- On the western slope of Heights #184 west of Görz an Austro-Hungarian trench has been the scene of particularly desperate fighting in the first days of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo, with the position changing hands almost hourly. As a result, the Austro-Hungarians have constructed a new trench line two hundred yards to the east at the crest of Heights #184, and over the past two nights have withdrawn to this new position. The old trench line is conceded to the Italians, and the ground thus gained is both significant (in terms of overall Italian gains in the offensive) and meaningless (the trench line has been thoroughly ruined by artillery fire and does not open up the enemy line). As such, the 'concession' by the Austro-Hungarians west of Heights #184 is entirely emblematic of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo.
To the south, the Italians make yet another effort today to seize Mt. San Michele, with infantry assaults at 7am following a heavy artillery bombardment. The focal point of the morning's fighting is a stretch of trench on the northern slope of the mountain, which changes hands several times despite artillery fire having largely obliterated the trench. Into the evening hours the Italians feed fresh reserves into the fight, and at nightfall the Austro-Hungarians concede a hundred yards of the 'trench'. The loss, however, is inconsequential.
To date the 4th Battle of the Isonzo has played out as the third - the Italians have made inconsequential gains for heavy losses. The Austro-Hungarians, however, have also suffered terribly in the fight, and 5th Army is increasingly concerned that its forces are wearing out, and in particular that the army's reserves are units that have not yet recovered from lengthy stints on the front lines. Concerned with the ability to hold off an Italian offensive that they appear to aim to continue for some time, Conrad orders 9th Division, stationed on the Eastern Front behind Südarmee, to redeploy to the Italian Front.
- In an effort to resolve the crisis in Teheran, the German military attaché attempts to convince the Persian Cossack Brigade, nominally under the control of the Persian government but officered by Russians, to turn against its Russian officers and rally to the shah. The Russians, however, had gotten wind of the plan, and the brigade was paraded and declared that its loyalty was foremost to the tsar. Moreover, the Russians threaten to depose Shah Ahmad and replace him with his father Muhammed Ali, who had been deposed as shah in 1909 and found refuge in Russia. Shah Ahmad is faced with the choice of acquiescence with Entente dominance or side with Germany, and in such a situation the fact that Russian forces are nearby while Germans are not is significant - to side with the Germans would necessitate fighting the Russians with minimal German aid. By this morning the German embassy and pro-German liberals and nationalists in the Maljis have left Teheran for Qum en route to Isfahan, and Ambassador Reuss has encouraged the shah to follow and establish a government there in alliance with Germany. Shah Ahmad is to depart Teheran at 9am this morning, but with the Germans and their Persian allies having already departed his resolve is weakened by the Russian and British ambassadors, and at the last moment he decides to remain in Teheran. This action destroys German influence in the Persian government and police, most of whom remain loyal to the shah, while the departure of the German embassy and their pro-German allies in the Maljis from Teheran effectively removes their ability to influence Persian affairs. Henceforth, the Entente will have the upper hand in Persia.
Showing posts with label Persia. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Persia. Show all posts
Sunday, November 15, 2015
Thursday, November 12, 2015
November 12th, 1915
- Over the past nine days, French forces have achieved meagre results in the offensive ordered by General Sarrail: elements of the French 57th and 122nd Divisions have crossed the Tcherna River and advanced five kilometres, but are encountering increasingly severe resistance. To the southeast, the French 156th Division at the Strumica rail station has successfully counterattacked Bulgarian forces and driven them back across the border. Nevertheless, Bulgarian forces in the region greatly outnumber the three French divisions Sarrail has available in southern Serbia.
- Italian attacks continue today along the Isonzo River. West of Görz, the morning sees back and forth fighting over a stretch of trench on the west slope of Heights #184 near Podgora, while in the afternoon an Italian assault penetrates the Austro-Hungarian line near the church at Oslavija. To the south, the Italian 3rd Army abandons the broader assaults of the past two days to launch a two-pronged effort to envelop Mt. San Michele, attacking from Peteano to the northwest and near St. Martino to the southwest. Three times Italian infantry advance up the northern slope of Mt. San Michele, and three times they fail to gain any ground. To the south, several regiments attack near Kote, but are repulsed with heavy losses.
- Recent sinkings by German submarines in the Mediterranean, especially of the transport Calvados off Algeria, has sparked concern both in metropolitan France and French North Africa regarding the safety of merchant ships and transports in the Mediterranean. Under pressure, the French minister of marine instructs Vice-Admiral Louis-René-Marie Charles Dartige du Fournet, commander of French naval forces in the Mediterranean, to reach an agreement with the British regarding a general plans for coordinated naval patrols to prevent submarine attacks.
- In Teheran Shah Ahmad of Persia informs Ambassador Reuss that he must secure the approval of the German government before he will ratify the treaty of alliance offered by the latter. This effectively postpones for several weeks the final decision of the shah on the treaty. Meanwhile, the Russian menace to Teheran increases - an advance Russian detachment is encamped forty miles from the capital, while a larger Russian expeditionary force of eight thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry lands at Enzeli today.
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| The front in southern Serbia after the offensive of Army of the Near East, November 1915. |
- Italian attacks continue today along the Isonzo River. West of Görz, the morning sees back and forth fighting over a stretch of trench on the west slope of Heights #184 near Podgora, while in the afternoon an Italian assault penetrates the Austro-Hungarian line near the church at Oslavija. To the south, the Italian 3rd Army abandons the broader assaults of the past two days to launch a two-pronged effort to envelop Mt. San Michele, attacking from Peteano to the northwest and near St. Martino to the southwest. Three times Italian infantry advance up the northern slope of Mt. San Michele, and three times they fail to gain any ground. To the south, several regiments attack near Kote, but are repulsed with heavy losses.
- Recent sinkings by German submarines in the Mediterranean, especially of the transport Calvados off Algeria, has sparked concern both in metropolitan France and French North Africa regarding the safety of merchant ships and transports in the Mediterranean. Under pressure, the French minister of marine instructs Vice-Admiral Louis-René-Marie Charles Dartige du Fournet, commander of French naval forces in the Mediterranean, to reach an agreement with the British regarding a general plans for coordinated naval patrols to prevent submarine attacks.
- In Teheran Shah Ahmad of Persia informs Ambassador Reuss that he must secure the approval of the German government before he will ratify the treaty of alliance offered by the latter. This effectively postpones for several weeks the final decision of the shah on the treaty. Meanwhile, the Russian menace to Teheran increases - an advance Russian detachment is encamped forty miles from the capital, while a larger Russian expeditionary force of eight thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry lands at Enzeli today.
Tuesday, November 10, 2015
November 10th, 1915
- As battered as the Serbian army is, it still has not lost all fighting spirit. Today the Timok 1st, Sumidija 2nd, and Morava 2nd Divisions of the Serbian 2nd Army launch a counterattack against the Bulgarian 1st Division, forcing it back toward Leskovac. This gives 2nd Army breathing room to resume its retreat.
- Though Cadorna had suspended the offensive of the Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies along the Isonzo River on the 4th, over the past five days Italian artillery has kept up a steady rate of fire on Austro-Hungarian lines, and there have been a number of small-scale attacks against specific points. Though these actions were designed to give the enemy no rest and no chance to rebuild defences and bring up replacements, they also clearly signaled to Austria-Hungary that further operations were forthcoming, an impression enhanced both by intelligence reports indicating trains were bringing Italian replacements and supplies to the Isonzo front, and by the noise of wagons and motor vehicles behind the Italian line. Thus the opening attacks of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo today comes as no surprise to the defenders opposite.
Given the onset of winter on the upper Isonzo, Cadorna's plan for this offensive is to attack along a somewhat shorter stretch of the front, with the focus of operations being at and just south of Görz. The southern wing of the Italian 2nd Army, and specifically VI Corps, is to be against Oslavija just to the northwest of Görz, and it is hoped that seizing this position will outflank the Podgora heights from the north and allow for its capture. To the south, from 3rd Army XI Corps would advance towards Mt. San Michele with three divisions while XIII Corps would attack between Heights #197 and Kote #111 in the direction of St. Martino. To both the north and south, diversionary assaults would be undertaken to pin the enemy forces opposite.
After a rainstorm early this morning delayed the start of the offensive, the Italian artillery bombardment on 2nd Army's front reaches a crescendo after 9am that lasts for four hours. The Italians attempt to maximize the effectiveness of their barrage by concentrating their fire on the specific positions that are about to be assaulted. Around 1pm the Italian infantry leap forward from their trenches and begin their attacks. North of Oslavija they reach the enemy barbed wire, and manage to bring up an artillery piece to within fifty meters to blast their way forward. However, Austro-Hungarian artillery on Mt. Santo behind the front line are able thoroughly pulverize the attacks, who shortly thereafter fall back to their starting trenches. At Oslavija itself a similar pattern plays out: the Italians cross No Man's Land, only to come under murderous artillery and machine-gun fire, and subsequently fall back.
On 3rd Army's front, three hours of intensive artillery fire preceeds attacks at 11am by six divisions along the front stretching from Mt. San Michele to Mt. dei sei Busi. Only south of St. Martino are the Italians able to reach the first trench line, and counterattacks later in the day force the attackers to relinquish even these paltry gains. At 5pm a heavy storm erupts and brings the day's fighting to an end.
- The Russian demonstration from Kazvin on the 7th highlighted to the German ambassador at Teheran the precariousness of his position and the Persian government if it can be convinced to side with Germany. With a sense that time is running out, Ambassador Reuss, without reference to Berlin, offers a twenty-year defensive treaty in an effort to win the commitment of the Persians before the Russians can intervene. He also suggests that the Persian government should abandon Teheran, given its proximity to Russian forces to the north, and relocate to Isfahan to the south.
- Though Cadorna had suspended the offensive of the Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies along the Isonzo River on the 4th, over the past five days Italian artillery has kept up a steady rate of fire on Austro-Hungarian lines, and there have been a number of small-scale attacks against specific points. Though these actions were designed to give the enemy no rest and no chance to rebuild defences and bring up replacements, they also clearly signaled to Austria-Hungary that further operations were forthcoming, an impression enhanced both by intelligence reports indicating trains were bringing Italian replacements and supplies to the Isonzo front, and by the noise of wagons and motor vehicles behind the Italian line. Thus the opening attacks of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo today comes as no surprise to the defenders opposite.
Given the onset of winter on the upper Isonzo, Cadorna's plan for this offensive is to attack along a somewhat shorter stretch of the front, with the focus of operations being at and just south of Görz. The southern wing of the Italian 2nd Army, and specifically VI Corps, is to be against Oslavija just to the northwest of Görz, and it is hoped that seizing this position will outflank the Podgora heights from the north and allow for its capture. To the south, from 3rd Army XI Corps would advance towards Mt. San Michele with three divisions while XIII Corps would attack between Heights #197 and Kote #111 in the direction of St. Martino. To both the north and south, diversionary assaults would be undertaken to pin the enemy forces opposite.
After a rainstorm early this morning delayed the start of the offensive, the Italian artillery bombardment on 2nd Army's front reaches a crescendo after 9am that lasts for four hours. The Italians attempt to maximize the effectiveness of their barrage by concentrating their fire on the specific positions that are about to be assaulted. Around 1pm the Italian infantry leap forward from their trenches and begin their attacks. North of Oslavija they reach the enemy barbed wire, and manage to bring up an artillery piece to within fifty meters to blast their way forward. However, Austro-Hungarian artillery on Mt. Santo behind the front line are able thoroughly pulverize the attacks, who shortly thereafter fall back to their starting trenches. At Oslavija itself a similar pattern plays out: the Italians cross No Man's Land, only to come under murderous artillery and machine-gun fire, and subsequently fall back.
On 3rd Army's front, three hours of intensive artillery fire preceeds attacks at 11am by six divisions along the front stretching from Mt. San Michele to Mt. dei sei Busi. Only south of St. Martino are the Italians able to reach the first trench line, and counterattacks later in the day force the attackers to relinquish even these paltry gains. At 5pm a heavy storm erupts and brings the day's fighting to an end.
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| The 4th Battle of the Isonzo, Nov. 10th to Dec. 2nd, 1915. |
- The Russian demonstration from Kazvin on the 7th highlighted to the German ambassador at Teheran the precariousness of his position and the Persian government if it can be convinced to side with Germany. With a sense that time is running out, Ambassador Reuss, without reference to Berlin, offers a twenty-year defensive treaty in an effort to win the commitment of the Persians before the Russians can intervene. He also suggests that the Persian government should abandon Teheran, given its proximity to Russian forces to the north, and relocate to Isfahan to the south.
Saturday, November 07, 2015
November 7th, 1915
- Elements of the German IV Reserve and X Reserve Corps seize the Serbian city of Kruševac. Over the past two days, the Germans have captured six to seven thousand prisoners, as well as fifty locomotives and 1100 loaded railcars immobilized by the collapse of the Serbian rail network.
- Three days after sinking the French transport Calvados, the German submarine U38 strikes again today, and ignites a diplomatic firestorm. Off Bizerte it intercepts the Italian passenger liner Ancona en route from Messina to New York. Initially the liner attempts to escape, but shelling from U38 brings it to a halt. The captain of U38 gives the crew and passengers of Ancona forty-five minutes to abandon ship, but when he sees smokes on the horizon he decides that Ancona may have summoned a warship to its rescue, and orders a torpedo fired into the liner. Quickly sinking, over two hundred passengers are lost, several of whom are Americans.
The loss of American life by itself is contentious, given the crises provoked by the sinking of Lusitania and Arabic in earlier this year. Further complicating matters is that U38 flew the Austro-Hungarian while surfaced, standard practice for German submarines when attacking Italian-flagged ships, given that Germany and Italy are not at war. This means, of course, that diplomatic protests by the Americans over the sinking of Ancona are directed at Austria-Hungary, not Germany, and the navies of the two allies have to ensure they have their stories straight to appease the Americans.
- As the Persian government of Mustaufi ul-Mamalik negotiates with the German ambassador for an alliance, Russian forces in northern Persia continue to cement their grip on the region. Since the spring, a Russian detachment has been garrisoned at Kazvin, less than ninety miles northwest of Teheran, and in an effort to dissuade the Persian government from anti-Entente activity demonstrates towards the Persian capital today, sending the message that they could occupy Tehran if they desired to.
- Three days after sinking the French transport Calvados, the German submarine U38 strikes again today, and ignites a diplomatic firestorm. Off Bizerte it intercepts the Italian passenger liner Ancona en route from Messina to New York. Initially the liner attempts to escape, but shelling from U38 brings it to a halt. The captain of U38 gives the crew and passengers of Ancona forty-five minutes to abandon ship, but when he sees smokes on the horizon he decides that Ancona may have summoned a warship to its rescue, and orders a torpedo fired into the liner. Quickly sinking, over two hundred passengers are lost, several of whom are Americans.
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| The Italian passenger liner Ancona. |
The loss of American life by itself is contentious, given the crises provoked by the sinking of Lusitania and Arabic in earlier this year. Further complicating matters is that U38 flew the Austro-Hungarian while surfaced, standard practice for German submarines when attacking Italian-flagged ships, given that Germany and Italy are not at war. This means, of course, that diplomatic protests by the Americans over the sinking of Ancona are directed at Austria-Hungary, not Germany, and the navies of the two allies have to ensure they have their stories straight to appease the Americans.
- As the Persian government of Mustaufi ul-Mamalik negotiates with the German ambassador for an alliance, Russian forces in northern Persia continue to cement their grip on the region. Since the spring, a Russian detachment has been garrisoned at Kazvin, less than ninety miles northwest of Teheran, and in an effort to dissuade the Persian government from anti-Entente activity demonstrates towards the Persian capital today, sending the message that they could occupy Tehran if they desired to.
Wednesday, October 28, 2015
October 28th, 1915
- By this evening the Austro-Hungarian VIII and German III Corps are within fifteen miles of Kragujevać, while a break in the weather has allowed for renewed aerial reconnaissance that reveals to Mackensen and Seeckt the disposition of the Serbian forces opposing his armies. They issue orders for the two corps approaching Kragujevać to not only seize the city but also pin down the Serbian defenders. Simultaneously, the German XXII Reserve and Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps to the west would push south and seize the bridges over the West Morava River, while to the east the German IV Reserve and X Corps would advance south along the Morava River, where they would link up with the Bulgarian 1st Army advancing from the east. The Bulgarian 2nd Army, meanwhile is to contain the Entente forces at Salonika and cover the southern exits from the Morava River valley. If executed successfully, the operation will trap the majority of the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies between the Morava and West Morava Rivers, leading to their destruction.
- After three days to replace losses and bring up supplies, Cadorna orders a resumption of the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo today. As the initial plan to push forward north and south of Görz prior to an assault on the city itself has been a spectacular failure, for the second phase of the offensive Cadorna decides to forgo the flank attacks and instructs VI Corps of 2nd Army to move directly on Görz. On either side, XIV Corps of 3rd Army (to the south) and II Corps (to the north) will capture Mt. San Michele and push east from Plava respectively.
Just north of Görz, the Italian 3rd Division launches repeated assaults against Austro-Hungarian trenches at Zagora, just south of Plava. This position had been so devastated by artillery fire that the defenders had been instructed to fall back to the second trench line, but repeated counterattacks prevented 3rd Division from holding the old Austro-Hungarian trenches. On the other side of Plava, 32nd Division had similarly failed to gain any ground. Opposite Görz itself, Italian artillery unleash a heavy bombardment before the infantry goes forward early this morning. Elements of the Italian 4th Division reach the first trench line at Oslavija, but is repulsed, while 11th Division cannot even reach the trenches opposite. The Italian 12th Division, however, is able to take advantage of a degree of cover offered by the broken terrain they advance over, and are able to break into the Austro-Hungarian positions on the heights at Podgora this afternoon. Several detachments of Italian infantry fight their way to the crest of the heights, from which they can see Görz in the distance. To the sound of bugles, however, five Austro-Hungarian companies counterattack, and by evening have regained the high ground at Podgora.
To the south of Görz, Italian artillery spend the morning pounding enemy positions before XIV Corps launched a concentrated assault on Mt. San Michele this afternoon. After hours of bitter fighting infantry from 28th and 19th Division (the latter from the adjacent X Corps) break into trenches just south of Mt. San Michele held by the Austro-Hungarian 17th Division. Elsewhere, however, the Italian assaults break down under withering enemy artillery and machine-gun fire.
The northern wing of the Italian 2nd Army is also active today, attacking on both sides of Tolmein, and just north of Dolje Italian infantry manage to reach the enemy trench line where the inner wings of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 14th Mountain Brigades meet. Fierce hand-to-hand combat ensues into the night, with small groups of Austro-Hungarian soldiers rushing up from brigade and division reserves to plug the gap.
- As negotiations between the Persian government and the German ambassador continue, Prime Minister Mustaufi ul-Mamalik informs Ambassador Reuss that as Persia's most valuable provinces would likely be seized by the Russians and British if Persia entered the war on the side of Germany, his government will require a monthly subsidy of at least two million marks, plus a loan of a hundred million marks after the war and the reimbursement of all war costs. Reuss feels that if Germany desires Persian support, they must agree to whatever terms the Persians request.
- After three days to replace losses and bring up supplies, Cadorna orders a resumption of the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo today. As the initial plan to push forward north and south of Görz prior to an assault on the city itself has been a spectacular failure, for the second phase of the offensive Cadorna decides to forgo the flank attacks and instructs VI Corps of 2nd Army to move directly on Görz. On either side, XIV Corps of 3rd Army (to the south) and II Corps (to the north) will capture Mt. San Michele and push east from Plava respectively.
Just north of Görz, the Italian 3rd Division launches repeated assaults against Austro-Hungarian trenches at Zagora, just south of Plava. This position had been so devastated by artillery fire that the defenders had been instructed to fall back to the second trench line, but repeated counterattacks prevented 3rd Division from holding the old Austro-Hungarian trenches. On the other side of Plava, 32nd Division had similarly failed to gain any ground. Opposite Görz itself, Italian artillery unleash a heavy bombardment before the infantry goes forward early this morning. Elements of the Italian 4th Division reach the first trench line at Oslavija, but is repulsed, while 11th Division cannot even reach the trenches opposite. The Italian 12th Division, however, is able to take advantage of a degree of cover offered by the broken terrain they advance over, and are able to break into the Austro-Hungarian positions on the heights at Podgora this afternoon. Several detachments of Italian infantry fight their way to the crest of the heights, from which they can see Görz in the distance. To the sound of bugles, however, five Austro-Hungarian companies counterattack, and by evening have regained the high ground at Podgora.
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| The heights at Podgora, west of Görz. |
To the south of Görz, Italian artillery spend the morning pounding enemy positions before XIV Corps launched a concentrated assault on Mt. San Michele this afternoon. After hours of bitter fighting infantry from 28th and 19th Division (the latter from the adjacent X Corps) break into trenches just south of Mt. San Michele held by the Austro-Hungarian 17th Division. Elsewhere, however, the Italian assaults break down under withering enemy artillery and machine-gun fire.
The northern wing of the Italian 2nd Army is also active today, attacking on both sides of Tolmein, and just north of Dolje Italian infantry manage to reach the enemy trench line where the inner wings of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 14th Mountain Brigades meet. Fierce hand-to-hand combat ensues into the night, with small groups of Austro-Hungarian soldiers rushing up from brigade and division reserves to plug the gap.
- As negotiations between the Persian government and the German ambassador continue, Prime Minister Mustaufi ul-Mamalik informs Ambassador Reuss that as Persia's most valuable provinces would likely be seized by the Russians and British if Persia entered the war on the side of Germany, his government will require a monthly subsidy of at least two million marks, plus a loan of a hundred million marks after the war and the reimbursement of all war costs. Reuss feels that if Germany desires Persian support, they must agree to whatever terms the Persians request.
Tuesday, August 18, 2015
August 18th, 1915
- Overnight four German Zeppelin undertake a bombing raid on London. Two turn back due to engine trouble, and the captain of L11 manages to confuse the village of Ashford with the British capital, dropping his forty-one bombs in farmers' fields. L10, however, guided by the lights of towns and villages after making landfall on the Suffolk coast, is able to find London. Even its navigation is imperfect, though, and drops its bombs on what its captain believes is the City but is actually the north-east suburbs of Leyton and Wanstead Flats. Nevertheless, it is the first time a Zeppelin of the German navy bombs London, and the strike kills ten and damages the Leyton railway station.
- Wilhelm II and Falkenhayn meet with Archduke Friedrich and Conrad at the latter's headquarters at Teschen today, ostensibly to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph, but also to decide further operations on the Eastern Front. Despite his continuing lack of faith in the fighting ability of the Austro-Hungarian army, Falkenhayn approves Conrad's suggestion of the latter's army conducting an offensive through Kowel. It is also agreed that the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will be transferred from the left flank of the German 11th Army in Poland to the southeast, to join the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army in Conrad's offensive. This will leave 11th Army directly adjacent to the forces under General Worysch, and will help facilitate a clearer division of the Eastern Front between German and Austro-Hungarian sectors.
In central Poland Prince Leopold's army group push forward in pursuit of retreating Russian forces, while 12th Army on its northern flank aims for the railway between Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok. To the south, Mackensen's army group opens its offensive against Brest-Litovsk itself. The Army of the Bug has been assigned additional responsibility for the line from the Krzna River west of the fortress southeast to the Bug River, and its 119th Division, alongside XXII Reserve Corps of 11th Army to the north, is to confront the western face of Brest-Litovsk. This adjustment of responsibility has allowed 11th Army to reinforce its left wing for a drive across the Bug River downstream from Brest-Litovsk to enable the fortress to be enveloped from the northeast. Here the advance is to be led by X Reserve Corps, followed by the Guard Corps, 103rd Division, and the Guard Cavalry Division. Today XXII Reserve Corps and 47th Reserve Division of X Reserve Corps, after hard fighting, push forward to the line Kijowiec-Lipnica-Tielesnica to the west of Brest-Litovsk, while elements of 105th Division of X Reserve Corps secures a bridgehead across the Bug River downstream from the Russian fortress.
- After the successful Austro-Hungarian bombardment of Pelagosa yesterday, the Italian navy orders the evacuation today of the island, believing that it cannot be held in the face of active enemy opposition. Covered by a strong cruiser and destroyer force from Brindisi, the Italian withdrawal is accomplished without difficulty. The evacuation, however, does nothing for the reputation of the Italian navy in the eyes of their allies, as Captain Richmond, the British liasion officer, writes in his diary today:
- A revolution in 1906 had transformed the Persian government into a constitutional monarchy, and an effort by the shah to reverse the reforms ended in his deposition and exile in 1909. His son, Ahmad, came to the throne as a minor, and was only crowned ruler in his own right in 1914 at the age of 17. While the unrest weakened the control of the central government over the country, the elected assembly (the Majlis) has become a hotbed of liberal and nationalist sentiment, who see Britain and Russia (quite rightly) as the primary threats to Persian independence, and thus after the outbreak of war Persian liberals and nationalists have seen an alliance with Germany as the means by which the British and Russians can be ejected from the country. Government instability is endemic, however, with cabinets constantly collapsing, and the Maljis is just one of the interests in the country to be taken into account in the formation of new cabinets. The past month has seen yet another cabinet crisis, which is resolved today with the formation of a government by Mustaufi ul-Mamalik, whose reliance on support in the Majlis necessitates an approach to Germany. He informs the German ambassador, Prince Heinrich XXXI Reuss, that his government desires an alliance, a guarantee of independence, gold to pay the police force, and munitions with which to fight. Though Reuss recognizes the limited ability of the German government to provide material aid to the Persian government, he knows that if such an approach is rejected, a similar opportunity is not likely to arise again, and thus opens negotiations.
- Wilhelm II and Falkenhayn meet with Archduke Friedrich and Conrad at the latter's headquarters at Teschen today, ostensibly to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph, but also to decide further operations on the Eastern Front. Despite his continuing lack of faith in the fighting ability of the Austro-Hungarian army, Falkenhayn approves Conrad's suggestion of the latter's army conducting an offensive through Kowel. It is also agreed that the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will be transferred from the left flank of the German 11th Army in Poland to the southeast, to join the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army in Conrad's offensive. This will leave 11th Army directly adjacent to the forces under General Worysch, and will help facilitate a clearer division of the Eastern Front between German and Austro-Hungarian sectors.
In central Poland Prince Leopold's army group push forward in pursuit of retreating Russian forces, while 12th Army on its northern flank aims for the railway between Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok. To the south, Mackensen's army group opens its offensive against Brest-Litovsk itself. The Army of the Bug has been assigned additional responsibility for the line from the Krzna River west of the fortress southeast to the Bug River, and its 119th Division, alongside XXII Reserve Corps of 11th Army to the north, is to confront the western face of Brest-Litovsk. This adjustment of responsibility has allowed 11th Army to reinforce its left wing for a drive across the Bug River downstream from Brest-Litovsk to enable the fortress to be enveloped from the northeast. Here the advance is to be led by X Reserve Corps, followed by the Guard Corps, 103rd Division, and the Guard Cavalry Division. Today XXII Reserve Corps and 47th Reserve Division of X Reserve Corps, after hard fighting, push forward to the line Kijowiec-Lipnica-Tielesnica to the west of Brest-Litovsk, while elements of 105th Division of X Reserve Corps secures a bridgehead across the Bug River downstream from the Russian fortress.
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| The German advance towards Brest-Litovsk, August 18th to 26th, 1915. |
- After the successful Austro-Hungarian bombardment of Pelagosa yesterday, the Italian navy orders the evacuation today of the island, believing that it cannot be held in the face of active enemy opposition. Covered by a strong cruiser and destroyer force from Brindisi, the Italian withdrawal is accomplished without difficulty. The evacuation, however, does nothing for the reputation of the Italian navy in the eyes of their allies, as Captain Richmond, the British liasion officer, writes in his diary today:
They have by this admitted that the Austrians have command of the sea in the Adriatic in spite of inferior naval force & without fighting an action! They have surrendered to them. They had better sell their Fleet & take up their organs & monkeys again, for, by Heaven, that seems more their profession than sea-fighting.- Immediately after assuming command of the French Army of the Near East, General Sarrail sent the government a memorandum which outlined a wide range of possible operations, from landings at Salonika in the Balkans to operations along the Anatolian and Syrian coast. The government forwarded the note to Joffre, who today offers his comments to the minister of war. Not surprisingly, Joffre is scathing, arguing that Sarrail's operations are 'incomplete, unrealizable, and disastrous,' and that one of the landings in the Near East could only be supplied by 'Arabs and mules.' Behind the harsh criticism is Joffre's continued opposition to any diversion of French strength from the Western Front.
- A revolution in 1906 had transformed the Persian government into a constitutional monarchy, and an effort by the shah to reverse the reforms ended in his deposition and exile in 1909. His son, Ahmad, came to the throne as a minor, and was only crowned ruler in his own right in 1914 at the age of 17. While the unrest weakened the control of the central government over the country, the elected assembly (the Majlis) has become a hotbed of liberal and nationalist sentiment, who see Britain and Russia (quite rightly) as the primary threats to Persian independence, and thus after the outbreak of war Persian liberals and nationalists have seen an alliance with Germany as the means by which the British and Russians can be ejected from the country. Government instability is endemic, however, with cabinets constantly collapsing, and the Maljis is just one of the interests in the country to be taken into account in the formation of new cabinets. The past month has seen yet another cabinet crisis, which is resolved today with the formation of a government by Mustaufi ul-Mamalik, whose reliance on support in the Majlis necessitates an approach to Germany. He informs the German ambassador, Prince Heinrich XXXI Reuss, that his government desires an alliance, a guarantee of independence, gold to pay the police force, and munitions with which to fight. Though Reuss recognizes the limited ability of the German government to provide material aid to the Persian government, he knows that if such an approach is rejected, a similar opportunity is not likely to arise again, and thus opens negotiations.
Saturday, July 25, 2015
July 25th, 1915
- Joffre approves Castlenau's proposed plan for the fall offensive in Champagne today, with one revision: the French commander-in-chief believes that only seven days' worth of artillery shells will be needed, as opposed to ten.
- In Courland the German Army of the Niemen pushes across the Dubissa River and occupies Poswol and Poniewiez as the Russian 5th Army falls back.
- In Mesopotamia the British follow up their victory east of Nasiriyeh yesterday with the capture of the town today, in an episode reminiscent of the capture of Amara on the Tigris two months earlier. As the British infantry marched wearily along the river, a gunboat sailed ahead to Nasiriyeh itself, which has descended into chaos, with widespread looting by local Arabs. The crew of the gunboat are greeted by white flags everywhere but the Ottoman barracks, whose garrison have yet to learn of the defeat of their compatriots yesterday. The gunboat returns to the British expedition and, joined by a second gunboat, embark a hundred Gurkas and two machine guns. This small force is landed at Nasiriyeh and take possession of the town, receiving the surrender of the remaining Ottoman soldiers. Only later does the rest of the infantry, marching through a sandstorm, reach the town.
- Falkenhayn today approves a plan forwarded by the German military attaché in Teheran to fund and arm Persian tribes to augment the efforts of Wassmuss in the south of the country; with £100 000 and a ton of explosives, the attaché believes 50 000 tribesmen can be raised to drive Entente forces out of the country and move on India and Afghanistan.
- In northern Rhodesia the German detachment under the retired major-general Kurt Wahle returns to the British post of Saisi and launches a second attack, but as was the case in June the Rhodesian police and Belgian soldiers hold off the enemy.
- In Courland the German Army of the Niemen pushes across the Dubissa River and occupies Poswol and Poniewiez as the Russian 5th Army falls back.
- In Mesopotamia the British follow up their victory east of Nasiriyeh yesterday with the capture of the town today, in an episode reminiscent of the capture of Amara on the Tigris two months earlier. As the British infantry marched wearily along the river, a gunboat sailed ahead to Nasiriyeh itself, which has descended into chaos, with widespread looting by local Arabs. The crew of the gunboat are greeted by white flags everywhere but the Ottoman barracks, whose garrison have yet to learn of the defeat of their compatriots yesterday. The gunboat returns to the British expedition and, joined by a second gunboat, embark a hundred Gurkas and two machine guns. This small force is landed at Nasiriyeh and take possession of the town, receiving the surrender of the remaining Ottoman soldiers. Only later does the rest of the infantry, marching through a sandstorm, reach the town.
- Falkenhayn today approves a plan forwarded by the German military attaché in Teheran to fund and arm Persian tribes to augment the efforts of Wassmuss in the south of the country; with £100 000 and a ton of explosives, the attaché believes 50 000 tribesmen can be raised to drive Entente forces out of the country and move on India and Afghanistan.
- In northern Rhodesia the German detachment under the retired major-general Kurt Wahle returns to the British post of Saisi and launches a second attack, but as was the case in June the Rhodesian police and Belgian soldiers hold off the enemy.
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| German soldiers entrenching near Saisi, July 25th, 1915. |
Sunday, July 12, 2015
July 12th, 1915
- Having received feedback from his subordinates and staff, and with the Chantilly conference at an end, Joffre issues an order today sketching in broad terms the autumn offensive the French army will undertake. In line with Castlenau's views, the primary attack will occur in Champagne by twenty-seven infantry divisions and two cavalry corps, which will attack along a front of forty-kilometres, far greater than prior operations. A secondary attack will be undertaken in Artois by twelve infantry and two cavalry divisions, directed towards Vimy Ridge. The objective is to 'rupture' the German line and squeeze off the Noyon salient by collapsing its flanks and forcing the Germans to retire eastward.
- After the successful assaults on both flanks of the front line on Cape Helles in late June, the British and French have decided to launch an attack in the centre using the same tactics of a concentrated artillery barrage coupled with modest objectives for the infantry. The British 52nd Division, as well as the French on its right, attack this morning and gain the first two Ottoman trench lines, followed by intense counterattacks that see the British and French barely holding on to their gains.
- One of the few locations in southern Persia still under British influence is Bushire, and today German consul Wilhelm Wassmuss with several hundred tribal allies approaches the port city. A British detachment advances to meet them, and in the resulting skirmish two British officers are killed.
- Since the fall the German light cruiser Königsberg has been blockaded in the Rufiji River in German East Africa, though the uncharted channels at the river estuary and the dense foliage has prevented the British from attacking it. After attempts to bombard by air and by the old pre-dreadnought Goliath failed, the shallow-draught monitors Mersey and Severn had been dispatched from Britain. Capable of sailing up the delta of the Rufiji, they are able to get within range of Königsberg today and in an exchange of fire sinks the German warship. It is the last German warship still active outside of European waters, and marks the end of the surface threat to Entente shipping overseas. In practice Königsberg had made little contribution to this campaign, its exploits paling in comparison to the far more successful Emden. However, simply by existing in an inaccessible location it has tied down disproportionate British resources for months, and even after its sinking its contribution to the war effort is not at an end; its crew is able to salvage the main guns from the light cruiser and transform them into artillery pieces for the defence of the colony.
- After the successful assaults on both flanks of the front line on Cape Helles in late June, the British and French have decided to launch an attack in the centre using the same tactics of a concentrated artillery barrage coupled with modest objectives for the infantry. The British 52nd Division, as well as the French on its right, attack this morning and gain the first two Ottoman trench lines, followed by intense counterattacks that see the British and French barely holding on to their gains.
- One of the few locations in southern Persia still under British influence is Bushire, and today German consul Wilhelm Wassmuss with several hundred tribal allies approaches the port city. A British detachment advances to meet them, and in the resulting skirmish two British officers are killed.
- Since the fall the German light cruiser Königsberg has been blockaded in the Rufiji River in German East Africa, though the uncharted channels at the river estuary and the dense foliage has prevented the British from attacking it. After attempts to bombard by air and by the old pre-dreadnought Goliath failed, the shallow-draught monitors Mersey and Severn had been dispatched from Britain. Capable of sailing up the delta of the Rufiji, they are able to get within range of Königsberg today and in an exchange of fire sinks the German warship. It is the last German warship still active outside of European waters, and marks the end of the surface threat to Entente shipping overseas. In practice Königsberg had made little contribution to this campaign, its exploits paling in comparison to the far more successful Emden. However, simply by existing in an inaccessible location it has tied down disproportionate British resources for months, and even after its sinking its contribution to the war effort is not at an end; its crew is able to salvage the main guns from the light cruiser and transform them into artillery pieces for the defence of the colony.
Thursday, July 02, 2015
July 2nd, 1915
- In Britain the Munitions of War Act comes into effect today, providing the legislative machinery for government control of armaments production by the new Ministry of Munitions under David Lloyd George. Under the legislation any business involved in war production can be designated a 'controlled establishment', in which case a series of government restrictions would be imposed in the name of productivity. Critically, these restrictions were primarily directed not at employers, but at employees: strikes are prohibited, arbitration made compulsory, and restrictions on the ability to change jobs. In exchange, workers in 'controlled establishments' are given badges that effectively exempted them from military service.
- Though yesterday Foch expressed a desire to conduct another offensive by the French 10th Army against Vimy Ridge, General d'Urbal reports today that the infantry of 10th Army are exhausted after fifty days of near-constant combat, and are in no condition to undertake major operations. Joffre is sympathetic to d'Urbal's concerns, and orders 10th Army to focus on establishing strong defensive positions only.
- Falkenhayn meets with Hindenburg and Ludendorff today at Posen in the presence of the kaiser to discuss future operations on the Eastern Front. When the German chief of staff had originally committed 11th Army to the east in April, he had envisioned its deployment lasting until the liberation of Austro-Hungarian Galicia. Once this had been accomplished, Falkenhayn reasoned, the threat to Austria-Hungary from Rusia would be removed, and 11th Army could return to the Western Front for operations there. Though the purpose of the Gorlice-Tarnow offensive have been achieved, Falkenhayn has reconsidered his views. He had been concerned with Entente superiority on the Western Front, but the 2nd Battle of Artois has demonstrated the ability of the German army in the west to successfully stand on the defensive even when substantially outnumbered. Further, Falkenhayn has concluded that more damage can yet be inflicted on the Russian army. Crucially, however, he does not foresee a decisive, war-winning victory as possible, given the space in Russia and the ability of the Russians to retreat from any grand envelopment. Instead, Falkenhayn's desires to inflict further hammer blows on the Russian army in the vein of Gorlice-Tarnow to wear the Russians out and convince them to agree to a peace amenable to Germany. This is a logical extension of the views expressed by Falkenhayn since the fall; namely, that Germany must reduce the number of its enemies through negotiation in order to concentrate on the others.
Thus at today's meeting Falkenhayn rejects Ludendorff's proposal for a major offensive to be undertaken in Courland by the Army of the Niemen, which the latter proposes can advance through Kovno and Vilna to join with Mackensen's 11th Army in encircling the entire Russian army in Poland. Falkenhayn views such an operation as widely optimistic, and that such sweeping envelopments are simply not possible in the conditions of modern warfare, which in particular limit the ability of cavalry to exploit breakthroughs and surround opposing forces. Instead, Falkenhayn proposes to stick to the Gorlice-Tarnow formula in which the Russian army would be worn out through a series of step-by-step offensives relying on the power of artillery. Wilhelm II sides with Falkenhayn, and his more moderate plans are approved. In the north, the army under General Gallwitz, stretching from the Vistula River towards the Masurian Lakes, will undertake the primary attack, advancing towards Warsaw. Further, the forces under General Worysch in central Poland will pin the Russians opposite to prevent reserves being redeployed from this stretch of the line. Finally, 11th Army will undertake a major offensive northwards between the Vistula and Bug Rivers, and to allow for it to concentrate on its advance as opposed to flank protection, the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army is to be withdrawn from west of the Vistula in southwestern Poland and inserted into the line northeast of Lemberg between 11th Army to the north and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army in the south. To allow time for the redeployments to be completed and munitions stockpiled, the offensives are planned to begin July 13th.
- Meanwhile in southern Poland the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army wins several local successes, seizing several villages, but fails to secure a decisive breakthrough.
- For the past two days the Italian 3rd Army has been concentrating its efforts against the Karst plateau southwest of Görz along the Isonzo River, but a series of infantry attacks have failed to secure any significant ground.
- The influence of German consul Wilhelm Wassmuss in southern Persia continues to grow, securing alliances with numerous tribes in the region that, as opposed to the central government, are the real power. Through Wassmuss the interior of southern Persia is essentially under German control, and British influence has been confined to a few coastal enclaves - Wassmuss has even been able to erect a wireless station to communicate with Germany proper. The growing German influence has attracted the attention of British officials in India, who fear losing control over the Northwest Frontier. Today, the Indian viceroy tells British consuls in Persia to seek out tribal allies that can be used to directly confront German influence in the country.
- In German South-West Africa German forces holding the line east of Otavifontein defending Grootfontein fall back on Gaub today, given the appearance of South African forces before them and the retreat of the defenders at Otavi uncovering their western flank.
- Though yesterday Foch expressed a desire to conduct another offensive by the French 10th Army against Vimy Ridge, General d'Urbal reports today that the infantry of 10th Army are exhausted after fifty days of near-constant combat, and are in no condition to undertake major operations. Joffre is sympathetic to d'Urbal's concerns, and orders 10th Army to focus on establishing strong defensive positions only.
- Falkenhayn meets with Hindenburg and Ludendorff today at Posen in the presence of the kaiser to discuss future operations on the Eastern Front. When the German chief of staff had originally committed 11th Army to the east in April, he had envisioned its deployment lasting until the liberation of Austro-Hungarian Galicia. Once this had been accomplished, Falkenhayn reasoned, the threat to Austria-Hungary from Rusia would be removed, and 11th Army could return to the Western Front for operations there. Though the purpose of the Gorlice-Tarnow offensive have been achieved, Falkenhayn has reconsidered his views. He had been concerned with Entente superiority on the Western Front, but the 2nd Battle of Artois has demonstrated the ability of the German army in the west to successfully stand on the defensive even when substantially outnumbered. Further, Falkenhayn has concluded that more damage can yet be inflicted on the Russian army. Crucially, however, he does not foresee a decisive, war-winning victory as possible, given the space in Russia and the ability of the Russians to retreat from any grand envelopment. Instead, Falkenhayn's desires to inflict further hammer blows on the Russian army in the vein of Gorlice-Tarnow to wear the Russians out and convince them to agree to a peace amenable to Germany. This is a logical extension of the views expressed by Falkenhayn since the fall; namely, that Germany must reduce the number of its enemies through negotiation in order to concentrate on the others.
Thus at today's meeting Falkenhayn rejects Ludendorff's proposal for a major offensive to be undertaken in Courland by the Army of the Niemen, which the latter proposes can advance through Kovno and Vilna to join with Mackensen's 11th Army in encircling the entire Russian army in Poland. Falkenhayn views such an operation as widely optimistic, and that such sweeping envelopments are simply not possible in the conditions of modern warfare, which in particular limit the ability of cavalry to exploit breakthroughs and surround opposing forces. Instead, Falkenhayn proposes to stick to the Gorlice-Tarnow formula in which the Russian army would be worn out through a series of step-by-step offensives relying on the power of artillery. Wilhelm II sides with Falkenhayn, and his more moderate plans are approved. In the north, the army under General Gallwitz, stretching from the Vistula River towards the Masurian Lakes, will undertake the primary attack, advancing towards Warsaw. Further, the forces under General Worysch in central Poland will pin the Russians opposite to prevent reserves being redeployed from this stretch of the line. Finally, 11th Army will undertake a major offensive northwards between the Vistula and Bug Rivers, and to allow for it to concentrate on its advance as opposed to flank protection, the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army is to be withdrawn from west of the Vistula in southwestern Poland and inserted into the line northeast of Lemberg between 11th Army to the north and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army in the south. To allow time for the redeployments to be completed and munitions stockpiled, the offensives are planned to begin July 13th.
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| The Eastern Front in early July, 1915. |
- Meanwhile in southern Poland the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army wins several local successes, seizing several villages, but fails to secure a decisive breakthrough.
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| The 2nd Battle of Kraśnik, July 2nd to 10th, 1915. |
- For the past two days the Italian 3rd Army has been concentrating its efforts against the Karst plateau southwest of Görz along the Isonzo River, but a series of infantry attacks have failed to secure any significant ground.
- The influence of German consul Wilhelm Wassmuss in southern Persia continues to grow, securing alliances with numerous tribes in the region that, as opposed to the central government, are the real power. Through Wassmuss the interior of southern Persia is essentially under German control, and British influence has been confined to a few coastal enclaves - Wassmuss has even been able to erect a wireless station to communicate with Germany proper. The growing German influence has attracted the attention of British officials in India, who fear losing control over the Northwest Frontier. Today, the Indian viceroy tells British consuls in Persia to seek out tribal allies that can be used to directly confront German influence in the country.
- In German South-West Africa German forces holding the line east of Otavifontein defending Grootfontein fall back on Gaub today, given the appearance of South African forces before them and the retreat of the defenders at Otavi uncovering their western flank.
Wednesday, May 20, 2015
May 20th, 1915
- In Britain the events of the past few months - the use of gas at Ypres, the sinking of Lusitania, and the bombing raids of Zeppelins - have nurtured an anti-German hysteria that needed little encouragement in the first place. Today the magazine Flight argues that Germans in Britain must be rounded up and interned, as otherwise they may light fires to direct Zeppelin bombing raids at night.
- After a three day delay caused by poor weather, the first of the new methodical attacks, as ordered by General Foch, are launched today in Artois by the French 10th Army. Preceded by a heavy artillery bombardment, French infantry advance several hundred yards, and the newly-won ground is to serve as a jumping off point for further attacks.
Meanwhile Joffre, for his part, issues instructions to his subordinates instructing them that it is vital to place reserves as close to the front lines as possible. He hopes in future to avoid a repetition of the fighting on May 9th, when infantry of Pétain's XXXIII Corps managed to reach Vimy Ridge but were pushed back due to reserves being deployed too far behind the front line, allowing the Germans to push the successful infantry back off the high ground.
- The German threat to the inner flanks of the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps diminishes today when 56th Division, acting in accordance with Mackensen's orders to consolidate control of the bridgehead over the San River, pulls back behind the Lubaczowka River.
On the Russian side, General Dimitriev of 3rd Army, who has had to watch his command crumble under two and a half weeks of near-constant German pressure, is dismissed today, replaced by the commander of XII Corps.
- Owing to exhaustion, the fighting between the western wings of the Russian 9th and Austro-Hungarian 7th Armies in the eastern Carpathians dies out today. Neither side has accomplished its objectives, though in the larger picture this favours the Austro-Hungarians, in that the Russian attacks here have not forced them to pull additional forces away from the San River fighting to hold on to the Bukovina.
- As scheduled, at 2pm this afternoon the Italian Chamber of Deputies is called to order. Prime Minister Salandra introduces the bill by which parliament will cede full financial powers to the government in the event of war; in practical terms, parliament is being asked to give the government the authority to go to war. Salandra also gives a brief address, emphasizing the perceived violations of the Triple Alliance by Austria-Hungary, both by going to war without consultation in July 1914 and by failing to provide territorial compensation for aggrandizement in the Balkans. Foreign Minister Sonnino then presents diplomatic telegrams outlining the course of negotiations with Austria-Hungary up to the denunciation of the alliance on May 4th; to Sonnino's credit, the telegrams are only heavily edited, as opposed to being outright forgeries. After brief discussion, the bill is passed by a margin of 407 to 74; most of the opposition comes from the Revolutionary Socialists and deputies from the rural south, where neutralist opinion is strongest. At 7pm Salandra adjourns Chamber, and the deputies depart singing the Garibaldi hymn. This outburst of enthusiasm for war is the last echo of the 'Radiant Days of May'.
- For the past four weeks, the Ottoman city of Van has been the scene of bitter fighting between Armenian insurgents and the Ottoman garrison. The Armenian population has been besieged, but have been able to hold off efforts of the Ottomans to crush the rising. In response, the local governor pushed tens of thousands of Armenian refugees into the city in the hopes of causing starvation, while thousands of Armenian prisoners have been murdered. This takes place, of course, while wholesale massacres have been taking place in the countryside.
As the desperate clash at Van has been ongoing, however, the Russian army has been approaching from the east. Three days ago, the Ottoman forces lifted their siege of Van, and today elements of the Russian army arrive at the city. The Armenian population is jubilant at the arrival of their saviours, and the Armenian elders of Van offer the Russian commanding general the keys to the city, and in return the Russians appoint the leader of the Armenian defence committee, Aram Manoukian, governor of the region. Freed from the yoke of Ottoman oppression and the threat of massacre, the Armenians take violent revenge. Now that they have the upper hand, it is the turn of Ottoman prisoners to be murdered. Armenians also torch many of the important buildings of Van, seen as symbols of Ottoman tyranny.
The fall of Van, moreover, serves to reinforce the paranoia of the leadership of the Ottoman Empire regarding the Armenian population. It is all the easier now to see the Armenians as a mortal internal threat to the survival of the empire, given their apparent cooperation with the Russians. It accelerates efforts to deport and exterminate the Armenian population throughout eastern Anatolia.
- At the height of the Battle of Sarikamish in December, Russian forces had evacuated Persian Azerbaijan, but after the crushing victory achieved in the battle had returned, reoccupying Tabriz at the end of January. According to the terms of the Anglo-Russian Convention, northern Persia was within the Russian sphere of influence, and considering its proximity to the Ottoman Empire it is seen as a southern extension of the Caucasus front and the Russian government is eager to secure effective control of the region. Two days ago, a Russian banker was murdered in Isfahan, in the centre of Persia, and the Russian government uses the episode to justify the dispatch of additional troops to protect Persian interests in northern Persia, the detachment landing at Enzeli today. However, the proximity of Enzeli to Teheran - just over a hundred and fifty miles separates the two - raises fears among German diplomats that the Russians may attempt to seize control of the government and the country as a whole.
- After a three day delay caused by poor weather, the first of the new methodical attacks, as ordered by General Foch, are launched today in Artois by the French 10th Army. Preceded by a heavy artillery bombardment, French infantry advance several hundred yards, and the newly-won ground is to serve as a jumping off point for further attacks.
Meanwhile Joffre, for his part, issues instructions to his subordinates instructing them that it is vital to place reserves as close to the front lines as possible. He hopes in future to avoid a repetition of the fighting on May 9th, when infantry of Pétain's XXXIII Corps managed to reach Vimy Ridge but were pushed back due to reserves being deployed too far behind the front line, allowing the Germans to push the successful infantry back off the high ground.
- The German threat to the inner flanks of the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps diminishes today when 56th Division, acting in accordance with Mackensen's orders to consolidate control of the bridgehead over the San River, pulls back behind the Lubaczowka River.
On the Russian side, General Dimitriev of 3rd Army, who has had to watch his command crumble under two and a half weeks of near-constant German pressure, is dismissed today, replaced by the commander of XII Corps.
- Owing to exhaustion, the fighting between the western wings of the Russian 9th and Austro-Hungarian 7th Armies in the eastern Carpathians dies out today. Neither side has accomplished its objectives, though in the larger picture this favours the Austro-Hungarians, in that the Russian attacks here have not forced them to pull additional forces away from the San River fighting to hold on to the Bukovina.
- As scheduled, at 2pm this afternoon the Italian Chamber of Deputies is called to order. Prime Minister Salandra introduces the bill by which parliament will cede full financial powers to the government in the event of war; in practical terms, parliament is being asked to give the government the authority to go to war. Salandra also gives a brief address, emphasizing the perceived violations of the Triple Alliance by Austria-Hungary, both by going to war without consultation in July 1914 and by failing to provide territorial compensation for aggrandizement in the Balkans. Foreign Minister Sonnino then presents diplomatic telegrams outlining the course of negotiations with Austria-Hungary up to the denunciation of the alliance on May 4th; to Sonnino's credit, the telegrams are only heavily edited, as opposed to being outright forgeries. After brief discussion, the bill is passed by a margin of 407 to 74; most of the opposition comes from the Revolutionary Socialists and deputies from the rural south, where neutralist opinion is strongest. At 7pm Salandra adjourns Chamber, and the deputies depart singing the Garibaldi hymn. This outburst of enthusiasm for war is the last echo of the 'Radiant Days of May'.
- For the past four weeks, the Ottoman city of Van has been the scene of bitter fighting between Armenian insurgents and the Ottoman garrison. The Armenian population has been besieged, but have been able to hold off efforts of the Ottomans to crush the rising. In response, the local governor pushed tens of thousands of Armenian refugees into the city in the hopes of causing starvation, while thousands of Armenian prisoners have been murdered. This takes place, of course, while wholesale massacres have been taking place in the countryside.
As the desperate clash at Van has been ongoing, however, the Russian army has been approaching from the east. Three days ago, the Ottoman forces lifted their siege of Van, and today elements of the Russian army arrive at the city. The Armenian population is jubilant at the arrival of their saviours, and the Armenian elders of Van offer the Russian commanding general the keys to the city, and in return the Russians appoint the leader of the Armenian defence committee, Aram Manoukian, governor of the region. Freed from the yoke of Ottoman oppression and the threat of massacre, the Armenians take violent revenge. Now that they have the upper hand, it is the turn of Ottoman prisoners to be murdered. Armenians also torch many of the important buildings of Van, seen as symbols of Ottoman tyranny.
The fall of Van, moreover, serves to reinforce the paranoia of the leadership of the Ottoman Empire regarding the Armenian population. It is all the easier now to see the Armenians as a mortal internal threat to the survival of the empire, given their apparent cooperation with the Russians. It accelerates efforts to deport and exterminate the Armenian population throughout eastern Anatolia.
- At the height of the Battle of Sarikamish in December, Russian forces had evacuated Persian Azerbaijan, but after the crushing victory achieved in the battle had returned, reoccupying Tabriz at the end of January. According to the terms of the Anglo-Russian Convention, northern Persia was within the Russian sphere of influence, and considering its proximity to the Ottoman Empire it is seen as a southern extension of the Caucasus front and the Russian government is eager to secure effective control of the region. Two days ago, a Russian banker was murdered in Isfahan, in the centre of Persia, and the Russian government uses the episode to justify the dispatch of additional troops to protect Persian interests in northern Persia, the detachment landing at Enzeli today. However, the proximity of Enzeli to Teheran - just over a hundred and fifty miles separates the two - raises fears among German diplomats that the Russians may attempt to seize control of the government and the country as a whole.
Saturday, March 07, 2015
March 7th, 1915
- Having failed to convince the British to relieve IX Corps in the Ypres salient, Joffre today decides to cancel the offensive planned in Artois that would have been conducted by 10th Army.
- In the Champagne the French launch a major attack near Souain, though after initial advances they are repulsed by the Germans. Writing to his corps commanders today, General de Langle, 4th Army Commander, calls on his forces to 'flee forward'; namely, that once a unit has seized terrain, it will sustain fewer casualties holding the newly-won ground as opposed to retreating back to the start line.
- After their victory at Prasnysz, Russian forces had advanced northwards towards East Prussia, but in heavy fighting over the past few days have been held at the line Mlawa-Chorshele, and today the Russians abandon further attacks.
- The offensive of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, forced on its reluctant commander by Conrad, is launched this evening after sundown. The southern wing of 4th Army is able to gain some ground - 8th Division takes Sekowa and 12th Division advances some way to Gorlice. However, once again the Austro-Hungarians are fighting the weather as much as the Russians, and frostbite is a constant companion for the infantry. Further east, Sudarmee undertakes an offensive of its own, but the advance of XXIV Reserve Corps is stopped cold, literally and figuratively.
- The German mission to Afghanistan has been slowly making its way across the Ottoman Empire, with its members bickering about who exactly was in overall command, and the Ottomans themselves suspicious of German intentions (they do not wish their imperial interests to be negated by Germany's). After arriving in Baghdad in January, Wilhelm Wassmuss, a Persian speaker experienced with tribes in the region, split off from the mission to become German consul in the south Persian city of Shiraz. The remainder of the mission, now led by army officer Oskar von Niedermayer, has crossed into Persia in an effort to cross the country and reach Afghanistan.
Wassmuss, for his part, had served as a German consul in southern Persia prior to the war as well, and has used these contacts to win allies among the various tribes of the region. Given the weakness of the Persian government, Wassmuss is able to operate largely unhindered by central authorities, but the same conditions that allow Wassmuss to operate also encourage Entente intervention regardless of the formal 'neutrality' of Persia. Today, Wassmuss' caravan is ambushed by British Indian troops and pro-British tribesmen near Bandar Rig, on the Persian Gulf coast about a hundred miles southeast from the Shatt al-Arab. Wassmuss loses his maps and codebooks, but manages to escape himself. He had thought that the British would respect Persian neutrality; realizing his mistake, he now resolves to leverage his relationship with Persian tribes in the region to drive out British enclaves and threaten British interests in the region.
- In the Champagne the French launch a major attack near Souain, though after initial advances they are repulsed by the Germans. Writing to his corps commanders today, General de Langle, 4th Army Commander, calls on his forces to 'flee forward'; namely, that once a unit has seized terrain, it will sustain fewer casualties holding the newly-won ground as opposed to retreating back to the start line.
- After their victory at Prasnysz, Russian forces had advanced northwards towards East Prussia, but in heavy fighting over the past few days have been held at the line Mlawa-Chorshele, and today the Russians abandon further attacks.
- The offensive of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, forced on its reluctant commander by Conrad, is launched this evening after sundown. The southern wing of 4th Army is able to gain some ground - 8th Division takes Sekowa and 12th Division advances some way to Gorlice. However, once again the Austro-Hungarians are fighting the weather as much as the Russians, and frostbite is a constant companion for the infantry. Further east, Sudarmee undertakes an offensive of its own, but the advance of XXIV Reserve Corps is stopped cold, literally and figuratively.
- The German mission to Afghanistan has been slowly making its way across the Ottoman Empire, with its members bickering about who exactly was in overall command, and the Ottomans themselves suspicious of German intentions (they do not wish their imperial interests to be negated by Germany's). After arriving in Baghdad in January, Wilhelm Wassmuss, a Persian speaker experienced with tribes in the region, split off from the mission to become German consul in the south Persian city of Shiraz. The remainder of the mission, now led by army officer Oskar von Niedermayer, has crossed into Persia in an effort to cross the country and reach Afghanistan.
Wassmuss, for his part, had served as a German consul in southern Persia prior to the war as well, and has used these contacts to win allies among the various tribes of the region. Given the weakness of the Persian government, Wassmuss is able to operate largely unhindered by central authorities, but the same conditions that allow Wassmuss to operate also encourage Entente intervention regardless of the formal 'neutrality' of Persia. Today, Wassmuss' caravan is ambushed by British Indian troops and pro-British tribesmen near Bandar Rig, on the Persian Gulf coast about a hundred miles southeast from the Shatt al-Arab. Wassmuss loses his maps and codebooks, but manages to escape himself. He had thought that the British would respect Persian neutrality; realizing his mistake, he now resolves to leverage his relationship with Persian tribes in the region to drive out British enclaves and threaten British interests in the region.
Wednesday, February 11, 2015
February 11th, 1915
- In the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes the advance of the German 10th Army continues unabated. A Russian corps, holding the northern flank of the Russian 10th Army and consisting of three second-line divisions, has disintegrated under the relentless German assaults. The corps commander, who had been instructed that the defence of the fortress of Kovno is a priority, withdraws the remnants of his force in that direction, which also happens to remove them from the German line of advance to the southeast. The German 10th Army is now in a position to advance to the Augustow Forest and thereby sweep around the rear of the rest of the Russian 10th Army.
The Russian leadership, meanwhile, still does not understand the nature of the German offensive; General Ruszkii of North-West Front believes the main German attack is being undertaken by the German 8th Army and is aimed towards Osowiec. As such, he orders the still-assembling 12th Army to prepare a counter-offensive designed to hit the flank of the perceived main axis of the German advance. For this attack to succeed, Ruszkii orders 10th Army to remain in its positions, to act as the anvil to 12th Army's hammer blow against the German 8th Army. Such orders, of course, are the worst possible, given that it is 10th Army itself that is the target of the German offensive, and is in growing danger of being enveloped.
- Over the past few weeks several reports have reached the commander of Indian Expeditionary Force D of the potential for Arab unrest along the eastern frontier of Persia, inspired by the Ottoman call to jihad and German intrigues. Today it is decided to dispatch a force to the city of Ahwaz on the Karun River and adjacent to the pipeline of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, whose preservation had ostensibly been a key motivation for the initial landing in lower Mesopotamia. The force sent, however, is too small - thirty cavalry, two Indian battalions, thirty soldiers from the Dorsetshire Regiment, and a handful of guns - to be of any value in intimidating the Arab tribes or demonstrating British strength in the region.
The Russian leadership, meanwhile, still does not understand the nature of the German offensive; General Ruszkii of North-West Front believes the main German attack is being undertaken by the German 8th Army and is aimed towards Osowiec. As such, he orders the still-assembling 12th Army to prepare a counter-offensive designed to hit the flank of the perceived main axis of the German advance. For this attack to succeed, Ruszkii orders 10th Army to remain in its positions, to act as the anvil to 12th Army's hammer blow against the German 8th Army. Such orders, of course, are the worst possible, given that it is 10th Army itself that is the target of the German offensive, and is in growing danger of being enveloped.
- Over the past few weeks several reports have reached the commander of Indian Expeditionary Force D of the potential for Arab unrest along the eastern frontier of Persia, inspired by the Ottoman call to jihad and German intrigues. Today it is decided to dispatch a force to the city of Ahwaz on the Karun River and adjacent to the pipeline of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, whose preservation had ostensibly been a key motivation for the initial landing in lower Mesopotamia. The force sent, however, is too small - thirty cavalry, two Indian battalions, thirty soldiers from the Dorsetshire Regiment, and a handful of guns - to be of any value in intimidating the Arab tribes or demonstrating British strength in the region.
Saturday, January 31, 2015
January 31st, 1915
- General Sarrail, commander of the French 3rd Army in the Argonne, reports to Joffre today on the recent fighting. He notes how the French line has been pushed back, yielding a portion of the heights overlooking the Verdun railway to the Germans. Six separate counterattacks have failed to dislodge the enemy, while the French have suffered 2400 casualties. Sarrail complains that the effect of the recent fighting has had a negative impact on the morale of the infantry, which can only be restored by a major offensive. While Joffre is sympathetic, he remains focused primarily on operations in the Champagne.
- In central Poland the German 9th Army launch a minor attack today near Bolimów, southwest of Warsaw. The battle is notable for being the first time the Germans attempt to use gas in combat, but it is a thorough failure. The only way to use gas on the battlefield is to open canisters and have the wind blow it towards the enemy; however, the wind shifts and the gas clouds pass back over the German infantry. Luckily for the Germans, the extremely cold weather renders the gas ineffective. Indeed, such is the extent of the failure that the Russians did not even realize that the Germans were attempting to gas them, an oversight that will come to haunt their allies on the Western Front in several months time.
- In Galicia, though the mixed Austro-Hungarian units under General Szurmay have taken Uszok Pass itself, the heights to the north remain in Russian hands, threatening their control over the vital transit point through the Carpathians. In an effort to restart the general offensive by 3rd and push onwards towards Przemysl, Szurmay today orders his forces to seize the heights.
- After evacuating northern Persia a month ago when the crisis in the Caucasus was at its most acute, the crushing triumph at Sarikamish has allowed the Russians to return, pushing out the weak and poorly-organized Ottoman forces and retaking Tabriz today.
- A small German force attacks South African forces at Kakamas near the border today, in an effort to support Boer rebels. Not only does the attack fail, but it had already been rendered pointless given Kemp's surrender of yesterday.
- In central Poland the German 9th Army launch a minor attack today near Bolimów, southwest of Warsaw. The battle is notable for being the first time the Germans attempt to use gas in combat, but it is a thorough failure. The only way to use gas on the battlefield is to open canisters and have the wind blow it towards the enemy; however, the wind shifts and the gas clouds pass back over the German infantry. Luckily for the Germans, the extremely cold weather renders the gas ineffective. Indeed, such is the extent of the failure that the Russians did not even realize that the Germans were attempting to gas them, an oversight that will come to haunt their allies on the Western Front in several months time.
- In Galicia, though the mixed Austro-Hungarian units under General Szurmay have taken Uszok Pass itself, the heights to the north remain in Russian hands, threatening their control over the vital transit point through the Carpathians. In an effort to restart the general offensive by 3rd and push onwards towards Przemysl, Szurmay today orders his forces to seize the heights.
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| Austro-Hungarian infantry in the Uszok Pass. |
- After evacuating northern Persia a month ago when the crisis in the Caucasus was at its most acute, the crushing triumph at Sarikamish has allowed the Russians to return, pushing out the weak and poorly-organized Ottoman forces and retaking Tabriz today.
- A small German force attacks South African forces at Kakamas near the border today, in an effort to support Boer rebels. Not only does the attack fail, but it had already been rendered pointless given Kemp's surrender of yesterday.
Thursday, January 08, 2015
January 8th, 1915
- In London the War Council meets today to discuss British strategy for the coming year. When discussion turns to theatres outside France, Lloyd George remarks that he supports an operation in the Balkans to provide direct aid to Serbia. Lord Kitchener then intervenes, commenting that if an operation were to be undertaken outside the Western Front, the Dardanelles would be the most promising. However, while he asserts that 150 000 soldiers would ensure that the fleet could force the Dardanelles and occupy Constantinople, he informs the Council that he has no units that he can spare. The key takeaway from the meeting is that forcing the Dardanelles is possible, not that it requires army support to succeed.
- Falkenhayn agrees today to the formation of Südarmee, which is to be deployed in Galicia and will consist of two German infantry divisions and one German cavalry division, drawn from 9th Army as per Ludendorff's earlier offer, and an Austro-Hungarian corps. The army is to be commanded by General Alexander von Linsingen, who had previously held command during the 1st Battle of Ypres. Interestingly, as its Chief of Staff Falkenhayn appoints none other than Ludendorff; his reasoning is that, given the repeated claims by Conrad that the fighting in Galicia is of vital importance, it is logical for Ludendorff to 'work his magic' there. In reality, Falkenhayn is attempting to divide Hindenburg and Ludendorff, in order to weaken their influence over the direction of the German war effort and tone down demands for the next major German offensive to be in the East.
- The German 1st Army currently holds seventy kilometres of the front line on both sides of the city of Soissons just north of the Aisne River. Since December 27th III Corps has been planning an operation to attack the French defenders near Soissons in order to prevent the enemy from redeploying its forces to assist its ongoing offensives elsewhere. At 10am this morning, however, the French launch a preemptive attack of their own on the German line at Clamecy, just north of Soissons, leading to bitter fighting in the sector.
- Units of the French 4th Army are able to secure the village of Perthes today, and though this represents a gain of only a few hundred metres, it is one of the most substantial of the 1st Battle of Champagne.
- Following the Russian evacuation of northern Persia a week ago in response to the crisis at Sarikamish, Ottoman and Kurdish forces have advanced into the resulting vacuum and today occupy Tabriz.
- The German steamer Choising passes through the Straits of Perim overnight, despite lacking any detailed chart of the waters and having its lights extinguished to evade two patrolling British warships. During the day it hugs the Arabian coast, to avoid the shipping lane in the centre of the Red Sea, and by nightfall is approaching the port of Hodeida.
- Falkenhayn agrees today to the formation of Südarmee, which is to be deployed in Galicia and will consist of two German infantry divisions and one German cavalry division, drawn from 9th Army as per Ludendorff's earlier offer, and an Austro-Hungarian corps. The army is to be commanded by General Alexander von Linsingen, who had previously held command during the 1st Battle of Ypres. Interestingly, as its Chief of Staff Falkenhayn appoints none other than Ludendorff; his reasoning is that, given the repeated claims by Conrad that the fighting in Galicia is of vital importance, it is logical for Ludendorff to 'work his magic' there. In reality, Falkenhayn is attempting to divide Hindenburg and Ludendorff, in order to weaken their influence over the direction of the German war effort and tone down demands for the next major German offensive to be in the East.
- The German 1st Army currently holds seventy kilometres of the front line on both sides of the city of Soissons just north of the Aisne River. Since December 27th III Corps has been planning an operation to attack the French defenders near Soissons in order to prevent the enemy from redeploying its forces to assist its ongoing offensives elsewhere. At 10am this morning, however, the French launch a preemptive attack of their own on the German line at Clamecy, just north of Soissons, leading to bitter fighting in the sector.
- Following the Russian evacuation of northern Persia a week ago in response to the crisis at Sarikamish, Ottoman and Kurdish forces have advanced into the resulting vacuum and today occupy Tabriz.
- The German steamer Choising passes through the Straits of Perim overnight, despite lacking any detailed chart of the waters and having its lights extinguished to evade two patrolling British warships. During the day it hugs the Arabian coast, to avoid the shipping lane in the centre of the Red Sea, and by nightfall is approaching the port of Hodeida.
Tuesday, December 30, 2014
December 30th, 1914
- In Champagne a sudden German counterattack against the flank of the French II Corps captures three lines of trenches, inflicts heavy casualties on the defenders, and threatens to disrupt the ongoing French offensive.
- With the Ottoman assault on Sarikamish having stalled, General Yudenich, Chief of Staff of the Russian Caucasus Army, senses an opportunity to deliver a devastating counterattack. The Ottoman IX and X Corps at Sarikamish are dependent on a single line of communication back to Ottoman territory running through Bardiz, and Yudenich concludes that if the bulk of I Caucasian and II Turkestan Corps can hold the line against the Ottoman XI Corps, IX and X Corps can be encircled and annihilated. To this end, he has ordered two regiments from II Turkestan Corps at Yeniköy to move north towards Bardiz, and today they are able to bring the town under artillery fire.
- Though the Ottoman effort to capture Sarikamish has stalled, the turn in fortunes is not immediately apparent to the Russian army leadership. Faced with the prospect of potential defeat in the Caucasus, two important decisions are taken. First, all Russian forces in Tabriz and northern Persia are ordered to withdraw northwards - now is no time for quasi-colonial adventures if the Turks are advancing into Russia. Second, Grand Duke Nicholas has a conversation with the British military attache at his headquarters. He remarks on the implications of a defeat at Sarikamish, and inquires whether the British would be able to mount an expedition against the Ottoman Empire in order to force them to withdraw forces from the Caucasus. The British attache writes up a report of the request, which is dispatched to London. The second link in the chain leading to the end of the British Liberal government is forged.
- With the Ottoman assault on Sarikamish having stalled, General Yudenich, Chief of Staff of the Russian Caucasus Army, senses an opportunity to deliver a devastating counterattack. The Ottoman IX and X Corps at Sarikamish are dependent on a single line of communication back to Ottoman territory running through Bardiz, and Yudenich concludes that if the bulk of I Caucasian and II Turkestan Corps can hold the line against the Ottoman XI Corps, IX and X Corps can be encircled and annihilated. To this end, he has ordered two regiments from II Turkestan Corps at Yeniköy to move north towards Bardiz, and today they are able to bring the town under artillery fire.
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| The Battle of Sarikamish, December 30th, 1914. |
- Though the Ottoman effort to capture Sarikamish has stalled, the turn in fortunes is not immediately apparent to the Russian army leadership. Faced with the prospect of potential defeat in the Caucasus, two important decisions are taken. First, all Russian forces in Tabriz and northern Persia are ordered to withdraw northwards - now is no time for quasi-colonial adventures if the Turks are advancing into Russia. Second, Grand Duke Nicholas has a conversation with the British military attache at his headquarters. He remarks on the implications of a defeat at Sarikamish, and inquires whether the British would be able to mount an expedition against the Ottoman Empire in order to force them to withdraw forces from the Caucasus. The British attache writes up a report of the request, which is dispatched to London. The second link in the chain leading to the end of the British Liberal government is forged.
Thursday, November 06, 2014
November 6th, 1914
- At Ypres German attacks are concentrated along the front on both sides of the Ypres-Comines Canal on the southeastern face of the salient, while elsewhere there was the now-regular steady artillery bombardment. Taking advantage of a thick morning fog, the Germans attack into the woods west of Hollebeke, pre-empting a French attack scheduled for later today. In the confusion caused by the fog several French cavalry battalions panic, and the Germans are able to advance almost a mile, seizing the entire woods west of Hollebeke, allowing the Germans to advance to within three thousand yards of Ypres. On the north side of the Canal, the Germans take the French by surprise and pierce the line in three places, allowing the Germans to seize the village of Zwarteleen a mile southeast of Zillebeke. It takes a counterattack by the British 7th Cavalry Brigade to restore the line. Though the Germans have not broken through, they have driven a wedge into the junction of the French and British lines, and Haig is now concerned that his I Corps is at risk of having its southern flank turned.
- The Admiralty issues a public statement today on the Battle of Coronel. It emphasizes that the engagement appears to have been fought with the most bravery, but that without Canopus Craddock’s squadron would have been significantly outgunned. It establishes what will be the Admiralty line on Coronel - depicting Craddock as epitomizing the bravery and courage of Royal Navy officers, while simultaneously implying that he alone bears responsibility for the defeat by deciding to accept battle without Canopus present. This, not coincidentally, absolves the Admiralty leadership themselves of responsibility by denying the very significant role their confused signals to Craddock played in the weeks leading up to Coronel.
- General Oskar Potiorek issues orders today for another attempt at invading Serbia, the third of the war to date. The continued existance of Serbia, to say nothing of the terrible defeats the Austro-Hungarians have suffered at their hands, have undermined the prestige of the Dual Monarchy, potentially decisive in the ongoing efforts to convince the other Balkan states to join the war on their side. Potiorek's plan is similar to the first two invasions - 5th and 6th Armies will cross the Drina River in the northwest of Serbia, with the aim of advancing to initially Valjevo and ultimately Niš, dividing Serbia in two.
One advantage the Austro-Hungarians would have is that the condition of the Serbian army was deteriorating. The soldiers were exhausted, food was in short supply, and munitions were even scarcer, such that most of the time the Serbian infantry was fighting with no artillery support at all. While Britain and France were eager to aid the Serbian defence, the difficulties of sending supplies to a landlocked combatant prevented significant aid from getting through. General Putnik's strategy was thus to place 'the Serbian national mud between the enemy's fighting line and his supplies.' Even before the invasion, he has withdrawn his forces in the northwest of the country to the foothills of the Cer mountain range, so as to be out of range of Austro-Hungarian artillery fire.
- The Ottoman frontier with Russia is guarded by 3rd Army, consisting of three corps - IX covers the northern portion of the border and XI the southern, with X in reserve further west. Today elements of XI Corps assembling at Hasankale and Köprüköy launch a counterattack against the Russian column advancing on the former. However, given the heavy snow and rain and the lack of reconnaissance, they were unable to turn the Russians back.
- From August the Admiralty has been expressing concern about the security of its oil supply from Persia, which reaches the Persian Gulf by pipeline at Abadan Island and where the major refinery is located. Abadan Island is on the far western portion of Persia's coast, adjacent to the Ottomen Empire's outlet to the Persian Gulf at the Shatt al-Arab. In the event of war with the Ottomans, Abadan Island would be an obvious target. Moreover, concern had also been raised by the India Office regarding the importance of demonstrating British hegemony in the Gulf and not allowing an Ottoman challenge to undermine the authority of British rule over its Muslim subjects. As such, Indian Expeditionary Force D had been formed, consisting of an infantry brigade, and was dispatched to the Gulf in October, arriving in Bahrein on the 23rd. As war became increasingly likely, it planned to undertake a landing at the Ottoman fort of Fao on the Shatt al-Arab where it meets the Persian Gulf.
This morning the transports carrying IEF D are off Fao, escorted by the pre-dreadnought Ocean. The small Ottoman garrison puts up a brief resistance, exchanging fire with Ocean for an hour before, being heavily outnumbered, they withdraw northwards from Fao. By this afternoon landing parties have secured the village and fort at Fao, the first step in the Mesopotamian Campaign.
- The British landing at Fao is not the only Entente move of concern to Persia. Today Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov states that Russia will continue to occupy Persian Azerbaijan, suggesting that the easiest route by which the Ottomans can invade the Russian Caucasus is through Azerbaijan, as opposed to the mountain passes on the Ottoman-Russian frontier. The war thus makes Russian involvement in Persia even more essential in the view of Petrograd.
- The German East Asiatic Squadron returns to Más Afuera in the Pacific. While Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Nürnberg had called at Valparaíso, Leipzig had stayed offshore, and had managed to seize a French merchant with 3600 tons of Cardiff coal. The sailors start working on distributing the coal to each of the warships of the squadron.
- The Admiralty issues a public statement today on the Battle of Coronel. It emphasizes that the engagement appears to have been fought with the most bravery, but that without Canopus Craddock’s squadron would have been significantly outgunned. It establishes what will be the Admiralty line on Coronel - depicting Craddock as epitomizing the bravery and courage of Royal Navy officers, while simultaneously implying that he alone bears responsibility for the defeat by deciding to accept battle without Canopus present. This, not coincidentally, absolves the Admiralty leadership themselves of responsibility by denying the very significant role their confused signals to Craddock played in the weeks leading up to Coronel.
- General Oskar Potiorek issues orders today for another attempt at invading Serbia, the third of the war to date. The continued existance of Serbia, to say nothing of the terrible defeats the Austro-Hungarians have suffered at their hands, have undermined the prestige of the Dual Monarchy, potentially decisive in the ongoing efforts to convince the other Balkan states to join the war on their side. Potiorek's plan is similar to the first two invasions - 5th and 6th Armies will cross the Drina River in the northwest of Serbia, with the aim of advancing to initially Valjevo and ultimately Niš, dividing Serbia in two.
One advantage the Austro-Hungarians would have is that the condition of the Serbian army was deteriorating. The soldiers were exhausted, food was in short supply, and munitions were even scarcer, such that most of the time the Serbian infantry was fighting with no artillery support at all. While Britain and France were eager to aid the Serbian defence, the difficulties of sending supplies to a landlocked combatant prevented significant aid from getting through. General Putnik's strategy was thus to place 'the Serbian national mud between the enemy's fighting line and his supplies.' Even before the invasion, he has withdrawn his forces in the northwest of the country to the foothills of the Cer mountain range, so as to be out of range of Austro-Hungarian artillery fire.
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| The third Austro-Hungarian Invasion of Serbia, November to December 1914. |
- The Ottoman frontier with Russia is guarded by 3rd Army, consisting of three corps - IX covers the northern portion of the border and XI the southern, with X in reserve further west. Today elements of XI Corps assembling at Hasankale and Köprüköy launch a counterattack against the Russian column advancing on the former. However, given the heavy snow and rain and the lack of reconnaissance, they were unable to turn the Russians back.
- From August the Admiralty has been expressing concern about the security of its oil supply from Persia, which reaches the Persian Gulf by pipeline at Abadan Island and where the major refinery is located. Abadan Island is on the far western portion of Persia's coast, adjacent to the Ottomen Empire's outlet to the Persian Gulf at the Shatt al-Arab. In the event of war with the Ottomans, Abadan Island would be an obvious target. Moreover, concern had also been raised by the India Office regarding the importance of demonstrating British hegemony in the Gulf and not allowing an Ottoman challenge to undermine the authority of British rule over its Muslim subjects. As such, Indian Expeditionary Force D had been formed, consisting of an infantry brigade, and was dispatched to the Gulf in October, arriving in Bahrein on the 23rd. As war became increasingly likely, it planned to undertake a landing at the Ottoman fort of Fao on the Shatt al-Arab where it meets the Persian Gulf.
This morning the transports carrying IEF D are off Fao, escorted by the pre-dreadnought Ocean. The small Ottoman garrison puts up a brief resistance, exchanging fire with Ocean for an hour before, being heavily outnumbered, they withdraw northwards from Fao. By this afternoon landing parties have secured the village and fort at Fao, the first step in the Mesopotamian Campaign.
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| The opening moves of the Mesopotamian Campaign, 1914. |
- The British landing at Fao is not the only Entente move of concern to Persia. Today Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov states that Russia will continue to occupy Persian Azerbaijan, suggesting that the easiest route by which the Ottomans can invade the Russian Caucasus is through Azerbaijan, as opposed to the mountain passes on the Ottoman-Russian frontier. The war thus makes Russian involvement in Persia even more essential in the view of Petrograd.
- The German East Asiatic Squadron returns to Más Afuera in the Pacific. While Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Nürnberg had called at Valparaíso, Leipzig had stayed offshore, and had managed to seize a French merchant with 3600 tons of Cardiff coal. The sailors start working on distributing the coal to each of the warships of the squadron.
Saturday, November 01, 2014
November 1st, 1914
- Despite the ground gained yesterday east of Ypres, Army Group Fabeck failed to achieve the desired breakthrough. General Fabeck decides that while the offensive will continue, its focus will shift slightly. After failing to exploit the temporary breach in the British line at Gheluvelt yesterday, today's attacks will be launched between Messines and Wytschaete.
On the Entente side, the French plan three attacks, to be undertaken in large part to relieve the pressure on the British - the first from north of Wytschaete, the second from Zonnebeke, and the third a diversionary attack by the rest of IX Corps. Each of these attacks fail to accomplish anything today, but they also speak to the growing importance of French forces in the Ypres salient. The past two week have severely reduced the BEF's strength - of its eighty-four infantry battalions, nine have fewer than a hundred men, while another thirty-one have between one and two hundred. In comparison, a full battalion would have just over a thousand men. There are also very few reinforcements in Britain that can be sent immediately to the front - the only regular army units not yet in the fight are the battalions of 8th Division, assembling in Britain after being located around the Empire on the outbreak of war.
The main German attack begins at 1am by nine battalions of the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division. At Wytschaete the British are outnumbered twelve to one, and by 245am the village is in German hands. More importantly, as the battle continues German units begin to infiltrate between British positions on the ridge between Wytschaete and Messines, as the defenders here are too few to man an entire trench line at once. Those British soldiers who remain on the ridge at dawn realize they are in danger of encirclement, and pull back. By 735am the Germans are in possession of the middle part of the high ground. This outflanks the British defenders still clinging to the village of Messines itself, and they are ordered to retreat at 9am. The British fall back to the next line of high ground to the west, while shelling their former trenches at Messines to impede the German occupation of them. A British counterattack manages to re-enter Wytschaete later in the day, but otherwise the Entente line here has been pushed back. On the other hand, the German victory is merely a tactical one, as though the British retreat they are not routed, and a new defensive line stands in the Germans' way.
- Behind the front, Lord Kitchener is meeting President Poincarè, Joffre, and Foch at Dunkirk to discuss the course of the war. Kitchener informs them that there are no substantial British reinforcements available until the spring of 1915, as he will not send untrained men into battle. However, subsequently the size of the BEF will expand rapidly as the 'New Armies' of wartime volunteers come into the field. Also, know of the sometimes-testy relationship between Joffre and Sir John French, Kitchener offers to replace the latter with General Sir Ian Hamilton. Joffre declines, believing (ironically, given his own record) that changing the BEF's commander in the middle of a battle would not work out. Unfortunately for Kitchener, this offer very quickly reaches the ears of Field Marshal French, which earns Kitchener the enduring emnity of the latter.
- By today the German 9th Army has fallen back to the line from which it had started its advance into Poland just over a month ago. Despite Ludendorff's claims of success, and the generally confused nature of the fighting, the Battle of the Vistula River is a Russian victory - it can hardly be otherwise when the Germans were the attackers and they end the battle where they started. Nevertheless, the past month have shown the continuing logistical and command problems plaguing the Russian army - the attempt to pursue the retreating Germans has completely broken down, and today it is formally called off.
As for Falkenhayn, his attention remains firmly fixed on the Western Front, and is willing to leave matters on the Eastern Front in the hands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff. As such, Hindenburg is today appointed commander-in-chief of all German forces in the east, with Ludendorff as his chief of staff and the command to be known as Ober Ost. General Mackensen is also promoted to take command of 9th Army.
- With the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war almost inevitable after the events in the Black Sea, the Shah of Persia, its eastern neighbour, declares the neutrality of his state. The statement, however, is more theoretical than practical. Though Persia is nominally independent, both Britain and Russia have significant interests and influence within it. The newest dreadnoughts burn oil, not coal, and with the oilfields of southern Persia being a key source for the Admiralty, the British government controls them through owning a majority share of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. To the north, Russia already has five thousand soldiers garrisoning Persian Azerbaijan, seeing the endemic instability of the region as necessitating Russian control. The Shah himself is only 17 years old, and lacks an effective army to maintain internal order. Persian neutrality means little when major combatants sees their interests as necessitating intervention within its borders.
- At Coronel the British light cruiser Glasgow slips out of port at 915am, and meets the rest of Craddock's squadron just after 1pm. The four ships then spread out in a line, sailing north in search of the supposedly-isolated Leipzig. The German East Asiatic Squadron is doing much the same thing in pursuit of Glasgow, except moving south. At 420pm Leipzig and Glasgow sight each other, drawing both squadrons together.
Upon confirming the presence of the entire German East Asiatic Squadron, Craddock knows that his force is markedly inferior to the Germans. He decides, however, to fight - first, his armed merchant liner Otranto was not fast enough to escape; and second, he felt bound by the Admiralty's orders to engage the enemy. Craddock turns his squadron around so that both forces are sailing southwards, roughly parallel to each other. With the sun setting to the west, Craddock hopes to force an action when the sun is blinding the eyes of the German gunners, giving the British a window of opportunity. At 618pm Craddock aboard Good Hope signals the rest of his ships to follow him in closing with the Germans.
Spee, however, knows just as well as Craddock the impact the setting sun can have, and when the British ships turn to close the gap, he orders his ships to simply turn as well, maintaining the distance between the two squadrons. Thus the sun sets without a single ship being fired, and now all of the advantages are with the Germans - the British are now silhouetted against the twilight sky. At 650pm the Germans turn towards the British, and open fire at 704pm.
Craddock never had a chance. Despite the rough seas, the excellent marksmanship of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, honed to near-perfection in peacetime gunnery exercises, is immediately obvious. The third salvo of Scharnhorst strikes Good Hope, destroying one of its 9.2-inch guns, and henceforth the German armoured cruisers pour accurate and rapid fire on Good Hope and Monmouth. The British attempt to fire back, but most of their 6-inch shells fall short and the single 9.2-inch gun remaining operational on Good Hope can hardly hope to win the battle by itself. In less than an hour Good Hope is reduced to a flaming wreck, and having absorbed thirty-five hits from Scharnhorst, explodes and sinks at 750pm. Monmouth survives only an hour more, sinking at 858pm. As Spee's focus is naturally on the two largest opponents, both Glasgow and Otranto are able to make their escape in the night.
All aboard Good Hope and Monmouth, including Craddock, are lost. On the German side, only Gneisenau was hit even once by shells that exploded, and it suffered no serious damage and only three sailors were slightly wounded. Glasgow manages to warn Canopus sailing north with the squadron's colliers of the disaster, and the survivors escape southwards. The German East Asiatic Squadron has won a notable and completely-lopsided victory at the Battle of Coronel, the first significant defeat of British warships at the hands of the enemy for a century.
- As in Canada, the outbreak of war saw thousands of volunteers come forward in Australia and New Zealand. However, the continued presence of German cruisers in the Pacific and Indian Oceans required that the convoy carrying the volunteers be delayed until sufficient escorts could be assembled. Today, protected by British, Australian, and Japanese warships, thirty-eight transports carrying almost 21 000 Australian and just under 8500 New Zealand soldiers departs Australia today. Their destination is Egypt, where they will undergo training.
On the Entente side, the French plan three attacks, to be undertaken in large part to relieve the pressure on the British - the first from north of Wytschaete, the second from Zonnebeke, and the third a diversionary attack by the rest of IX Corps. Each of these attacks fail to accomplish anything today, but they also speak to the growing importance of French forces in the Ypres salient. The past two week have severely reduced the BEF's strength - of its eighty-four infantry battalions, nine have fewer than a hundred men, while another thirty-one have between one and two hundred. In comparison, a full battalion would have just over a thousand men. There are also very few reinforcements in Britain that can be sent immediately to the front - the only regular army units not yet in the fight are the battalions of 8th Division, assembling in Britain after being located around the Empire on the outbreak of war.
The main German attack begins at 1am by nine battalions of the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division. At Wytschaete the British are outnumbered twelve to one, and by 245am the village is in German hands. More importantly, as the battle continues German units begin to infiltrate between British positions on the ridge between Wytschaete and Messines, as the defenders here are too few to man an entire trench line at once. Those British soldiers who remain on the ridge at dawn realize they are in danger of encirclement, and pull back. By 735am the Germans are in possession of the middle part of the high ground. This outflanks the British defenders still clinging to the village of Messines itself, and they are ordered to retreat at 9am. The British fall back to the next line of high ground to the west, while shelling their former trenches at Messines to impede the German occupation of them. A British counterattack manages to re-enter Wytschaete later in the day, but otherwise the Entente line here has been pushed back. On the other hand, the German victory is merely a tactical one, as though the British retreat they are not routed, and a new defensive line stands in the Germans' way.
- The Kaiser arrives near the front today, visiting several cavalry divisions near Courtrai and Lille. The British intercept several messages regarding his journey, but misinterpret his itinerary to suggest that he will be much closer to the front. British artillery prepare an appropriate welcome at the villages where they think the Kaiser will be during the day.
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| The fighting around Ypres, November 1st to 4th, 1914. |
- Behind the front, Lord Kitchener is meeting President Poincarè, Joffre, and Foch at Dunkirk to discuss the course of the war. Kitchener informs them that there are no substantial British reinforcements available until the spring of 1915, as he will not send untrained men into battle. However, subsequently the size of the BEF will expand rapidly as the 'New Armies' of wartime volunteers come into the field. Also, know of the sometimes-testy relationship between Joffre and Sir John French, Kitchener offers to replace the latter with General Sir Ian Hamilton. Joffre declines, believing (ironically, given his own record) that changing the BEF's commander in the middle of a battle would not work out. Unfortunately for Kitchener, this offer very quickly reaches the ears of Field Marshal French, which earns Kitchener the enduring emnity of the latter.
- By today the German 9th Army has fallen back to the line from which it had started its advance into Poland just over a month ago. Despite Ludendorff's claims of success, and the generally confused nature of the fighting, the Battle of the Vistula River is a Russian victory - it can hardly be otherwise when the Germans were the attackers and they end the battle where they started. Nevertheless, the past month have shown the continuing logistical and command problems plaguing the Russian army - the attempt to pursue the retreating Germans has completely broken down, and today it is formally called off.
As for Falkenhayn, his attention remains firmly fixed on the Western Front, and is willing to leave matters on the Eastern Front in the hands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff. As such, Hindenburg is today appointed commander-in-chief of all German forces in the east, with Ludendorff as his chief of staff and the command to be known as Ober Ost. General Mackensen is also promoted to take command of 9th Army.
- With the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war almost inevitable after the events in the Black Sea, the Shah of Persia, its eastern neighbour, declares the neutrality of his state. The statement, however, is more theoretical than practical. Though Persia is nominally independent, both Britain and Russia have significant interests and influence within it. The newest dreadnoughts burn oil, not coal, and with the oilfields of southern Persia being a key source for the Admiralty, the British government controls them through owning a majority share of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. To the north, Russia already has five thousand soldiers garrisoning Persian Azerbaijan, seeing the endemic instability of the region as necessitating Russian control. The Shah himself is only 17 years old, and lacks an effective army to maintain internal order. Persian neutrality means little when major combatants sees their interests as necessitating intervention within its borders.
- At Coronel the British light cruiser Glasgow slips out of port at 915am, and meets the rest of Craddock's squadron just after 1pm. The four ships then spread out in a line, sailing north in search of the supposedly-isolated Leipzig. The German East Asiatic Squadron is doing much the same thing in pursuit of Glasgow, except moving south. At 420pm Leipzig and Glasgow sight each other, drawing both squadrons together.
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| The approach of the German East Asiatic Squadron to Chile and the Battle of Coronel, November 1st, 1914. |
Upon confirming the presence of the entire German East Asiatic Squadron, Craddock knows that his force is markedly inferior to the Germans. He decides, however, to fight - first, his armed merchant liner Otranto was not fast enough to escape; and second, he felt bound by the Admiralty's orders to engage the enemy. Craddock turns his squadron around so that both forces are sailing southwards, roughly parallel to each other. With the sun setting to the west, Craddock hopes to force an action when the sun is blinding the eyes of the German gunners, giving the British a window of opportunity. At 618pm Craddock aboard Good Hope signals the rest of his ships to follow him in closing with the Germans.
Spee, however, knows just as well as Craddock the impact the setting sun can have, and when the British ships turn to close the gap, he orders his ships to simply turn as well, maintaining the distance between the two squadrons. Thus the sun sets without a single ship being fired, and now all of the advantages are with the Germans - the British are now silhouetted against the twilight sky. At 650pm the Germans turn towards the British, and open fire at 704pm.
Craddock never had a chance. Despite the rough seas, the excellent marksmanship of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, honed to near-perfection in peacetime gunnery exercises, is immediately obvious. The third salvo of Scharnhorst strikes Good Hope, destroying one of its 9.2-inch guns, and henceforth the German armoured cruisers pour accurate and rapid fire on Good Hope and Monmouth. The British attempt to fire back, but most of their 6-inch shells fall short and the single 9.2-inch gun remaining operational on Good Hope can hardly hope to win the battle by itself. In less than an hour Good Hope is reduced to a flaming wreck, and having absorbed thirty-five hits from Scharnhorst, explodes and sinks at 750pm. Monmouth survives only an hour more, sinking at 858pm. As Spee's focus is naturally on the two largest opponents, both Glasgow and Otranto are able to make their escape in the night.
All aboard Good Hope and Monmouth, including Craddock, are lost. On the German side, only Gneisenau was hit even once by shells that exploded, and it suffered no serious damage and only three sailors were slightly wounded. Glasgow manages to warn Canopus sailing north with the squadron's colliers of the disaster, and the survivors escape southwards. The German East Asiatic Squadron has won a notable and completely-lopsided victory at the Battle of Coronel, the first significant defeat of British warships at the hands of the enemy for a century.
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| The Battle of Coronel, November 1st, 1914. |
- As in Canada, the outbreak of war saw thousands of volunteers come forward in Australia and New Zealand. However, the continued presence of German cruisers in the Pacific and Indian Oceans required that the convoy carrying the volunteers be delayed until sufficient escorts could be assembled. Today, protected by British, Australian, and Japanese warships, thirty-eight transports carrying almost 21 000 Australian and just under 8500 New Zealand soldiers departs Australia today. Their destination is Egypt, where they will undergo training.
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