungarians. A second telegram is thus dispatched at 2pm, and two hours later the ambassador formally presents it to the Austro-Hungarian government, informing it that hostilities will commence as of midnight.
Crucially, the Italian government very deliberately decides not to declare war on Germany today, in part at least to avoid Germany sending significant forces to fight on the Italian frontier. Nor does Italy declare war on the Ottoman Empire; indeed, diplomatic relations remain intact and the Ottoman embassy in Rome remains open, providing a perfect base for espionage against Italy. This means that Italy does not actually fulfill the requirement of the Treaty of London to go to war against all enemies of the Entente, a very great irony considering how much bluster will issue forth from Italian representatives later in the war and afterwards regarding faithful adherence to the agreement.
Notably, Germany does not declare war on Italy either. It prefers to leave open the possibility of Italian goods entering Germany through neutral Switzerland, as occurred during the period of Italian neutrality, and thus leave open a path around the British naval blockade. The Germans also feared that a declaration of war against Italy might trigger Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente. Unsurprisingly this decision is unpopular in Vienna, but it is equally unsurprising that Austro-Hungarian displeasure is of no great concern to the Germans.
- Enver Pasha dispatches a message to the German government today, requesting the arrival of German submarines in the eastern Mediterranean to attack the Entente fleet off the Dardanelles. The appeal is unnecessary - German submarines are about to make their presence felt it dramatic fashion.
- For the past two weeks, the landing party of the German light cruiser Emden have been travelling along the Hedjaz railway. At numerous stops they have been met by German and Ottoman officials, as well as cheering crowds. They have obtained new clothing for the first time in six months, and during a stop at Aleppo received mail from home. This afternoon their train pulls into the station at Haider Pasha, the Asiatic terminus of the Hedjaz railway across from Constantinople. Now attired in dress uniforms, the sailors disembark and stand in formation before Admiral Souchon and his staff. Their journey is complete when First Officer Mücke lowers his sword before Souchon and states: 'I report the landing squad from the Emden, five officers, seven petty officers, and thirty men strong.'
After a six month journey that has taken them from the Dutch East Indies through Arabia, punctuated by a series of adventures and near-mishaps that could hardly have been invented if they had not actually happened, the landing party has managed against all odds to evade capture and return to the fight. Moreover, the saga of the landing party has captured the attention of the world: in the midst of the hellish stalemate and impersonal slaughter of the Western Front, their voyage has shown that scope for heroism and adventure remain even in the darkest war in human history. Even beyond Germany, Mücke's leadership is celebrated, and the British press, ever willing to celebrate the underdog, applauds the exploits of the landing party.
Meanwhile, this morning Foreign Minister Sonnino learns that the Italian ambassador in Vienna never received yesterday's telegram containing the declaration of war, and confesses to his fellow ministers that it all likelihood it was intercepted and deciphered by the Austro-Hungarians. A second telegram is thus dispatched at 2pm, and two hours later the ambassador formally presents it to the Austro-Hungarian government, informing it that hostilities will commence as of midnight.
Crucially, the Italian government very deliberately decides not to declare war on Germany today, in part at least to avoid Germany sending significant forces to fight on the Italian frontier. Nor does Italy declare war on the Ottoman Empire; indeed, diplomatic relations remain intact and the Ottoman embassy in Rome remains open, providing a perfect base for espionage against Italy. This means that Italy does not actually fulfill the requirement of the Treaty of London to go to war against all enemies of the Entente, a very great irony considering how much bluster will issue forth from Italian representatives later in the war and afterwards regarding faithful adherence to the agreement.
Notably, Germany does not declare war on Italy either. It prefers to leave open the possibility of Italian goods entering Germany through neutral Switzerland, as occurred during the period of Italian neutrality, and thus leave open a path around the British naval blockade. The Germans also feared that a declaration of war against Italy might trigger Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente. Unsurprisingly this decision is unpopular in Vienna, but it is equally unsurprising that Austro-Hungarian displeasure is of no great concern to the Germans.
- Enver Pasha dispatches a message to the German government today, requesting the arrival of German submarines in the eastern Mediterranean to attack the Entente fleet off the Dardanelles. The appeal is unnecessary - German submarines are about to make their presence felt it dramatic fashion.
- For the past two weeks, the landing party of the German light cruiser Emden have been travelling along the Hedjaz railway. At numerous stops they have been met by German and Ottoman officials, as well as cheering crowds. They have obtained new clothing for the first time in six months, and during a stop at Aleppo received mail from home. This afternoon their train pulls into the station at Haider Pasha, the Asiatic terminus of the Hedjaz railway across from Constantinople. Now attired in dress uniforms, the sailors disembark and stand in formation before Admiral Souchon and his staff. Their journey is complete when First Officer Mücke lowers his sword before Souchon and states: 'I report the landing squad from the Emden, five officers, seven petty officers, and thirty men strong.'
After a six month journey that has taken them from the Dutch East Indies through Arabia, punctuated by a series of adventures and near-mishaps that could hardly have been invented if they had not actually happened, the landing party has managed against all odds to evade capture and return to the fight. Moreover, the saga of the landing party has captured the attention of the world: in the midst of the hellish stalemate and impersonal slaughter of the Western Front, their voyage has shown that scope for heroism and adventure remain even in the darkest war in human history. Even beyond Germany, Mücke's leadership is celebrated, and the British press, ever willing to celebrate the underdog, applauds the exploits of the landing party.
Friday, May 22, 2015
May 22nd, 1915
- For the past several days, Churchill has been bombarding Asquith with letters begging to remain as First Lord of the Admiralty, using every rhetorical device in his considerable arsenal. It is to no avail, for the price of coalition is Churchill's scalp. Today Churchill meets with the Prime Minister, and the latter confirms his dismissal. As inadequate compensation, Asquith offers the ministerial post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The most junior Cabinet position, and with no practical responsibilities, it is most often given to those without talent for anything more or to ease an elderly colleague into retirement. It is far beneath Churchill's abilities, but as it is better than nothing and Asquith also promises a seat at the War Council, Churchill accepts.
As Churchill has his interview with Asquith, Admiral Fisher realizes that his hope to return to office with his powers greatly enhanced is nothing but a pipe dream. He finally departs London by train, heading north to Scotland, and during a stopover at Crewe receives a letter from Asquith formally accepting his resignation as First Sea Lord. The stormy relationship between the elderly admiral and the young politician ends in mutual destruction.
- At 830pm the German 15th Division at Neuville in Artois launches attacks the French line, hoping to disrupt the ongoing French offensive. However, the preliminary artillery bombardment had been largely unsuccessful; in particular, poor weather prevented the assigned trench mortar battalion from accurately hitting its targets. As a result, the German infantry are unable to penetrate the French trenches.
The failure of today's bombardment, however, masks the growing concentration of German artillery behind the line: over the past two weeks, the number of heavy guns in Artois have doubled. The Germans have also been prodigious in their use, having fired over six hundred thousand shells in the first ten days of the French offensive. Despite this expenditure, OHL has been able to maintain a steady supply of munitions to the front, such that the German batteries are not hampered by a shortage.
- The Italian cabinet approves a mobilization order for the army, and it is published immediately. In practice, however, the Italian army has been slowly mobilizing for over two months; indeed, since before the Treaty of London had even been signed, indicating the extent to which Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino had always intended to have Italy join the Entente come what may.
Meanwhile, Foreign Minister Sonnino wires the declaration of war against Austria-Hungary to the Italian ambassador at Vienna, with instructions to deliver it tomorrow. However, through wiretapping and codebreaking the Austro-Hungarian government is able to identify the specific telegram containing the actual declaration of war, and are able to delay its delivery.
As Churchill has his interview with Asquith, Admiral Fisher realizes that his hope to return to office with his powers greatly enhanced is nothing but a pipe dream. He finally departs London by train, heading north to Scotland, and during a stopover at Crewe receives a letter from Asquith formally accepting his resignation as First Sea Lord. The stormy relationship between the elderly admiral and the young politician ends in mutual destruction.
- At 830pm the German 15th Division at Neuville in Artois launches attacks the French line, hoping to disrupt the ongoing French offensive. However, the preliminary artillery bombardment had been largely unsuccessful; in particular, poor weather prevented the assigned trench mortar battalion from accurately hitting its targets. As a result, the German infantry are unable to penetrate the French trenches.
The failure of today's bombardment, however, masks the growing concentration of German artillery behind the line: over the past two weeks, the number of heavy guns in Artois have doubled. The Germans have also been prodigious in their use, having fired over six hundred thousand shells in the first ten days of the French offensive. Despite this expenditure, OHL has been able to maintain a steady supply of munitions to the front, such that the German batteries are not hampered by a shortage.
- The Italian cabinet approves a mobilization order for the army, and it is published immediately. In practice, however, the Italian army has been slowly mobilizing for over two months; indeed, since before the Treaty of London had even been signed, indicating the extent to which Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino had always intended to have Italy join the Entente come what may.
Meanwhile, Foreign Minister Sonnino wires the declaration of war against Austria-Hungary to the Italian ambassador at Vienna, with instructions to deliver it tomorrow. However, through wiretapping and codebreaking the Austro-Hungarian government is able to identify the specific telegram containing the actual declaration of war, and are able to delay its delivery.
Thursday, May 21, 2015
May 21st, 1915
- Over the past two days the British have attacked German lines near Festubert, but with the latter having received reinforcements, the British are unable to make gains comparable to those of a week earlier.
- Today the Entente powers sign a military convention with Italy, which details how the allied armies will cooperate once the latter enters the war. The key aim of Italy has been to secure a guarantee of a Serbian offensive to draw off Austro-Hungarian forces from the Italian frontier. In exchange, the Russian government had wanted Italy to transfer supplies to the Serbian army when they (hopefully) linked up. This the Italians declined to do, and since the Entente want active Italian participation in the war the 'compromise' is that Russia will send supplies to Italy, which the Italians will then hand over to the Serbs if they two armies make contact. It is another good deal for the Italians, and another setback for the Russians - not only have they been able to secure third-party assistance for their Serbian allies, but, given the continuing disaster in Galicia, the Russians are hardly in a position to be helping anyone out anyway.
- As the remaining German forces in German South-West Africa fall back towards Kalkfeld along the rail line leading to the north-eastern interior, Theodor Seitz, the German governor, sends a proposal to South African Prime Minister Louis Botha for an armistice. The terms proposed by Seitz are for a territorial division of the colony based on the status quo, with the fate of the colony to be decided after the war. Though the South Africans have fulfilled the objectives that Britain had emphasized - the occupation of the coast and the destruction of the main wireless tower at Windhoek - Botha has no intention of calling off the South African campaign in the colony until it has been fully occupied. Botha's objectives in German South-West Africa are imperial, but as defined by South Africa: they wish to control all of German South-West Africa so they can claim it as a colony of their own after the war.
- Today the Entente powers sign a military convention with Italy, which details how the allied armies will cooperate once the latter enters the war. The key aim of Italy has been to secure a guarantee of a Serbian offensive to draw off Austro-Hungarian forces from the Italian frontier. In exchange, the Russian government had wanted Italy to transfer supplies to the Serbian army when they (hopefully) linked up. This the Italians declined to do, and since the Entente want active Italian participation in the war the 'compromise' is that Russia will send supplies to Italy, which the Italians will then hand over to the Serbs if they two armies make contact. It is another good deal for the Italians, and another setback for the Russians - not only have they been able to secure third-party assistance for their Serbian allies, but, given the continuing disaster in Galicia, the Russians are hardly in a position to be helping anyone out anyway.
- As the remaining German forces in German South-West Africa fall back towards Kalkfeld along the rail line leading to the north-eastern interior, Theodor Seitz, the German governor, sends a proposal to South African Prime Minister Louis Botha for an armistice. The terms proposed by Seitz are for a territorial division of the colony based on the status quo, with the fate of the colony to be decided after the war. Though the South Africans have fulfilled the objectives that Britain had emphasized - the occupation of the coast and the destruction of the main wireless tower at Windhoek - Botha has no intention of calling off the South African campaign in the colony until it has been fully occupied. Botha's objectives in German South-West Africa are imperial, but as defined by South Africa: they wish to control all of German South-West Africa so they can claim it as a colony of their own after the war.
Wednesday, May 20, 2015
May 20th, 1915
- In Britain the events of the past few months - the use of gas at Ypres, the sinking of Lusitania, and the bombing raids of Zeppelins - have nurtured an anti-German hysteria that needed little encouragement in the first place. Today the magazine Flight argues that Germans in Britain must be rounded up and interned, as otherwise they may light fires to direct Zeppelin bombing raids at night.
- After a three day delay caused by poor weather, the first of the new methodical attacks, as ordered by General Foch, are launched today in Artois by the French 10th Army. Preceded by a heavy artillery bombardment, French infantry advance several hundred yards, and the newly-won ground is to serve as a jumping off point for further attacks.
Meanwhile Joffre, for his part, issues instructions to his subordinates instructing them that it is vital to place reserves as close to the front lines as possible. He hopes in future to avoid a repetition of the fighting on May 9th, when infantry of Pétain's XXXIII Corps managed to reach Vimy Ridge but were pushed back due to reserves being deployed too far behind the front line, allowing the Germans to push the successful infantry back off the high ground.
- The German threat to the inner flanks of the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps diminishes today when 56th Division, acting in accordance with Mackensen's orders to consolidate control of the bridgehead over the San River, pulls back behind the Lubaczowka River.
On the Russian side, General Dimitriev of 3rd Army, who has had to watch his command crumble under two and a half weeks of near-constant German pressure, is dismissed today, replaced by the commander of XII Corps.
- Owing to exhaustion, the fighting between the western wings of the Russian 9th and Austro-Hungarian 7th Armies in the eastern Carpathians dies out today. Neither side has accomplished its objectives, though in the larger picture this favours the Austro-Hungarians, in that the Russian attacks here have not forced them to pull additional forces away from the San River fighting to hold on to the Bukovina.
- As scheduled, at 2pm this afternoon the Italian Chamber of Deputies is called to order. Prime Minister Salandra introduces the bill by which parliament will cede full financial powers to the government in the event of war; in practical terms, parliament is being asked to give the government the authority to go to war. Salandra also gives a brief address, emphasizing the perceived violations of the Triple Alliance by Austria-Hungary, both by going to war without consultation in July 1914 and by failing to provide territorial compensation for aggrandizement in the Balkans. Foreign Minister Sonnino then presents diplomatic telegrams outlining the course of negotiations with Austria-Hungary up to the denunciation of the alliance on May 4th; to Sonnino's credit, the telegrams are only heavily edited, as opposed to being outright forgeries. After brief discussion, the bill is passed by a margin of 407 to 74; most of the opposition comes from the Revolutionary Socialists and deputies from the rural south, where neutralist opinion is strongest. At 7pm Salandra adjourns Chamber, and the deputies depart singing the Garibaldi hymn. This outburst of enthusiasm for war is the last echo of the 'Radiant Days of May'.
- For the past four weeks, the Ottoman city of Van has been the scene of bitter fighting between Armenian insurgents and the Ottoman garrison. The Armenian population has been besieged, but have been able to hold off efforts of the Ottomans to crush the rising. In response, the local governor pushed tens of thousands of Armenian refugees into the city in the hopes of causing starvation, while thousands of Armenian prisoners have been murdered. This takes place, of course, while wholesale massacres have been taking place in the countryside.
As the desperate clash at Van has been ongoing, however, the Russian army has been approaching from the east. Three days ago, the Ottoman forces lifted their siege of Van, and today elements of the Russian army arrive at the city. The Armenian population is jubilant at the arrival of their saviours, and the Armenian elders of Van offer the Russian commanding general the keys to the city, and in return the Russians appoint the leader of the Armenian defence committee, Aram Manoukian, governor of the region. Freed from the yoke of Ottoman oppression and the threat of massacre, the Armenians take violent revenge. Now that they have the upper hand, it is the turn of Ottoman prisoners to be murdered. Armenians also torch many of the important buildings of Van, seen as symbols of Ottoman tyranny.
The fall of Van, moreover, serves to reinforce the paranoia of the leadership of the Ottoman Empire regarding the Armenian population. It is all the easier now to see the Armenians as a mortal internal threat to the survival of the empire, given their apparent cooperation with the Russians. It accelerates efforts to deport and exterminate the Armenian population throughout eastern Anatolia.
- At the height of the Battle of Sarikamish in December, Russian forces had evacuated Persian Azerbaijan, but after the crushing victory achieved in the battle had returned, reoccupying Tabriz at the end of January. According to the terms of the Anglo-Russian Convention, northern Persia was within the Russian sphere of influence, and considering its proximity to the Ottoman Empire it is seen as a southern extension of the Caucasus front and the Russian government is eager to secure effective control of the region. Two days ago, a Russian banker was murdered in Isfahan, in the centre of Persia, and the Russian government uses the episode to justify the dispatch of additional troops to protect Persian interests in northern Persia, the detachment landing at Enzeli today. However, the proximity of Enzeli to Teheran - just over a hundred and fifty miles separates the two - raises fears among German diplomats that the Russians may attempt to seize control of the government and the country as a whole.
- After a three day delay caused by poor weather, the first of the new methodical attacks, as ordered by General Foch, are launched today in Artois by the French 10th Army. Preceded by a heavy artillery bombardment, French infantry advance several hundred yards, and the newly-won ground is to serve as a jumping off point for further attacks.
Meanwhile Joffre, for his part, issues instructions to his subordinates instructing them that it is vital to place reserves as close to the front lines as possible. He hopes in future to avoid a repetition of the fighting on May 9th, when infantry of Pétain's XXXIII Corps managed to reach Vimy Ridge but were pushed back due to reserves being deployed too far behind the front line, allowing the Germans to push the successful infantry back off the high ground.
- The German threat to the inner flanks of the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps diminishes today when 56th Division, acting in accordance with Mackensen's orders to consolidate control of the bridgehead over the San River, pulls back behind the Lubaczowka River.
On the Russian side, General Dimitriev of 3rd Army, who has had to watch his command crumble under two and a half weeks of near-constant German pressure, is dismissed today, replaced by the commander of XII Corps.
- Owing to exhaustion, the fighting between the western wings of the Russian 9th and Austro-Hungarian 7th Armies in the eastern Carpathians dies out today. Neither side has accomplished its objectives, though in the larger picture this favours the Austro-Hungarians, in that the Russian attacks here have not forced them to pull additional forces away from the San River fighting to hold on to the Bukovina.
- As scheduled, at 2pm this afternoon the Italian Chamber of Deputies is called to order. Prime Minister Salandra introduces the bill by which parliament will cede full financial powers to the government in the event of war; in practical terms, parliament is being asked to give the government the authority to go to war. Salandra also gives a brief address, emphasizing the perceived violations of the Triple Alliance by Austria-Hungary, both by going to war without consultation in July 1914 and by failing to provide territorial compensation for aggrandizement in the Balkans. Foreign Minister Sonnino then presents diplomatic telegrams outlining the course of negotiations with Austria-Hungary up to the denunciation of the alliance on May 4th; to Sonnino's credit, the telegrams are only heavily edited, as opposed to being outright forgeries. After brief discussion, the bill is passed by a margin of 407 to 74; most of the opposition comes from the Revolutionary Socialists and deputies from the rural south, where neutralist opinion is strongest. At 7pm Salandra adjourns Chamber, and the deputies depart singing the Garibaldi hymn. This outburst of enthusiasm for war is the last echo of the 'Radiant Days of May'.
- For the past four weeks, the Ottoman city of Van has been the scene of bitter fighting between Armenian insurgents and the Ottoman garrison. The Armenian population has been besieged, but have been able to hold off efforts of the Ottomans to crush the rising. In response, the local governor pushed tens of thousands of Armenian refugees into the city in the hopes of causing starvation, while thousands of Armenian prisoners have been murdered. This takes place, of course, while wholesale massacres have been taking place in the countryside.
As the desperate clash at Van has been ongoing, however, the Russian army has been approaching from the east. Three days ago, the Ottoman forces lifted their siege of Van, and today elements of the Russian army arrive at the city. The Armenian population is jubilant at the arrival of their saviours, and the Armenian elders of Van offer the Russian commanding general the keys to the city, and in return the Russians appoint the leader of the Armenian defence committee, Aram Manoukian, governor of the region. Freed from the yoke of Ottoman oppression and the threat of massacre, the Armenians take violent revenge. Now that they have the upper hand, it is the turn of Ottoman prisoners to be murdered. Armenians also torch many of the important buildings of Van, seen as symbols of Ottoman tyranny.
The fall of Van, moreover, serves to reinforce the paranoia of the leadership of the Ottoman Empire regarding the Armenian population. It is all the easier now to see the Armenians as a mortal internal threat to the survival of the empire, given their apparent cooperation with the Russians. It accelerates efforts to deport and exterminate the Armenian population throughout eastern Anatolia.
- At the height of the Battle of Sarikamish in December, Russian forces had evacuated Persian Azerbaijan, but after the crushing victory achieved in the battle had returned, reoccupying Tabriz at the end of January. According to the terms of the Anglo-Russian Convention, northern Persia was within the Russian sphere of influence, and considering its proximity to the Ottoman Empire it is seen as a southern extension of the Caucasus front and the Russian government is eager to secure effective control of the region. Two days ago, a Russian banker was murdered in Isfahan, in the centre of Persia, and the Russian government uses the episode to justify the dispatch of additional troops to protect Persian interests in northern Persia, the detachment landing at Enzeli today. However, the proximity of Enzeli to Teheran - just over a hundred and fifty miles separates the two - raises fears among German diplomats that the Russians may attempt to seize control of the government and the country as a whole.
Sunday, May 17, 2015
May 17th, 1915
- This morning a letter reaches Andrew Bonar Law, the Canadian-born leader of the British Conservative Party, from Admiral Fisher, in which the latter announces his resignation as First Sea Lord. In his typical manner, Fisher holds nothing back: 'W.C. MUST god at all costs! AT ONCE . . . because a very great disaster is very near us in the Dardanelles . . . W.C. is a bigger danger than the Germans by a long way.'
Even without the hyperbole, Bonar Law recognizes the significance of this information. For the past three days he has been struggling to maintain control of his backbenchers, the latter enraged over the report of the 14th in The Times regarding a shortage of shells during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Bonar Law wants to maintain the electoral truce, but he may not be able to control his own party. With this morning's letter he realizes that the resignation of Fisher will be the final straw for many Conservative MPs, who have long despised Churchill for abandoning the party in 1904 over Tariff Reform. Further, in their eyes Churchill's a administration of the Admiralty in wartime has been a failure: not only has there not been a decisive victory over the High Seas Fleet, but the Antwerp diversion was a debacle and the Dardanelles operation appears to be going nowhere.
After receiving Fisher's letter Bonar Law calls on Lloyd George and asks for confirmation of Fisher's resignation. When Lloyd George provides this, Bonar Law replies that 'the situation is impossible.' Lloyd George agrees, and the pair visit 10 Downing Street where they inform Asquith of the situation. The Prime Minister recoils at the prospect of heated parliamentary debates and denunciations of the management of the war. Further, the Liberal government is a minority, and the possibility exists that it might not survive under effective Conservative criticism. Lloyd George recommends the formation of a coalition government between the parties, in order to head off opposition in the House of Commons. Asquith does not hesitate in accepting this, his willingness to fight for his government perhaps fatally undermined by the news of the 14th regarding Venetia Stanley. It is certainly the case that Asquith never seriously appears to have contemplated fighting the Conservatives, and is perfectly willing to jettison Liberal colleagues to find cabinet places for Conservatives. Most prominent of Bonar Law's conditions for a coalition government is that Churchill must be removed as First Lord of the Admiralty. Neither Asquith nor Lloyd George flinch at the prospect of dismissing their colleague, perhaps realizing it may be the price of keeping their own positions.
Churchill, for his part, has no idea what has transpired when he arrives at 10 Downing Street later this morning to report that he has a new First Sea Lord and is ready to defend his record in the House of Commons. Asquith instead replies that there will be no debate in the House; instead, a coalition government will be formed and, turning to Churchill, asks 'what are we to do with you?' It is at this moment that Churchill realizes that his time at the Admiralty may be at an end. Later this evening, after digesting the news, Churchill writes to Asquith that he would only accept office in the new government if it is directly related to the war effort; otherwise, he would prefer to take up a command in France.
- Overnight the German zeppelin LZ39 was intercepted by several aircraft of the Royal Naval Air Service. They attack the airship by dropping bombs on it, and though it remains in the air LZ39 is sufficiently damaged to force a return to base.
- The first of the new attacks by the French 10th Army in Artois was scheduled to be launched today, but is postponed due to poor weather. Meanwhile the Germans have been attempting to retake the ground lost to the French on Lorette Spur. These attacks, however, have failed, and have worn out the regiments of 117th Division.
- After an intensive bombardment the British launch another attack near Festubert today, and succeed in pushing back the German lines. Indeed, there are indications of a crisis of morale in German ranks, as a number of prisoners are taken before the British infantry had even begun their advance. To reinforce the line 6th Army brings in several battalions of Bavarians and Saxons, as well as 38th Landwehr Brigade. Crucially, they are drawn not from 6th Army's reserve, but rather from the north; the brigade is taken from 4th Army. Thus even though the British have achieved some tactical success at Festubert, they have failed in drawing away German forces from the French offensive to the south, which was the primary reason for the operation.
- The German 11th Army secures a third crossing of the San River today at Nielepkowice north of Jaroslau. Meanwhile Mackensen orders those forces already across the river to consolidate their bridgeheads.
- Just after midnight elements of the Russian 9th Army attempt to storm the town of Delatyn in Bukovina, in the centre of the line held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army. In bitter fighting the latter are forced back from the outer defences, but the Russians are unable to break into the town itself. Just as with the Austro-Hungarian attacks to the west, initial advances quickly degenerate into static fighting.
- The reappointed cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra meets today to discuss Italian entry into the war, and agrees to submit a bill to parliament when it reconvenes on the 20th to vest full financial powers in the government in case of war. Also, ex-premier Giovanni Giolitti departs Rome for Piedmont today, knowing full well that attempting to fight for peace when parliament meets in three days would be a lost cause.
Even without the hyperbole, Bonar Law recognizes the significance of this information. For the past three days he has been struggling to maintain control of his backbenchers, the latter enraged over the report of the 14th in The Times regarding a shortage of shells during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Bonar Law wants to maintain the electoral truce, but he may not be able to control his own party. With this morning's letter he realizes that the resignation of Fisher will be the final straw for many Conservative MPs, who have long despised Churchill for abandoning the party in 1904 over Tariff Reform. Further, in their eyes Churchill's a administration of the Admiralty in wartime has been a failure: not only has there not been a decisive victory over the High Seas Fleet, but the Antwerp diversion was a debacle and the Dardanelles operation appears to be going nowhere.
After receiving Fisher's letter Bonar Law calls on Lloyd George and asks for confirmation of Fisher's resignation. When Lloyd George provides this, Bonar Law replies that 'the situation is impossible.' Lloyd George agrees, and the pair visit 10 Downing Street where they inform Asquith of the situation. The Prime Minister recoils at the prospect of heated parliamentary debates and denunciations of the management of the war. Further, the Liberal government is a minority, and the possibility exists that it might not survive under effective Conservative criticism. Lloyd George recommends the formation of a coalition government between the parties, in order to head off opposition in the House of Commons. Asquith does not hesitate in accepting this, his willingness to fight for his government perhaps fatally undermined by the news of the 14th regarding Venetia Stanley. It is certainly the case that Asquith never seriously appears to have contemplated fighting the Conservatives, and is perfectly willing to jettison Liberal colleagues to find cabinet places for Conservatives. Most prominent of Bonar Law's conditions for a coalition government is that Churchill must be removed as First Lord of the Admiralty. Neither Asquith nor Lloyd George flinch at the prospect of dismissing their colleague, perhaps realizing it may be the price of keeping their own positions.
Churchill, for his part, has no idea what has transpired when he arrives at 10 Downing Street later this morning to report that he has a new First Sea Lord and is ready to defend his record in the House of Commons. Asquith instead replies that there will be no debate in the House; instead, a coalition government will be formed and, turning to Churchill, asks 'what are we to do with you?' It is at this moment that Churchill realizes that his time at the Admiralty may be at an end. Later this evening, after digesting the news, Churchill writes to Asquith that he would only accept office in the new government if it is directly related to the war effort; otherwise, he would prefer to take up a command in France.
- Overnight the German zeppelin LZ39 was intercepted by several aircraft of the Royal Naval Air Service. They attack the airship by dropping bombs on it, and though it remains in the air LZ39 is sufficiently damaged to force a return to base.
- The first of the new attacks by the French 10th Army in Artois was scheduled to be launched today, but is postponed due to poor weather. Meanwhile the Germans have been attempting to retake the ground lost to the French on Lorette Spur. These attacks, however, have failed, and have worn out the regiments of 117th Division.
- After an intensive bombardment the British launch another attack near Festubert today, and succeed in pushing back the German lines. Indeed, there are indications of a crisis of morale in German ranks, as a number of prisoners are taken before the British infantry had even begun their advance. To reinforce the line 6th Army brings in several battalions of Bavarians and Saxons, as well as 38th Landwehr Brigade. Crucially, they are drawn not from 6th Army's reserve, but rather from the north; the brigade is taken from 4th Army. Thus even though the British have achieved some tactical success at Festubert, they have failed in drawing away German forces from the French offensive to the south, which was the primary reason for the operation.
- The German 11th Army secures a third crossing of the San River today at Nielepkowice north of Jaroslau. Meanwhile Mackensen orders those forces already across the river to consolidate their bridgeheads.
- Just after midnight elements of the Russian 9th Army attempt to storm the town of Delatyn in Bukovina, in the centre of the line held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army. In bitter fighting the latter are forced back from the outer defences, but the Russians are unable to break into the town itself. Just as with the Austro-Hungarian attacks to the west, initial advances quickly degenerate into static fighting.
- The reappointed cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra meets today to discuss Italian entry into the war, and agrees to submit a bill to parliament when it reconvenes on the 20th to vest full financial powers in the government in case of war. Also, ex-premier Giovanni Giolitti departs Rome for Piedmont today, knowing full well that attempting to fight for peace when parliament meets in three days would be a lost cause.
Saturday, May 16, 2015
May 16th, 1915
- Realizing that Admiral Fisher is serious about resignation, Churchill visits the Prime Minister today. He offers his own resignation, hoping for a vote of confidence from Asquith that will allow him to replace Fisher and continue as First Lord of the Admiralty. This is exactly what Asquith gives him today, saying that he had not even thought of Churchill resigning. Buoyed, the First Lord secures the agreement of Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson to replace Fisher as the First Sea Lord, and the other Sea Lords consent to remaining in office. Churchill then prepares a parliamentary address for tomorrow's session to announce Fisher's resignation and defend his own conduct. It is a speech, however, he will never get to deliver.
- General d'Urbal issues new orders for his 10th Army today, incorporating the revised instructions from General Foch. He envisions a series of methodical attacks, each designed to seize a particular objective from which the next assaut would be launched, culminating with the seizure of Vimy Ridge. In the centre, XXXIII Corps was to capture five points before launching its main attack on the village of Souchez, while XXI Corps had three positions of its own to occupy before assisting XXXIII Corps to seize Souchez. The first of these attacks is scheduled to begin tomorrow. On the German side, the units holding the line have gotten hopelessly mixed up over the past week, as companies and battalions have been sent haphazardly to plug gaps in the line and confront the main French assaults. As such, most of the day is devoted to reorganizing the defence, and in particular to straightening out the chain of command for the artillery batteries so that each stretch of the front line had dedicated artillery support. The battered 58th Division is also pulled out of the line, replaced by 16th Division.
To the north, the British 2nd Division launches an attack at dawn near Festubert, and a small amount of progress is made. For the rest of the day British artillery pound the German lines, in preparation for another effort tomorrow.
- As a result of the success of the German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, the Russian line in central Poland has been pulled back, to avoid a gap opening between the Russian 4th Army, mostly north of the Vistula River, and 3rd Army to the south. Following the Russians are the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army and an army group under German General Remus von Woyrsch composed of both German and Austro-Hungarian units. As the two forces pursue the retreating Russians, Woyrsch's group is pulled to the northeast, while 1st Army moves to the east, opening a small gap between them. Here, near Opatow, the Russian 4th Army counterattacks today, and the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division is thrown back several kilometres and suffers heavy casualties. The sudden Russian riposte brings Woyrsch's group and 1st Army to halt as they move to contain the unexpected enemy advance.
- Along the San River the German 11th Army attempt several crossings. The main action is at Jaroslau, which is occupied today by the German 2nd Guard Division. Here the town's Jewish population warns the Germans that the Russians have mined the bridge over the San, and shortly thereafter the bridge explodes and falls into the river. The Elisabeth Regiment of 2nd Guard Division then crosses the San at 530pm under the protection of heavy artillery and machine gun fire, and by evening a Russian counterattack has been driven off and the bridgehead is secure. To the north, 92nd Regiment of 20th Division is able to cross the San west of Miazownica, giving X Corps a shallow bridgehead. Thus by the end of the day, 11th Army has breached the river line at two places.
- In Italy the 'Radiant Days of May' are already passing; though a large pro-war demonstration grips the capital today, elsewhere the number and size of such gatherings are in decline. Despite its ephemeral nature, the 'Radiant Days' have completely altered the balance of interventionist vs neutralist opinion among the political classes in favour of the former. After Salandra's resignation on the 13th, Victor Emmanuel had canvassed several other parliamentary leaders, including Giolitti, about their ability to form a government. All had declined, seeing the shift of opinion towards intervention as decisive. This afternoon the king summons Salandra to Villa Savoia, and meets the politician at the gate with a simple declaration: 'It is necessary that you withdraw your declaration.' Salandra agrees, and his cabinet formally returns to office, and Italian entry into the war is now a certainty.
- In the Mediterranean the Austro-Hungarian destroyer Triglav successfully tows the German coastal submarine UB7 through the Straits of Otranto, evading the Entente blockade, and the latter then makes its way eastward towards the Dardanelles.
- General d'Urbal issues new orders for his 10th Army today, incorporating the revised instructions from General Foch. He envisions a series of methodical attacks, each designed to seize a particular objective from which the next assaut would be launched, culminating with the seizure of Vimy Ridge. In the centre, XXXIII Corps was to capture five points before launching its main attack on the village of Souchez, while XXI Corps had three positions of its own to occupy before assisting XXXIII Corps to seize Souchez. The first of these attacks is scheduled to begin tomorrow. On the German side, the units holding the line have gotten hopelessly mixed up over the past week, as companies and battalions have been sent haphazardly to plug gaps in the line and confront the main French assaults. As such, most of the day is devoted to reorganizing the defence, and in particular to straightening out the chain of command for the artillery batteries so that each stretch of the front line had dedicated artillery support. The battered 58th Division is also pulled out of the line, replaced by 16th Division.
To the north, the British 2nd Division launches an attack at dawn near Festubert, and a small amount of progress is made. For the rest of the day British artillery pound the German lines, in preparation for another effort tomorrow.
- As a result of the success of the German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, the Russian line in central Poland has been pulled back, to avoid a gap opening between the Russian 4th Army, mostly north of the Vistula River, and 3rd Army to the south. Following the Russians are the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army and an army group under German General Remus von Woyrsch composed of both German and Austro-Hungarian units. As the two forces pursue the retreating Russians, Woyrsch's group is pulled to the northeast, while 1st Army moves to the east, opening a small gap between them. Here, near Opatow, the Russian 4th Army counterattacks today, and the Austro-Hungarian 25th Division is thrown back several kilometres and suffers heavy casualties. The sudden Russian riposte brings Woyrsch's group and 1st Army to halt as they move to contain the unexpected enemy advance.
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| The Battle of Opatow, May 16th to 20th, 1915. |
- Along the San River the German 11th Army attempt several crossings. The main action is at Jaroslau, which is occupied today by the German 2nd Guard Division. Here the town's Jewish population warns the Germans that the Russians have mined the bridge over the San, and shortly thereafter the bridge explodes and falls into the river. The Elisabeth Regiment of 2nd Guard Division then crosses the San at 530pm under the protection of heavy artillery and machine gun fire, and by evening a Russian counterattack has been driven off and the bridgehead is secure. To the north, 92nd Regiment of 20th Division is able to cross the San west of Miazownica, giving X Corps a shallow bridgehead. Thus by the end of the day, 11th Army has breached the river line at two places.
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| The advance of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies at Jaroslau and Przemysl, May 16th to 20th, 1915. |
- In Italy the 'Radiant Days of May' are already passing; though a large pro-war demonstration grips the capital today, elsewhere the number and size of such gatherings are in decline. Despite its ephemeral nature, the 'Radiant Days' have completely altered the balance of interventionist vs neutralist opinion among the political classes in favour of the former. After Salandra's resignation on the 13th, Victor Emmanuel had canvassed several other parliamentary leaders, including Giolitti, about their ability to form a government. All had declined, seeing the shift of opinion towards intervention as decisive. This afternoon the king summons Salandra to Villa Savoia, and meets the politician at the gate with a simple declaration: 'It is necessary that you withdraw your declaration.' Salandra agrees, and his cabinet formally returns to office, and Italian entry into the war is now a certainty.
- In the Mediterranean the Austro-Hungarian destroyer Triglav successfully tows the German coastal submarine UB7 through the Straits of Otranto, evading the Entente blockade, and the latter then makes its way eastward towards the Dardanelles.
Thursday, May 14, 2015
May 14th, 1915
- This morning the fuse lit by Sir John French five days earlier explodes on the pages of The Times newspaper, which runs an extensive report and editorial on the recent failure at Aubers Ridge. Given the close relationship between French and the newspaper's military correspondent, it is no surprise that the coverage praises the plan for and management of the battle itself. Instead, the paper is harshly critical of the supply of both artillery shells and heavy artillery pieces, and lays blame for this failure directly on the War Office and the Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener. The proprietor of The Times, Lord Northcliffe, has come to see Kitchener not as the imperial hero, but as the stubborn incompetent whose mismanagement is damaging the British war effort. Northcliffe is not alone in this view; some within the Conservative party, as well as the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, have become exasperated with Lord Kitchener, and feel he must go if Britain is to fully mobilize its industry in support of the war.
The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated. Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst. In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort. This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.
This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th. With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli. Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room. Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.
Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that Queen Elizabeth is being withdrawn. Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships. After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles. It is a fateful decision.
As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst. For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet. He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support. Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician. Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.' The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.
- Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez. On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today. However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line. In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.
- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.
- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday. Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.
- The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public. In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment. What happens next, however, will transform the political situation. Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary. This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August. These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat. Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order. In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.
These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds. Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion. The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.
- Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles. In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.' The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.
The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated. Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst. In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort. This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.
This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th. With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli. Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room. Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.
Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that Queen Elizabeth is being withdrawn. Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships. After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles. It is a fateful decision.
As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst. For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet. He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support. Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician. Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.' The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.
- Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez. On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today. However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line. In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.
- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.
- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday. Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.
- The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public. In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment. What happens next, however, will transform the political situation. Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary. This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August. These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat. Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order. In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.
These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds. Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion. The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.
- Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles. In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.' The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.
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