November 29th, 1915

- Conrad orders the Austro-Hungarian navy to institute a permanent patrol of the Albanian coast to disrupt enemy troop transports and supplies crossing the Adriatic to support the retreating Serbian army.  To accomplish this, two Novara-class light cruisers, six Tátra-class destroyers, and six T-74-class torpedo-boats - the fastest and most modern light warships in the Austro-Hungarian navy - are deployed to the naval base of Cattaro near Montenegro.

- Having informed their allies of their intent to retreat to the Adriatic coast of Albania, the Serbian governments issues an urgent request to the Entente governments for them to send food and fodder to San Giovanni di Medua (the nearest port to Scutari) and Durrazo (on the coast just west of Tirana), where the bulk of the Serbian army and accompanying refugees will be arriving.  However, the Italian decision several days earlier to only send supplies to Valona in southern Albania mean that Serbs that reach the northern Albanian coast, already starving, will need to march a hundred miles further south.

- West of Görz Italian attacks concentrate on the enemy line at Oslavija, and this afternoon they manage to capture stretches of the enemy trench north and south of the village's church.  The Austro-Hungarians, however, are able to fall back to a new trench line several hundred yards to the rear, containing the Italian advance.  A major effort is also made once more against Mt. San Michele, and other than a small stretch of trench to the west of St. Martino the Italians are repulsed all along the line.

November 28th, 1915

- Falkenhayn meets today with German industrialist Walther Rathenau, former head of the Kriegsrohstoffabteilung (War Materials Section), and the latter argues that the war can only be won through a decisive victory on the Western Front, where Germany's most important enemies are to be found.  Moreover, Rathenau believes that an offensive there can succeed, given what he sees as the deficient national character of the French.  In both sentiments Rathenau's views are in general accord with those of Falkenhayn - the German chief of staff is increasingly convinced that a major offensive should be undertaken on the Western Front in 1916, and that in targeting the French the superior morale and resolve of the German soldier, as compared to his French counterpart, will be of vital importance.

- With the Serbian campaign having been brought to a successful conclusion, Mackensen is once again the man of the hour.  Yesterday, Kaiser Wilhelm II telegrammed Mackensen with his congratulations and appointed him proprietary colonel of 129th (Third West Prussian) Infantry Regiment, an honour usually reserved for members of the royal family.  Today, Emperor Franz Joseph conveyed his deep personal gratitude to the German field marshal for his leadership.

- Today the Serbian government, having crossed northern Albania, reaches the city of Scutari, near the Adriatic coast.

- Along the Isonzo River Italian forces once again launch major attacks on Austro-Hungarian positions west of Görz and on either flank of Mt. San Michele, which achieve no more success than the attacks of prior days.  The constant assaults in terrible weather are wearing on the survivors; Austro-Hungarian defenders note an increased willingness of Italian infantry to surrender when counterattacked.  This only exasperates Cadorna's fear of the breakdown of discipline, and today he issues a circular to the Italian army listing four measures to be used at the first sign of cowardice or indiscipline by Italian infantry in battle, which culminate in firing artillery on 'recalcitrant' soldiers.  These measures are also not mere threats - when a number of soldiers from the Pistoia Brigade attempt to surrender in the face of a harsh Austro-Hungarian counterattack today, other Italian soldiers are ordered to shoot them.

November 27th, 1915

- Conrad and Falkenhayn meet at Pless today to discuss next steps in the Balkans with Serbia now defeated, and the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff strongly wants to invade Montenegro and Albania.  Falkenhayn, however, views the offensive in the Balkans as having run its course, with the land link to the Ottoman Empire now opened.  Though he is willing to entertain the idea of attacking Montenegro - its forces had after all fought alongside the Serbs in the recent campaign - he does view Albania as worth the time or effort.

- There is again desperate fighting west of Görz near Oslavija and the heights of Podgora, and in a heavy assault on the latter the Austro-Hungarian defenders, having run out of grenades, resort to hurling rocks at their attackers.  The Italians are repulsed, though the extent to which this can be attributed to the flying stones is unclear.

November 26th, 1915

- The French retreat from southern Serbia begins today when 122nd Division pulls back across the Tcherna River.

- After several days of lower-intensity fighting, the Italian 2nd Army undertakes another major effort west of Görz.  At Oslavija, Italian infantry advances four times in the morning and twice more in the early evening - on each occasion the Italians fail to reach the Austro-Hungarian line.  A major effort is also undertaken to seize Point 240, the highest on the heights at Podgora, but after a four-hour bombardment the Italians are repulsed in hand-to-hand fighting by the Austro-Hungarian 5th Mountain Brigade.

November 24th, 1915

- Elements of the German IV Reserve Corps and the Bulgarian 9th Division capture the city of Priština today, and though they take a large number of prisoners, the Serbian army itself is already gone, moving towards Prizren en route to the Albanian coast. Moreover, Mackensen realizes that a large-scale pursuit was simply no longer possible.  The terrible conditions inhibited supply and had already forced some formations to go on half rations, while others found their way blocked by a combination of weather and terrain: the Austro-Hungarian 10th Mountain Brigade finds its way blocked by a 4921-foot mountain with the only track around completely iced over, and thirty men had already frozen to death.  Reluctantly, Mackensen declares an end to the Serbian campaign today.  Bulgarian forces in the area will follow the Serbs towards Prizren, but this effort is half-hearted.

The Germans under Mackensen and Seeckt have accomplished in less than two months what the Austro-Hungarians failed to do in three attempts last year under General Potiorek.  Serbia has been occupied at a cost of approximately 67 000 casualties, a mere pittance compared to the losses endured to gain a mile or two on the Western Front.  Moreover, a solid land link had been opened with the Ottoman Empire, allowing the movement of much-needed supplies in particular to the latter.  The only blemish to the effort has been the escape of the Serbian army itself.  Though barely a viable military force at this point, it still exists, and once the current trial of reaching the Adriatic Sea has past it may yet have the opportunity to recover and return to the fight.

- The Italian 3rd Army continues its efforts to capture Mt. San Michele today, and manages to seize a stretch of the enemy line on the northern slope, while to the south there is back and forth fighting near St. Martino that ultimately results in no ground gained by either side.

- Falkenhayn meets today with Enver Pasha in the Austro-Hungarian city of Orsova, where the Ottoman minister of war offers to provide forces to aid a German offensive either in France or Russia.  While Falkenhayn is impressed with Enver's generosity, he declines the suggestion, believing that the Ottoman army would not be suited to operations in the climate of northern and central Europe.  Falkenhayn's decision may also have been influenced by any Ottoman detachment needing to pass through Bulgaria to reach the Western or Eastern Fronts, a movement that would be problematic at best considering the longstanding enmity between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire - as recently as three years ago the two countries had been at war.

November 23rd, 1915

- The head of the Directorate of Military Aviation at the War Office in London today authorizes the expansion of the Royal Flying Corps, which currently stands at thirty-one (fourteen in France) squadrons, to sixty, with squadron strength increasing from twelve to eighteen.  In France these squadrons are to be formed into brigades, with the ultimate aim of having one brigade tied to each army of the British Expeditionary Force.

- As the German 11th Army was overrunning Serbia, the Russian high command had struggled to do something to aid its ally, General Alexeiev being cognizant that having complained of French and British inaction during the Great Retreat of the summer, the Russian army could hardly do nothing when the situation was reversed.  Prompted by officials at the foreign ministry, he had deployed a new 7th Army on the Black Sea Coast, intended for amphibious operations against the Black Sea coast.  The Russian navy, however, had vetoed the project, and so today Alexeiev orders 7th Army redeployed to eastern Galicia and begin planning, with 9th Army, for an offensive against the Austro-Hungarian armies opposite.  In addition to 'doing something', there is a vague confidence at Stavka that the Austro-Hungarian army, having shown its inability repeatedly during the war, will collapse, and perhaps a victory here will convince the Romanians to join the war on the side of the Entente.

- Given the lack of reinforcements, General Sarrail feels that his position in southern Serbia is not tenable, given that the Bulgarians significantly outnumber his force.  Further, the ongoing collapse and retreat of the Serbian army negates the rationale behind his operations in the Vardar River valley.  As such, today he issues orders to the three French divisions in southern Serbia to withdraw south.

- Overnight elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Mountain Brigade launch an attack to regain the small stretch of the line that remains in Italian hands after their capture of it on the 20th.  Their assault, however, runs smack into an Italian advance of their own; the two attacking forces mutually repulse each other, both falling back to their starting positions.

- An Austro-Hungarian squadron of the light cruisers Helgoland and Saida plus escorting destroyers sortied towards the Straits of Otranto overnight, aiming to interrupt the Entente transport of supplies across the Adriatic Sea to the Serbs via northern Albania.  They intercept two Italian ships - the motor schooner Gallinara and the small steamer Palatino - carrying flour and sink both.

- The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria, escorted by the cruiser Pamiat Merkuriya and ten destroyers, bombards the Ottoman port of Zonguldak, the first occasion in which the new Russian warship fires its guns in anger.

The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria.

November 22nd, 1915

- The bulk of the Serbian army has managed to keep one step ahead of its pursuers, reaching Mitrovica and Priština.  Poor weather, rough terrain, and few roads have slowed the pace of the German and Austro-Hungarian advance, though the same conditions have of course made things miserable for the Serbs as well.  Aware that the Germans have withdrawn some of their divisions from Serbia, some generals wish to make a last stand in Kosovo, just as their forebearers had done versus the Ottomans in 1389.  General Putnik, however, has a more realistic assessment, understanding that the forces remaining under his command are hardly fit for further major battles.  Instead, Putnik, with the agreement of the king and government, issues orders today to abandon Kosovo and retreat from Serbia altogether.  They will cross the high mountains of Albania towards the Adriatic ports of Scutari, Durazzo, and Alessio, hoping that their Entente allies can evacuate them to a place where they can rest and recover from the past two devastating months.

The front in Serbia, November 22nd, 1915.

- Between 11am and late afternoon elements of the Italian 2nd Army attack the Austro-Hungarian lines on the heights of Podgora, but have no more success than they had achieved over the last two days.  On 3rd Army's front slight progress is made towards St. Martino, though some of the ground gained is lost to counterattacks after nightfall.

November 21st, 1915

- Senator René Besnard, undersecretary of state of aviation in the War Ministry, publishes today a revised plan for aircraft production, which calls for an air arm of 128 squadrons by spring 1916.  In addition to expanding the French air force, Besnard, proposes significant changes to its composition - fewer bomber units to allow for additional fighter squadrons, and halting production of outdated observation planes and 80-hp to 100-hp engines.  Most significantly, and most controversially, he proposes to construct eight hundred all-purpose twin-engine three-seat aircraft, which to some parliamentary deputies appears to run counter to the trend in aviation towards specialization.

- Italian attacks continue along the Isonzo today.  North of Oslavija, the Italians attack out of the trench seized yesterday, but when they are repulsed an Austro-Hungarian counterattack hits them while they are disorganized and they abandon most of the ground won yesterday.  To the south further assaults are launched today against the heights at Podgora, and again they are defeated in hand-to-hand fighting.  On the front of the Italian 3rd Army, another assault south of Mt. San Michele manages to secure a small stretch of the line at St. Martino, and are able to hold most of the ground in the face of heavy Austro-Hungarian counterattacks.

Given the continued Italian attacks, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 5th Army orders the recently-arrived 9th Division to replace 28th Division on the southern end of the Isonzo front, pulling the latter out to serve as the army's reserve.

- Given the ongoing diplomatic dispute with the American government regarding the sinking of the Italian liner Ancona on the 7th, the German submarine U38, along with its crew, is entered into the Austro-Hungarian navy's List of Warships.  If the issue does ot arbitration, the Austro-Hungarian government can point to the list to show that U38 is in fact Austro-Hungarian, though of course it is German.

November 20th, 1915

- Colonel Hermann von der Lieth-Thomsen, chief of German field aviation, informs OHL today that the air arm will require a thousand aircraft in 1916, and to accomplish this he requests approval for measures to increase production and exclude additional exemptions for skilled workers in aircraft factories.

- West of Görz the Italian 2nd Army has concentrated three divisions along a two and a half kilometre stretch of the line centred on Oslavija.  On the 18th and 19th they crept forward towards the enemy trenches, and today they launch their attack.  Just north of Oslavija a battalion is able to penetrate the Austro-Hungarian line, but artillery fire prevents a further advance.  To the south, repeated assaults are launched against the heights at Podgora throughout the day, but are unable to make any progress.

To the south, repeated Italian attacks are made on both the northern and southern slopes of Mt. San Michele.  To the north, the Italians manage to secure a stretch of the line and ruins of a former strongpoint by nightfall, but the success brings no significant advantage as otherwise the Austro-Hungarians have held their line.

- French Vice-Admiral Louis Dartige, commander of French naval forces in the Mediterranean, submits a memorandum to Admiral de Robeck, senior British naval officer in the Mediterranean, on the number of warships he sees as necessary for effective anti-submarine patrols.  Based on the belief that one destroyer was needed to patrol every 140 miles of transport routes, increased to one every 40 miles at narrow channels, Dartige calculated that a total of 140 British and French destroyers would be necessary to adequately patrol the Mediterranean.  Added to this was 280 trawlers and small craft, whose responsibility would be to work in groups of two to four searching for German submarines and their supply bases in the narrow passages of the Mediterranean, among the Aegean Islands, and along the Ottoman coast.  This would represent a significant augmentation of Anglo-French naval forces in the Mediterranean - currently there are only 32 British and 53 French destroyers, and of the French number thirteen were in port immobilized by breakdowns of various kinds.

- Today the British 6th Indian Division reaches the town of Lajj, approximately twenty-five miles from Baghdad and less than ten miles from the major Ottoman defensive position at Ctesiphon.  Here General Townshend orders his division to concentrate in preparation for an assault on the enemy defences.

Colonel Nur-ur-din has taken advantage of the almost two months it has taken for the British to resume their advance after the First Battle of Kut-al-Amara to construct formidable defences at Ctesiphon.  The main trench line covers the north bank of the Tigris River, stretching from a bend in the river (meaning an assault there would have to cross the river under fire) north through a dozen redoubts, and is anchored in the north by two redoubts that the British refer to as 'Vital Point', or V.P.  This line also incorporates a number of ancient ruins, including the so-called 'High Wall' which protrudes eastwards and potentially provides cover for flanking fire if the British attack the northern half of the line.  Behind the main Ottoman trench line lay other ruins, including the most famous at Ctesiphon, the Great Arch of Taq Kasra.  Approximately six thousand yards behind the first trench line the Ottomans have also constructed a second line of defences, though these are not as extensive, and trenches have also been constructed on the southern bank.

The Great Arch of Taq Kasra.

The delay in the advance of 6th Indian Division has not only allowed the Ottomans to construct substantial defences at Ctesiphon, but also given time for Ottoman reinforcements ordered to Mesopotamia in early October to arrive on the scene.  In addition to 35th and 38th Divisions, which have spent 1915 in Mesopotamia being repeated thrashed by the British, 45th and 51st Division are also now available to Nur-ur-din, both being well-trained and (the latter especially) with valuable combat experience.  He deploys 45th Division around 'Victory Point' at the northern end of the main trench line, the most important (and potentially vulnerable) position for the Ottomans to hold.  While 38th Division holds the rest of the first trench line north of the Tigris and 35th Division is south of the river, 51st Division is held in reserve.

The Ottoman defences at Ctesiphon, November 1915.

Overall, the Ottoman force consists of 18 000 infantry, 400 cavalry, and two regiments of camelry, along with 52 artillery pieces.  To face them, General Townshend has at his disposal 13 700 infantry, eleven squadrons of cavalry, and five batteries of artillery.  A frontal attack is thus out of the question - Townshend must not merely defeat the Ottomans but do so without suffering heavy losses on such a scale as to render impossible the occupation of Baghdad.  Moreover, it is not enough for the Ottomans to be forced back; even a defeated Ottoman detachment could threaten the long supply route of 6th Indian Division as it moves on to Baghdad.  Instead, the Ottomans must be annihilated.  To accomplish this, Townshend intends a repetition of the First Battle of Kut-al-Amara, except this time with the flanking maneouver working as intended.  His plan is to divide his force into four.  Column C is to attack the northern stretch of the main Turkish line, to pin the enemy there.  To its right, Column A will attach and seize VP (Vital Point) while further north Column B will sweep around and attack the rear of the Turkish line.  Finally, a Flying column of cavalry and 76th Punjabi Battalion will drive northwest to destroy the bridge over the Diyala River, which would cut the line of retreat of the Ottoman force.  If successful, the three main columns would envelop the Ottomans while the Flying Column would prevent any survivors from escaping.  It is a bold plan, and one that concentrates the bulk of the British force - 9000 infantry - against just a third of the Ottoman force, achieving local superiority at the decisive point.  To achieve such an advantage, however, requires Townshend to throw everything into the initial attack, and there will be no reserves remaining should the plan misfire.  The attack will be launched in two days time.

November 19th, 1915

- General Gallieni replies today to General Sarrail's repeated requests for reinforcements for his Army of the Near East, and the minister of war does not mince words: 'Your dispatches or reports have repeated several times your requirement for four army corps, but the government has never consented to or discussed making your army this large . . . [you must] adapt your plans to the personnel at your disposal.'

- On the Italian Front the Italians attack Austro-Hungarian lines on the southern slope of Mt. San Michele again, but are no more successful today than they were yesterday.

November 18th, 1915

- Given the ongoing stalemate on the Isonzo River, Cadorna informs the government today that he has ordered the bombardment of the city of Görz for the first time in the war.  Cadorna assures his civilian masters that the city's Italian inhabitants have long since fled, and that enemy gunners have positioned artillery in Görz in the belief that the Italians will not shell it, in addition to basing reserves in the city.  As he explains, 'as this is a war of attrition, it is both natural and necessary to do whatever is best to wear down the enemy's strength.'

Mass artillery fire on the city begins at 5am this morning, and continues throughout the day, and is augmented by aerial bombardment in the early afternoon.  The shells are distributed across the city, striking both homes and larger structures including municipal buildings and factors.  However, as most of the Austro-Hungarian reserves have already been committed to the fight, there are actually few units in the city, minimizing the military effectiveness of the bombardment.

To the south, the Italian 3rd Army resumes its efforts to seize Mt. San Michele with a series of assaults from the northwest and southwest throughout the day.  Bitter fighting rages on both slopes of the mountain, and the Austro-Hungarians manages to hold off the Italians, though not without heavy losses - one battalion of 28th Regiment suffers two-thirds casualties today.

November 17th, 1915

- Today elements of the German 103rd Division capture the town of Kuršumlija on the Toplica River.  However, it is clear that the Serbs have successfully evacuated their forces from the north bank, withdrawing south.  Further, overnight the first major snowstorm has struck, swelling the Ibar and Toplica Rivers while making aerial reconnaissance almost impossible.

- Since November 9th, General Sarrail of the Army of the Near East has sent repeated requests to the government to expand his force to four corps to allow him to not only hold his lines on the Vardar and Tcherna Rivers but also go onto the offensive.  He repeats his arguments to Lord Kitchener in person today when the latter visits Salonika.

- Though heavy snow continues on the Italian Front, Cadorna orders a resumption of offensive operations tomorrow along the Isonzo River, leaving it to his army commanders to decide on particular objectives.

November 16th, 1915

- On the Italian Front, heavy snowstorms restricts visibility and makes movement difficult, leading Cadorna to temporarily suspend offensive operations.

- U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing asks the American ambassador in Vienna to ask the Austro-Hungarian government to examine the list of submarines in the Austro-Hungarian navy and report which one sunk the Italian liner Ancona on the 7th.  Such a request is problematic, of course, since U38, the submarine responsible, does not appear on the list.

November 15th, 1915

- On the western slope of Heights #184 west of Görz an Austro-Hungarian trench has been the scene of particularly desperate fighting in the first days of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo, with the position changing hands almost hourly.  As a result, the Austro-Hungarians have constructed a new trench line two hundred yards to the east at the crest of Heights #184, and over the past two nights have withdrawn to this new position.  The old trench line is conceded to the Italians, and the ground thus gained is both significant (in terms of overall Italian gains in the offensive) and meaningless (the trench line has been thoroughly ruined by artillery fire and does not open up the enemy line).  As such, the 'concession' by the Austro-Hungarians west of Heights #184 is entirely emblematic of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo.

To the south, the Italians make yet another effort today to seize Mt. San Michele, with infantry assaults at 7am following a heavy artillery bombardment.  The focal point of the morning's fighting is a stretch of trench on the northern slope of the mountain, which changes hands several times despite artillery fire having largely obliterated the trench.  Into the evening hours the Italians feed fresh reserves into the fight, and at nightfall the Austro-Hungarians concede a hundred yards of the 'trench'.  The loss, however, is inconsequential.

To date the 4th Battle of the Isonzo has played out as the third - the Italians have made inconsequential gains for heavy losses.  The Austro-Hungarians, however, have also suffered terribly in the fight, and 5th Army is increasingly concerned that its forces are wearing out, and in particular that the army's reserves are units that have not yet recovered from lengthy stints on the front lines.  Concerned with the ability to hold off an Italian offensive that they appear to aim to continue for some time, Conrad orders 9th Division, stationed on the Eastern Front behind Südarmee, to redeploy to the Italian Front.

- In an effort to resolve the crisis in Teheran, the German military attaché attempts to convince the Persian Cossack Brigade, nominally under the control of the Persian government but officered by Russians, to turn against its Russian officers and rally to the shah.  The Russians, however, had gotten wind of the plan, and the brigade was paraded and declared that its loyalty was foremost to the tsar.  Moreover, the Russians threaten to depose Shah Ahmad and replace him with his father Muhammed Ali, who had been deposed as shah in 1909 and found refuge in Russia.  Shah Ahmad is faced with the choice of acquiescence with Entente dominance or side with Germany, and in such a situation the fact that Russian forces are nearby while Germans are not is significant - to side with the Germans would necessitate fighting the Russians with minimal German aid.  By this morning the German embassy and pro-German liberals and nationalists in the Maljis have left Teheran for Qum en route to Isfahan, and Ambassador Reuss has encouraged the shah to follow and establish a government there in alliance with Germany.  Shah Ahmad is to depart Teheran at 9am this morning, but with the Germans and their Persian allies having already departed his resolve is weakened by the Russian and British ambassadors, and at the last moment he decides to remain in Teheran.  This action destroys German influence in the Persian government and police, most of whom remain loyal to the shah, while the departure of the German embassy and their pro-German allies in the Maljis from Teheran effectively removes their ability to influence Persian affairs.  Henceforth, the Entente will have the upper hand in Persia.

November 14th, 1915

- N-Abt, the intelligence department of OHL, produces a report today on the Entente armies on the Western Front.  They estimate that the current size of the French army, including the class of 1916, to be approximately three million, which was four hundred thousand less than the size of the army at the outbreak of war.  N-Abt further estimates that under normal conditions the French are losing seventy thousand men per month.  At this rate, they estimate that the French will be experiencing severe shortages by September 1916 and will be forced to call up younger classes earlier and earlier to meet shortfalls in manpower - for instance, they anticipate the Class of 1918 being called up in June 1916.

The strength of the British army, however, is more difficult for N-Abt to assess.  They estimate that the British currently deploys approximately forty-two divisions consisting of 1 057 000 men, including 270 000 regulars, 170 000 Territorials, 400 000 in the 'New Armies', 60 000 Indians, and 47 000 Canadians.  However, though it is understood that the British army will grow to about seventy divisions, N-Abt is not able to conclude when this would occur.

Overall, N-Abt's report demonstrates that the Entente are numerically superior to the Germans on the Western Front, and that manpower shortages in the French army will in time be compensated by the growth of the British army.  This assessment of the balance of strength on the Western Front will be at the forefront of Falkenhayn's thoughts as they turn to planning operations on the Western Front in 1916.

- Today the commander of the Italian 2nd Army, Lieutenant-General Pietro Frugoni, orders VI Corps to continue the offensive west of Görz.  Seeing the setback yesterday at Oslavija as emblematic of the exhaustion of his soldiers, Lieutenant-General Luigi Capello, commander of VI Corps, objects to the order, writing to Cadorna that in the miserable conditions his men are little more than walking clumps of mud, and that further attacks would be pointless.  Cadorna sides with Capello, and suspends operations at Görz.  To the south, however, the Italian 3rd army continues its attempt to capture Mt. San Michelle.  In the heaviest fighting of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo to date, attacks are launched from both flanks towards the summit, but by the end of the day all the Italians have gained is a small stretch of the first enemy trench southwest of St. Martino.  Here the Austro-Hungarians simply establish a new trench line two hundred yards east of their old position, and otherwise nothing changes.  However, repulsing the enemy assaults costs the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps over 1700 casualties today, and 5th Army sends forward three battalions from reserves.

- Meeting in Rome, the Italian cabinet discusses the evolving situation in the Balkans.  Their French allies have requested the deployment of an Italian contingent to Salonika, which Cadorna supports (on the basis that tying down enemy forces here keeps them from the Italian Front).  His political masters, however, have their eyes focused on Albania, both closer and seen by the government as within Italy's sphere of influence.  Cadorna's advice is ignored, and the formation of an expedition to deploy to Albania is agreed upon.

- The German battlecruiser Goeben is attacked by the Russian submarine Morzh off the Bosphorus while escorting transports.  The German warship only narrowly avoids Russian torpedoes, and the decision is made that despite the marked inferiority of the Ottoman navy, Goeben cannot be risked as a mere escort for steamers.

November 13th, 1915

- Lead elements of the German X Reserve Corps, pursuing retreating Serbian forces, seizes the passes located 5200 feet above sea level at Jastrebac Mountain.  To the west, however, XXII Reserve Corps and the Alpine Corps are able to make only slow progress down the Ibar River valley - owing to its narrowness, only one regiment of 44th Reserve Division can be sent forward at a time, while the Alpine Corps has its first fight of the campaign, defeating a rearguard of the Drina 2nd Division.  Such engagements, though hopeless for the Serbs, serve to slow the German pursuit.

- West of Görz, three days of intensive fighting has largely exhausted the Italian infantry, and the pace of their assaults noticeably declines today.  The Austro-Hungarians, however, assault the position lost yesterday near the church as Oslavija, and in a short, sharp fight retake the lost ground and capture five hundred prisoners.  To the south, the Italian 3rd Army repeats the efforts of yesterday to capture Mt. San Michele; after a three-hour preliminary bombardment large attacks from the northwest and southwest of the mountain.  On the northern slope, Italian infantry occupy a six hundred yard stretch of the enemy trench line, but an Austro-Hungarian counterattack after dark regains the lost ground.

November 12th, 1915

- Over the past nine days, French forces have achieved meagre results in the offensive ordered by General Sarrail: elements of the French 57th and 122nd Divisions have crossed the Tcherna River and advanced five kilometres, but are encountering increasingly severe resistance.  To the southeast, the French 156th Division at the Strumica rail station has successfully counterattacked Bulgarian forces and driven them back across the border.  Nevertheless, Bulgarian forces in the region greatly outnumber the three French divisions Sarrail has available in southern Serbia.

The front in southern Serbia after the offensive of Army of the Near East, November 1915.

- Italian attacks continue today along the Isonzo River.  West of Görz, the morning sees back and forth fighting over a stretch of trench on the west slope of Heights #184 near Podgora, while in the afternoon an Italian assault penetrates the Austro-Hungarian line near the church at Oslavija.  To the south, the Italian 3rd Army abandons the broader assaults of the past two days to launch a two-pronged effort to envelop Mt. San Michele, attacking from Peteano to the northwest and near St. Martino to the southwest.  Three times Italian infantry advance up the northern slope of Mt. San Michele, and three times they fail to gain any ground.  To the south, several regiments attack near Kote, but are repulsed with heavy losses.

- Recent sinkings by German submarines in the Mediterranean, especially of the transport Calvados off Algeria, has sparked concern both in metropolitan France and French North Africa regarding the safety of merchant ships and transports in the Mediterranean.  Under pressure, the French minister of marine instructs Vice-Admiral Louis-René-Marie Charles Dartige du Fournet, commander of French naval forces in the Mediterranean, to reach an agreement with the British regarding a general plans for coordinated naval patrols to prevent submarine attacks.

- In Teheran Shah Ahmad of Persia informs Ambassador Reuss that he must secure the approval of the German government before he will ratify the treaty of alliance offered by the latter.  This effectively postpones for several weeks the final decision of the shah on the treaty.  Meanwhile, the Russian menace to Teheran increases - an advance Russian detachment is encamped forty miles from the capital, while a larger Russian expeditionary force of eight thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry lands at Enzeli today.

November 11th, 1915

- Writing to Falkenhayn today, Mackensen argues that while the original objectives of the Serbian operation have been accomplished, the campaign remains incomplete as long as the Serbian army has not been destroyed.  This can be best accomplished, in his view, by a vigorous pursuit by the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army down the Ibar River valley towards Kosovo while the German 11th and Bulgarian 1st Armies advance towards Priština.  Here, it is hoped, the Serbian army can be brought to a final battle, made all the more decisive given the historical and cultural significance of the region to Serbian nationalism and identity.  Mackensen's hopes are bouyed by intelligence reports today that the Serbian army has lost over half its strength since the beginning of October.

The front lines in Serbia, November 11th, 1915.

- On the Italian Front the second day of the latest Italian offensive along the Isonzo River hardly differs from the first.  Opposite Görz, the southern wing of the Italian 2nd Army advances between Oslavija and the heights at Podgora, but by the end of the day have only heavy losses to show for their attacks.  To the south, the Italian 3rd Army attempts a repeat of the prior day's operations, with a three-hour artillery bombardment preceding infantry assaults at noon.  However, a similar effort leads to similar results: most of the attacks break down before even reaching the Austro-Hungarian positions, and in those few cases where the infantry manage to enter the first trench line - mainly near Peteano - counterattacks are able to drive them back out.

- The British 6th Indian Division begins its advance towards Baghdad today, over two weeks since General Townshend was ordered to capture the city and more than a month since the victory at the First Battle of Kut-al-Amara.  The significant delay has been the result of severe supply shortages resulting from the difficulties in bringing sufficient food, fodder, and munitions forward along the Tigris River from the main base at Basra far to the southeast.  Even today 6th Indian Division is hardly well-supplied, as soldiers continue to suffer from a range of illnesses related to poor food.

November 10th, 1915

- As battered as the Serbian army is, it still has not lost all fighting spirit.  Today the Timok 1st, Sumidija 2nd, and Morava 2nd Divisions of the Serbian 2nd Army launch a counterattack against the Bulgarian 1st Division, forcing it back toward Leskovac.  This gives 2nd Army breathing room to resume its retreat.

- Though Cadorna had suspended the offensive of the Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies along the Isonzo River on the 4th, over the past five days Italian artillery has kept up a steady rate of fire on Austro-Hungarian lines, and there have been a number of small-scale attacks against specific points.  Though these actions were designed to give the enemy no rest and no chance to rebuild defences and bring up replacements, they also clearly signaled to Austria-Hungary that further operations were forthcoming, an impression enhanced both by intelligence reports indicating trains were bringing Italian replacements and supplies to the Isonzo front, and by the noise of wagons and motor vehicles behind the Italian line.  Thus the opening attacks of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo today comes as no surprise to the defenders opposite.

Given the onset of winter on the upper Isonzo, Cadorna's plan for this offensive is to attack along a somewhat shorter stretch of the front, with the focus of operations being at and just south of Görz.  The southern wing of the Italian 2nd Army, and specifically VI Corps, is to be against Oslavija just to the northwest of Görz, and it is hoped that seizing this position will outflank the Podgora heights from the north and allow for its capture.  To the south, from 3rd Army XI Corps would advance towards Mt. San Michele with three divisions while XIII Corps would attack between Heights #197 and Kote #111 in the direction of St. Martino.  To both the north and south, diversionary assaults would be undertaken to pin the enemy forces opposite.

After a rainstorm early this morning delayed the start of the offensive, the Italian artillery bombardment on 2nd Army's front reaches a crescendo after 9am that lasts for four hours.  The Italians attempt to maximize the effectiveness of their barrage by concentrating their fire on the specific positions that are about to be assaulted.  Around 1pm the Italian infantry leap forward from their trenches and begin their attacks.  North of Oslavija they reach the enemy barbed wire, and manage to bring up an artillery piece to within fifty meters to blast their way forward.  However, Austro-Hungarian artillery on Mt. Santo behind the front line are able thoroughly pulverize the attacks, who shortly thereafter fall back to their starting trenches.  At Oslavija itself a similar pattern plays out: the Italians cross No Man's Land, only to come under murderous artillery and machine-gun fire, and subsequently fall back.

On 3rd Army's front, three hours of intensive artillery fire preceeds attacks at 11am by six divisions along the front stretching from Mt. San Michele to Mt. dei sei Busi.  Only south of St. Martino are the Italians able to reach the first trench line, and counterattacks later in the day force the attackers to relinquish even these paltry gains.  At 5pm a heavy storm erupts and brings the day's fighting to an end.

The 4th Battle of the Isonzo, Nov. 10th to Dec. 2nd, 1915.

- The Russian demonstration from Kazvin on the 7th highlighted to the German ambassador at Teheran the precariousness of his position and the Persian government if it can be convinced to side with Germany.  With a sense that time is running out, Ambassador Reuss, without reference to Berlin, offers a twenty-year defensive treaty in an effort to win the commitment of the Persians before the Russians can intervene.  He also suggests that the Persian government should abandon Teheran, given its proximity to Russian forces to the north, and relocate to Isfahan to the south.