- The French retreat from southern Serbia begins today when 122nd Division pulls back across the Tcherna River.
- After several days of lower-intensity fighting, the Italian 2nd Army undertakes another major effort west of Görz. At Oslavija, Italian infantry advances four times in the morning and twice more in the early evening - on each occasion the Italians fail to reach the Austro-Hungarian line. A major effort is also undertaken to seize Point 240, the highest on the heights at Podgora, but after a four-hour bombardment the Italians are repulsed in hand-to-hand fighting by the Austro-Hungarian 5th Mountain Brigade.
Showing posts with label Salonika. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Salonika. Show all posts
Thursday, November 26, 2015
Monday, November 23, 2015
November 23rd, 1915
- The head of the Directorate of Military Aviation at the War Office in London today authorizes the expansion of the Royal Flying Corps, which currently stands at thirty-one (fourteen in France) squadrons, to sixty, with squadron strength increasing from twelve to eighteen. In France these squadrons are to be formed into brigades, with the ultimate aim of having one brigade tied to each army of the British Expeditionary Force.
- As the German 11th Army was overrunning Serbia, the Russian high command had struggled to do something to aid its ally, General Alexeiev being cognizant that having complained of French and British inaction during the Great Retreat of the summer, the Russian army could hardly do nothing when the situation was reversed. Prompted by officials at the foreign ministry, he had deployed a new 7th Army on the Black Sea Coast, intended for amphibious operations against the Black Sea coast. The Russian navy, however, had vetoed the project, and so today Alexeiev orders 7th Army redeployed to eastern Galicia and begin planning, with 9th Army, for an offensive against the Austro-Hungarian armies opposite. In addition to 'doing something', there is a vague confidence at Stavka that the Austro-Hungarian army, having shown its inability repeatedly during the war, will collapse, and perhaps a victory here will convince the Romanians to join the war on the side of the Entente.
- Given the lack of reinforcements, General Sarrail feels that his position in southern Serbia is not tenable, given that the Bulgarians significantly outnumber his force. Further, the ongoing collapse and retreat of the Serbian army negates the rationale behind his operations in the Vardar River valley. As such, today he issues orders to the three French divisions in southern Serbia to withdraw south.
- Overnight elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Mountain Brigade launch an attack to regain the small stretch of the line that remains in Italian hands after their capture of it on the 20th. Their assault, however, runs smack into an Italian advance of their own; the two attacking forces mutually repulse each other, both falling back to their starting positions.
- An Austro-Hungarian squadron of the light cruisers Helgoland and Saida plus escorting destroyers sortied towards the Straits of Otranto overnight, aiming to interrupt the Entente transport of supplies across the Adriatic Sea to the Serbs via northern Albania. They intercept two Italian ships - the motor schooner Gallinara and the small steamer Palatino - carrying flour and sink both.
- The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria, escorted by the cruiser Pamiat Merkuriya and ten destroyers, bombards the Ottoman port of Zonguldak, the first occasion in which the new Russian warship fires its guns in anger.
- As the German 11th Army was overrunning Serbia, the Russian high command had struggled to do something to aid its ally, General Alexeiev being cognizant that having complained of French and British inaction during the Great Retreat of the summer, the Russian army could hardly do nothing when the situation was reversed. Prompted by officials at the foreign ministry, he had deployed a new 7th Army on the Black Sea Coast, intended for amphibious operations against the Black Sea coast. The Russian navy, however, had vetoed the project, and so today Alexeiev orders 7th Army redeployed to eastern Galicia and begin planning, with 9th Army, for an offensive against the Austro-Hungarian armies opposite. In addition to 'doing something', there is a vague confidence at Stavka that the Austro-Hungarian army, having shown its inability repeatedly during the war, will collapse, and perhaps a victory here will convince the Romanians to join the war on the side of the Entente.
- Given the lack of reinforcements, General Sarrail feels that his position in southern Serbia is not tenable, given that the Bulgarians significantly outnumber his force. Further, the ongoing collapse and retreat of the Serbian army negates the rationale behind his operations in the Vardar River valley. As such, today he issues orders to the three French divisions in southern Serbia to withdraw south.
- Overnight elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Mountain Brigade launch an attack to regain the small stretch of the line that remains in Italian hands after their capture of it on the 20th. Their assault, however, runs smack into an Italian advance of their own; the two attacking forces mutually repulse each other, both falling back to their starting positions.
- An Austro-Hungarian squadron of the light cruisers Helgoland and Saida plus escorting destroyers sortied towards the Straits of Otranto overnight, aiming to interrupt the Entente transport of supplies across the Adriatic Sea to the Serbs via northern Albania. They intercept two Italian ships - the motor schooner Gallinara and the small steamer Palatino - carrying flour and sink both.
- The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria, escorted by the cruiser Pamiat Merkuriya and ten destroyers, bombards the Ottoman port of Zonguldak, the first occasion in which the new Russian warship fires its guns in anger.
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| The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria. |
Thursday, November 19, 2015
November 19th, 1915
- General Gallieni replies today to General Sarrail's repeated requests for reinforcements for his Army of the Near East, and the minister of war does not mince words: 'Your dispatches or reports have repeated several times your requirement for four army corps, but the government has never consented to or discussed making your army this large . . . [you must] adapt your plans to the personnel at your disposal.'
- On the Italian Front the Italians attack Austro-Hungarian lines on the southern slope of Mt. San Michele again, but are no more successful today than they were yesterday.
- On the Italian Front the Italians attack Austro-Hungarian lines on the southern slope of Mt. San Michele again, but are no more successful today than they were yesterday.
Tuesday, November 17, 2015
November 17th, 1915
- Today elements of the German 103rd Division capture the town of Kuršumlija on the Toplica River. However, it is clear that the Serbs have successfully evacuated their forces from the north bank, withdrawing south. Further, overnight the first major snowstorm has struck, swelling the Ibar and Toplica Rivers while making aerial reconnaissance almost impossible.
- Since November 9th, General Sarrail of the Army of the Near East has sent repeated requests to the government to expand his force to four corps to allow him to not only hold his lines on the Vardar and Tcherna Rivers but also go onto the offensive. He repeats his arguments to Lord Kitchener in person today when the latter visits Salonika.
- Though heavy snow continues on the Italian Front, Cadorna orders a resumption of offensive operations tomorrow along the Isonzo River, leaving it to his army commanders to decide on particular objectives.
- Since November 9th, General Sarrail of the Army of the Near East has sent repeated requests to the government to expand his force to four corps to allow him to not only hold his lines on the Vardar and Tcherna Rivers but also go onto the offensive. He repeats his arguments to Lord Kitchener in person today when the latter visits Salonika.
- Though heavy snow continues on the Italian Front, Cadorna orders a resumption of offensive operations tomorrow along the Isonzo River, leaving it to his army commanders to decide on particular objectives.
Saturday, November 14, 2015
November 14th, 1915
- N-Abt, the intelligence department of OHL, produces a report today on the Entente armies on the Western Front. They estimate that the current size of the French army, including the class of 1916, to be approximately three million, which was four hundred thousand less than the size of the army at the outbreak of war. N-Abt further estimates that under normal conditions the French are losing seventy thousand men per month. At this rate, they estimate that the French will be experiencing severe shortages by September 1916 and will be forced to call up younger classes earlier and earlier to meet shortfalls in manpower - for instance, they anticipate the Class of 1918 being called up in June 1916.
The strength of the British army, however, is more difficult for N-Abt to assess. They estimate that the British currently deploys approximately forty-two divisions consisting of 1 057 000 men, including 270 000 regulars, 170 000 Territorials, 400 000 in the 'New Armies', 60 000 Indians, and 47 000 Canadians. However, though it is understood that the British army will grow to about seventy divisions, N-Abt is not able to conclude when this would occur.
Overall, N-Abt's report demonstrates that the Entente are numerically superior to the Germans on the Western Front, and that manpower shortages in the French army will in time be compensated by the growth of the British army. This assessment of the balance of strength on the Western Front will be at the forefront of Falkenhayn's thoughts as they turn to planning operations on the Western Front in 1916.
- Today the commander of the Italian 2nd Army, Lieutenant-General Pietro Frugoni, orders VI Corps to continue the offensive west of Görz. Seeing the setback yesterday at Oslavija as emblematic of the exhaustion of his soldiers, Lieutenant-General Luigi Capello, commander of VI Corps, objects to the order, writing to Cadorna that in the miserable conditions his men are little more than walking clumps of mud, and that further attacks would be pointless. Cadorna sides with Capello, and suspends operations at Görz. To the south, however, the Italian 3rd army continues its attempt to capture Mt. San Michelle. In the heaviest fighting of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo to date, attacks are launched from both flanks towards the summit, but by the end of the day all the Italians have gained is a small stretch of the first enemy trench southwest of St. Martino. Here the Austro-Hungarians simply establish a new trench line two hundred yards east of their old position, and otherwise nothing changes. However, repulsing the enemy assaults costs the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps over 1700 casualties today, and 5th Army sends forward three battalions from reserves.
- Meeting in Rome, the Italian cabinet discusses the evolving situation in the Balkans. Their French allies have requested the deployment of an Italian contingent to Salonika, which Cadorna supports (on the basis that tying down enemy forces here keeps them from the Italian Front). His political masters, however, have their eyes focused on Albania, both closer and seen by the government as within Italy's sphere of influence. Cadorna's advice is ignored, and the formation of an expedition to deploy to Albania is agreed upon.
- The German battlecruiser Goeben is attacked by the Russian submarine Morzh off the Bosphorus while escorting transports. The German warship only narrowly avoids Russian torpedoes, and the decision is made that despite the marked inferiority of the Ottoman navy, Goeben cannot be risked as a mere escort for steamers.
The strength of the British army, however, is more difficult for N-Abt to assess. They estimate that the British currently deploys approximately forty-two divisions consisting of 1 057 000 men, including 270 000 regulars, 170 000 Territorials, 400 000 in the 'New Armies', 60 000 Indians, and 47 000 Canadians. However, though it is understood that the British army will grow to about seventy divisions, N-Abt is not able to conclude when this would occur.
Overall, N-Abt's report demonstrates that the Entente are numerically superior to the Germans on the Western Front, and that manpower shortages in the French army will in time be compensated by the growth of the British army. This assessment of the balance of strength on the Western Front will be at the forefront of Falkenhayn's thoughts as they turn to planning operations on the Western Front in 1916.
- Today the commander of the Italian 2nd Army, Lieutenant-General Pietro Frugoni, orders VI Corps to continue the offensive west of Görz. Seeing the setback yesterday at Oslavija as emblematic of the exhaustion of his soldiers, Lieutenant-General Luigi Capello, commander of VI Corps, objects to the order, writing to Cadorna that in the miserable conditions his men are little more than walking clumps of mud, and that further attacks would be pointless. Cadorna sides with Capello, and suspends operations at Görz. To the south, however, the Italian 3rd army continues its attempt to capture Mt. San Michelle. In the heaviest fighting of the 4th Battle of the Isonzo to date, attacks are launched from both flanks towards the summit, but by the end of the day all the Italians have gained is a small stretch of the first enemy trench southwest of St. Martino. Here the Austro-Hungarians simply establish a new trench line two hundred yards east of their old position, and otherwise nothing changes. However, repulsing the enemy assaults costs the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps over 1700 casualties today, and 5th Army sends forward three battalions from reserves.
- Meeting in Rome, the Italian cabinet discusses the evolving situation in the Balkans. Their French allies have requested the deployment of an Italian contingent to Salonika, which Cadorna supports (on the basis that tying down enemy forces here keeps them from the Italian Front). His political masters, however, have their eyes focused on Albania, both closer and seen by the government as within Italy's sphere of influence. Cadorna's advice is ignored, and the formation of an expedition to deploy to Albania is agreed upon.
- The German battlecruiser Goeben is attacked by the Russian submarine Morzh off the Bosphorus while escorting transports. The German warship only narrowly avoids Russian torpedoes, and the decision is made that despite the marked inferiority of the Ottoman navy, Goeben cannot be risked as a mere escort for steamers.
Thursday, November 12, 2015
November 12th, 1915
- Over the past nine days, French forces have achieved meagre results in the offensive ordered by General Sarrail: elements of the French 57th and 122nd Divisions have crossed the Tcherna River and advanced five kilometres, but are encountering increasingly severe resistance. To the southeast, the French 156th Division at the Strumica rail station has successfully counterattacked Bulgarian forces and driven them back across the border. Nevertheless, Bulgarian forces in the region greatly outnumber the three French divisions Sarrail has available in southern Serbia.
- Italian attacks continue today along the Isonzo River. West of Görz, the morning sees back and forth fighting over a stretch of trench on the west slope of Heights #184 near Podgora, while in the afternoon an Italian assault penetrates the Austro-Hungarian line near the church at Oslavija. To the south, the Italian 3rd Army abandons the broader assaults of the past two days to launch a two-pronged effort to envelop Mt. San Michele, attacking from Peteano to the northwest and near St. Martino to the southwest. Three times Italian infantry advance up the northern slope of Mt. San Michele, and three times they fail to gain any ground. To the south, several regiments attack near Kote, but are repulsed with heavy losses.
- Recent sinkings by German submarines in the Mediterranean, especially of the transport Calvados off Algeria, has sparked concern both in metropolitan France and French North Africa regarding the safety of merchant ships and transports in the Mediterranean. Under pressure, the French minister of marine instructs Vice-Admiral Louis-René-Marie Charles Dartige du Fournet, commander of French naval forces in the Mediterranean, to reach an agreement with the British regarding a general plans for coordinated naval patrols to prevent submarine attacks.
- In Teheran Shah Ahmad of Persia informs Ambassador Reuss that he must secure the approval of the German government before he will ratify the treaty of alliance offered by the latter. This effectively postpones for several weeks the final decision of the shah on the treaty. Meanwhile, the Russian menace to Teheran increases - an advance Russian detachment is encamped forty miles from the capital, while a larger Russian expeditionary force of eight thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry lands at Enzeli today.
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| The front in southern Serbia after the offensive of Army of the Near East, November 1915. |
- Italian attacks continue today along the Isonzo River. West of Görz, the morning sees back and forth fighting over a stretch of trench on the west slope of Heights #184 near Podgora, while in the afternoon an Italian assault penetrates the Austro-Hungarian line near the church at Oslavija. To the south, the Italian 3rd Army abandons the broader assaults of the past two days to launch a two-pronged effort to envelop Mt. San Michele, attacking from Peteano to the northwest and near St. Martino to the southwest. Three times Italian infantry advance up the northern slope of Mt. San Michele, and three times they fail to gain any ground. To the south, several regiments attack near Kote, but are repulsed with heavy losses.
- Recent sinkings by German submarines in the Mediterranean, especially of the transport Calvados off Algeria, has sparked concern both in metropolitan France and French North Africa regarding the safety of merchant ships and transports in the Mediterranean. Under pressure, the French minister of marine instructs Vice-Admiral Louis-René-Marie Charles Dartige du Fournet, commander of French naval forces in the Mediterranean, to reach an agreement with the British regarding a general plans for coordinated naval patrols to prevent submarine attacks.
- In Teheran Shah Ahmad of Persia informs Ambassador Reuss that he must secure the approval of the German government before he will ratify the treaty of alliance offered by the latter. This effectively postpones for several weeks the final decision of the shah on the treaty. Meanwhile, the Russian menace to Teheran increases - an advance Russian detachment is encamped forty miles from the capital, while a larger Russian expeditionary force of eight thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry lands at Enzeli today.
Thursday, November 05, 2015
November 5th, 1915
- As the Serbs pull back to the southwest, Bulgarian forces occupy the de facto Serbian capital of Niš today.
- At Salonika the second British division committed to the expedition beings to unload.
- In Greece the government of Alexandros Zaimas, appointed by Constantine a month ago when the monarch split with the pro-Entente former Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, has been unable to securing a working majority in the Greek parliament, dominated as it is with supporters of Venizelos. As a result, Zaimas' government tenders its resignation today, and while a new government of 'national unity' (though excluding Venizelos' supporters) under Stephanos Skouloudis is appointed, Constantine also dissolves parliament for new elections.
- On October 30th, the French submarine Turquoise, the first to operate in the Sea of Marmara, had run aground and captured intact. Admiral Souchon had been shocked by the state of Turquoise, and writes to his wife today 'how the French commander could come into the Marmara in the defective boat is incomprehensible.' However, aboard the French submarine the Germans had discovered papers that referred to a planned rendezvous today with the British submarine E20. This allowed the German submarine UB14 to set a trap, and when E20 arrives for the supposed rendezvous it is instead torpedoed and sunk.
- Having left Bardia after delivering its cargo to the Senussi, the German submarine U35 comes across and sinks the British armed steamer Tara, and subsequently tows the lifeboat full of survivors back to Bardia as prisoners for the Senussi.
- At Salonika the second British division committed to the expedition beings to unload.
- In Greece the government of Alexandros Zaimas, appointed by Constantine a month ago when the monarch split with the pro-Entente former Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, has been unable to securing a working majority in the Greek parliament, dominated as it is with supporters of Venizelos. As a result, Zaimas' government tenders its resignation today, and while a new government of 'national unity' (though excluding Venizelos' supporters) under Stephanos Skouloudis is appointed, Constantine also dissolves parliament for new elections.
- On October 30th, the French submarine Turquoise, the first to operate in the Sea of Marmara, had run aground and captured intact. Admiral Souchon had been shocked by the state of Turquoise, and writes to his wife today 'how the French commander could come into the Marmara in the defective boat is incomprehensible.' However, aboard the French submarine the Germans had discovered papers that referred to a planned rendezvous today with the British submarine E20. This allowed the German submarine UB14 to set a trap, and when E20 arrives for the supposed rendezvous it is instead torpedoed and sunk.
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| The French submarine Turquoise. |
- Having left Bardia after delivering its cargo to the Senussi, the German submarine U35 comes across and sinks the British armed steamer Tara, and subsequently tows the lifeboat full of survivors back to Bardia as prisoners for the Senussi.
Wednesday, November 04, 2015
November 4th, 1915
- General Paul Leblois, commander of the French 57th Division, submits a pessimistic report to General Sarrail regarding the prospects of the offensive he has ordered in southern Serbia. Leblois argues that there are insufficient forces to hold the confluence of the Tcherna and Vardar Rivers while his division pushes across the Tcherna to the southwest. He fears that without significant reinforcements, his lines of communications will be vulnerable. Moreover, he describes the region as without roads or water, making resupply difficult.
- This morning Austro-Hungarian survivors on the heights at Podgora slowly but surely push back the Italian infantry who had seized the summit of Heights #184 yesterday, and by noon the Italians continued to hold only a small stretch of trench on the western slope. To the south, Italian attacks at Mt. San Michele and St. Martino are repulsed in heavy fighting.
This evening Cadorna calls a halt to the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo, citing exhaustion, the need to replace losses, and poor weather. In the course of the fighting, no ground of any consequence has been gained - for example, though the Italians have been able to push their lines forward towards the Podgora heights, the high ground remains firmly in the control of the Austro-Hungarians. The broader objectives of the offensive, including the city of Görz, remain as beyond the reac of the Italians as they had been at the start of the offensive. Accomplishing these meagre gains has cost the Italian army 67 000 casualties, constituting 23% of the attacking, and some of the regiments involved in the heaviest fighting have lost over half their strength in the two weeks of the operation. The Austro-Hungarians, however, have suffered heavily as well - total losses have numbered 42 000, which includes 23 000 casualties for VII Corps, responsible for the line from north of Mt. San Michele to Mt. dei sei Busi.
Though the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo is at an end, Cadorna is far from finished. Indeed, in the order this evening cancelling the offensive the Italian chief of staff called on his armies to be prepared to immediately go onto the offensive. With Austro-Hungarian armies committed to the Russian front and engaged on the Serbian front, he feels that they have little to no reserves available to meet another thrust along the Isonzo. Further, the Italian parliament is scheduled to resume sitting on December 1st, and both Cadorna and the government are eager to have some tangible success to lay before them to head off criticism of the management of the war. It is to be a short respite indeed for both the Italian and Austro-Hungarian soldiers along the Isonzo.
- The German submarine U38 torpedoes and sinks the French transport Calvados off the coast of Algeria today. The steamer was carrying a battalion of Senegalese soldiers from Oran to Marseilles, and as the ship sank panic broke out among the troops, exacerbated by the white officers taking two lifeboats and rowing as quickly as possible to the Algerian coast, abandoning the Africans to their fate. The loss of life is very heavy, and the French suspend naval traffic between Algeria and southern France for thirty-six hours.
Another German submarine - U35 - arrives at the Senussi-controlled port of Bardia in Italian Libya, just across the border from British Egypt, where it delivers ten Ottoman officers, 120 soldiers, and munitions to support the Senussi uprising against the Italians. With Entente naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, transport by submarine is the only way for Germany and its allies to provide aid to the Senussi in North Africa. Such voyages, however, mean overcrowded submarines that are hardly spacious to begin with; Capital Waldemar Kophamel is happy to offload his cargo and depart Bardia.
- This morning Austro-Hungarian survivors on the heights at Podgora slowly but surely push back the Italian infantry who had seized the summit of Heights #184 yesterday, and by noon the Italians continued to hold only a small stretch of trench on the western slope. To the south, Italian attacks at Mt. San Michele and St. Martino are repulsed in heavy fighting.
This evening Cadorna calls a halt to the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo, citing exhaustion, the need to replace losses, and poor weather. In the course of the fighting, no ground of any consequence has been gained - for example, though the Italians have been able to push their lines forward towards the Podgora heights, the high ground remains firmly in the control of the Austro-Hungarians. The broader objectives of the offensive, including the city of Görz, remain as beyond the reac of the Italians as they had been at the start of the offensive. Accomplishing these meagre gains has cost the Italian army 67 000 casualties, constituting 23% of the attacking, and some of the regiments involved in the heaviest fighting have lost over half their strength in the two weeks of the operation. The Austro-Hungarians, however, have suffered heavily as well - total losses have numbered 42 000, which includes 23 000 casualties for VII Corps, responsible for the line from north of Mt. San Michele to Mt. dei sei Busi.
Though the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo is at an end, Cadorna is far from finished. Indeed, in the order this evening cancelling the offensive the Italian chief of staff called on his armies to be prepared to immediately go onto the offensive. With Austro-Hungarian armies committed to the Russian front and engaged on the Serbian front, he feels that they have little to no reserves available to meet another thrust along the Isonzo. Further, the Italian parliament is scheduled to resume sitting on December 1st, and both Cadorna and the government are eager to have some tangible success to lay before them to head off criticism of the management of the war. It is to be a short respite indeed for both the Italian and Austro-Hungarian soldiers along the Isonzo.
- The German submarine U38 torpedoes and sinks the French transport Calvados off the coast of Algeria today. The steamer was carrying a battalion of Senegalese soldiers from Oran to Marseilles, and as the ship sank panic broke out among the troops, exacerbated by the white officers taking two lifeboats and rowing as quickly as possible to the Algerian coast, abandoning the Africans to their fate. The loss of life is very heavy, and the French suspend naval traffic between Algeria and southern France for thirty-six hours.
Another German submarine - U35 - arrives at the Senussi-controlled port of Bardia in Italian Libya, just across the border from British Egypt, where it delivers ten Ottoman officers, 120 soldiers, and munitions to support the Senussi uprising against the Italians. With Entente naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, transport by submarine is the only way for Germany and its allies to provide aid to the Senussi in North Africa. Such voyages, however, mean overcrowded submarines that are hardly spacious to begin with; Capital Waldemar Kophamel is happy to offload his cargo and depart Bardia.
Tuesday, November 03, 2015
November 3rd, 1915
- At the outbreak of the First World War, the British Royal Flying Corps had been a small unit whose pilots were drawn from the upper classes. To date applications to join the RFC have outpaced positions, allowing it to be selective in who it admits, with the result that the RFC have continued to draw from the same social classes as before the war. There is a strong and ingrained belief among the pilots of the RFC that 'gentlemen' officers, graduates of prestigious public schools and Oxbridge, make the pilots. Given this makeup, it is not surprising that British pilots at this stage of the war approach it as a sport and a grand adventure in the skies, one that stands in sharp contrast to the masses in the mud below. Character and background count for more than skill, and thus when the The Aeroplane magazine suggests today that pilots should enter the RFC as noncommissioned officers and be promoted on the basis of merit, the notion is rejected out of hand. To the current pilots of the RFC, its social exclusivity is not accidental but rather a deliberate approach to recruitment designed to ensure that future pilots meet the 'proper' standards - social as much as anything else - to be an officer of the RFC.
- Prime Minister Aristide Briand addresses the Chamber of Deputies today for the first time since the appointment of his government on the 29th, during which he pledges not to abandon Serbia. This promise, however, is particularly ill-timed, given that at this very moment the Serbian army is itself abandoning Serbia, falling back to the southwest while the French Army of the Near East has been unable to either break through the Bulgarian 2nd Army to relieve the Serbs or distract the enemy to allow the Serbs time to rest and regroup.
- At Salonika, the third French division - 122nd - began landing on the 1st, and with its first brigade now available for servicee General Sarrail now feels that he has sufficient forces to go on the attack. North of Krivolak, Bulgarian forces have crossed the Vardar River and are advancing southwest with the Tcherna River on their left. Sarrail orders the French 57th Division along with the first brigade of 122nd Division to cross the Tcherna and hit the Bulgarians in their flank. To the southeast, however, Bulgarian forces launch heavy attacks on French forces at the Strumica rail station.
- Along the Isonzo River the Italian II Corps launches eight separate attacks at Plava from noon until dark. The Austro-Hungarian defenders suffer heavy losses - the four most heavily engaged battalions have lost up to 40% of their strenght - but several reserve battalions are brought forward to hold the line. As a result, the Italians are unable to break through.
At Görz, the Austro-Hungarian 37th Landsturm Brigade, the last available reserve, counterattacks the Italian 11th Division at Oslavija this evening and drives the enemy back out of the village, regaining the trenches lost yesterday and capturing several hundred prisoners. A further series of assaults are launched by the Italians against the heights at Podgora, and after several attempts elements of 12th Division gain the summit of Heights 184. By this point, fighting here had devolved into small-unit fighting, with hardly any higher commanders able to influence the course of events, and infantry fought over shell holes filled with up to a metre of mud into the night.
South of Görz, the Austro-Hungarian 39th Brigade on the northern slope of Mt. San Michele is relieved overnight by three battalions from 6th Division. During the transfer, however, one of the battalions became separated from its guides, and unfamiliar with the ground stumbled past the position it was to occupy and walked right into the Italian line. Taking fire from three sides, the battalion takes severe losses before extricating itself. As a result, the Austro-Hungarians are forced to evacuate a small stretch of their own line due to the soldiers who would have guarded having been killed on the Italian line. Still, the Austro-Hungarians are able to form a new defensive line a mere fifty yards to the rear, and Italian attacks against this new position today fail to make any progress. A general Italian assault by VII Corps north and south of St. Martino also fails completely.
- Prime Minister Aristide Briand addresses the Chamber of Deputies today for the first time since the appointment of his government on the 29th, during which he pledges not to abandon Serbia. This promise, however, is particularly ill-timed, given that at this very moment the Serbian army is itself abandoning Serbia, falling back to the southwest while the French Army of the Near East has been unable to either break through the Bulgarian 2nd Army to relieve the Serbs or distract the enemy to allow the Serbs time to rest and regroup.
- At Salonika, the third French division - 122nd - began landing on the 1st, and with its first brigade now available for servicee General Sarrail now feels that he has sufficient forces to go on the attack. North of Krivolak, Bulgarian forces have crossed the Vardar River and are advancing southwest with the Tcherna River on their left. Sarrail orders the French 57th Division along with the first brigade of 122nd Division to cross the Tcherna and hit the Bulgarians in their flank. To the southeast, however, Bulgarian forces launch heavy attacks on French forces at the Strumica rail station.
- Along the Isonzo River the Italian II Corps launches eight separate attacks at Plava from noon until dark. The Austro-Hungarian defenders suffer heavy losses - the four most heavily engaged battalions have lost up to 40% of their strenght - but several reserve battalions are brought forward to hold the line. As a result, the Italians are unable to break through.
At Görz, the Austro-Hungarian 37th Landsturm Brigade, the last available reserve, counterattacks the Italian 11th Division at Oslavija this evening and drives the enemy back out of the village, regaining the trenches lost yesterday and capturing several hundred prisoners. A further series of assaults are launched by the Italians against the heights at Podgora, and after several attempts elements of 12th Division gain the summit of Heights 184. By this point, fighting here had devolved into small-unit fighting, with hardly any higher commanders able to influence the course of events, and infantry fought over shell holes filled with up to a metre of mud into the night.
South of Görz, the Austro-Hungarian 39th Brigade on the northern slope of Mt. San Michele is relieved overnight by three battalions from 6th Division. During the transfer, however, one of the battalions became separated from its guides, and unfamiliar with the ground stumbled past the position it was to occupy and walked right into the Italian line. Taking fire from three sides, the battalion takes severe losses before extricating itself. As a result, the Austro-Hungarians are forced to evacuate a small stretch of their own line due to the soldiers who would have guarded having been killed on the Italian line. Still, the Austro-Hungarians are able to form a new defensive line a mere fifty yards to the rear, and Italian attacks against this new position today fail to make any progress. A general Italian assault by VII Corps north and south of St. Martino also fails completely.
Monday, October 26, 2015
October 26th, 1915
- At 1005 am Lieutenant Max Immelmann shoots down a British B.e.2c two-seat reconnaissance biplane, his fifth of the war, making him Germany's first ace of the war.
- After hard fighting, the German XXII Reserve Corps, with the assistance of a heavy artillery bombardment, has secured the Serbian defensive positions at Arangelovac. With the way open to the high ground at Rudnik, Mackensen orders the corps, supported by the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps, push on towards Kraljevo, hoping to block one potential Serbian retreat route to the west. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian 2nd Army seizes the Kačanik Gorge north of Skopje which, with the earlier occupation of Veleš along with Skopje itself, isolates Salonika from Serbia.
- Lord Kitchener remains skeptical of the Salonika expedition, and feels that, with the fall of Skopje, the opportunity to effectively aid the Serbs may have passed. However, under continued pressure from the French, he agrees today to permit the British 10th Division, currently at Salonika, to cross the Greco-Serbian border to aid the French in the Vardar River valley.
- The German mission to Afghanistan has its first audience with Emir Habibullah today, where the latter expresses sympathy for the Germans but is unwilling to commit himself or his country to any particular course of action. The stalling of the emir leads some in the German mission to wonder if they will be able to accomplish their objectives.
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| Lieutenant Max Immelmann after his fifth victory, Oct. 26th, 1915. |
- After hard fighting, the German XXII Reserve Corps, with the assistance of a heavy artillery bombardment, has secured the Serbian defensive positions at Arangelovac. With the way open to the high ground at Rudnik, Mackensen orders the corps, supported by the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps, push on towards Kraljevo, hoping to block one potential Serbian retreat route to the west. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian 2nd Army seizes the Kačanik Gorge north of Skopje which, with the earlier occupation of Veleš along with Skopje itself, isolates Salonika from Serbia.
- Lord Kitchener remains skeptical of the Salonika expedition, and feels that, with the fall of Skopje, the opportunity to effectively aid the Serbs may have passed. However, under continued pressure from the French, he agrees today to permit the British 10th Division, currently at Salonika, to cross the Greco-Serbian border to aid the French in the Vardar River valley.
- The German mission to Afghanistan has its first audience with Emir Habibullah today, where the latter expresses sympathy for the Germans but is unwilling to commit himself or his country to any particular course of action. The stalling of the emir leads some in the German mission to wonder if they will be able to accomplish their objectives.
Friday, October 23, 2015
October 23rd, 1915
- Reinforced with divisions drawn from reserve, today the Italian XIV and X Corps of 3rd Army, the northern wing and centre of the army respectively, launch repeated heavy attacks on the Austro-Hungarian line between Mt. San Michelle and Mt. dei sei Busi. Again and again, Italian infantry rush forward, often uphill, into heavy enemy fire, and when they manage to reach the first trenches they are met by bayonets and grenades. Despite losses, numerical inferiority, and exhaustion, the Austro-Hungarian defenders, some of whom consist of Landsturm reserves barely accustomed to the intensity of modern combat, are able to hold repulse every Italian attack.
- The British transport Marquette, carrying troops from Egypt to Salonika, is torpedoed and sunk today by the German submarine U35 in the Gulf of Salonika, though most of the soldiers are rescued.
- Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, informs Austen Chamberlain, secretary of state of India, today that his military advisors believe that 6th Indian Division, on the Tigris River near Kut-al-Amara, has sufficient strength both to advance to Baghdad and occupy it, and hold the city until the two divisions of Indian Expeditionary Force A arrive in Mesopotamia to reinforce it. Chamberlain replies later today with authorization to launch 6th Indian Division towards Baghdad, a momentous decision that in time will have dire consequences.
- The British transport Marquette, carrying troops from Egypt to Salonika, is torpedoed and sunk today by the German submarine U35 in the Gulf of Salonika, though most of the soldiers are rescued.
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| The German submarine U35. |
- Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, informs Austen Chamberlain, secretary of state of India, today that his military advisors believe that 6th Indian Division, on the Tigris River near Kut-al-Amara, has sufficient strength both to advance to Baghdad and occupy it, and hold the city until the two divisions of Indian Expeditionary Force A arrive in Mesopotamia to reinforce it. Chamberlain replies later today with authorization to launch 6th Indian Division towards Baghdad, a momentous decision that in time will have dire consequences.
Wednesday, October 21, 2015
October 21st, 1915
- Despite the failure of the attack by the Guards Division on the 17th, General Haig of the British 1st Army remains confident that a more methodical approach will secure the ground on the northern flank of the Loos salient he deems essential to establish a good defensive position for his forces over the winter. Among the tactics Haig implements is the digging of approach trenches as close to the German lines as possible, to minimize the time needed for the attacking infantry to cross No Man's Land. This work cannot be rushed, however, and Haig does not believe his army will be ready to attack until November 7th. Today Field Marshal French gives his approval to the proposed local attacks.
- Over the past week the remainder of the French 156th Division has arrived at the Strumica rail station, and in cooperation with Serb forces has repulsed an attack by elements of the Bulgarian 2nd Army.
- This morning the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo opens on the Italian Front as infantry assaults are undertaken by the Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies. Given the lack of both surprise and sufficient munitions, to say nothing of the terrain, the Italian attacks get nowhere. North of Plava the Italian 27th Division attempts to cross the Isonzo River at Loga and Ajba before dawn, hoping to catch the enemy by surprise. The intention of the attackers had long since been betrayed by the noise of their assembly, and the crossing runs into a hail of fire and is shattered. A second attempt after dusk makes use of a more substantial preliminary bombardment, but is no more successful. South of Görz, 3rd Army assaults the Karst plateau at 10am. Only along small sections of the front do Italian infantry manage to even reach the first enemy trench line, and these successes are soon erased by fierce Austro-Hungarian counterattacks. Only on a two hundred yard stretch of the Austro-Hungarian line north of Mt dei sei Busi are the Italian attackers able to hold captured ground against enemy counterattacks. By nightfall hundreds of Italian dead lay before Austro-Hungarian positions on Mt S Michelle. After dark the Italian VII Corps attacks up the slope of Heights #121 east of Monfalcone, and after four failed attempts the fifth managed to reach the enemy trenches just before midnight.
- Today British and French warships bombard the port of Dedeagach and other points on the Aegean coast of Bulgaria.
- Over the past week the remainder of the French 156th Division has arrived at the Strumica rail station, and in cooperation with Serb forces has repulsed an attack by elements of the Bulgarian 2nd Army.
- This morning the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo opens on the Italian Front as infantry assaults are undertaken by the Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies. Given the lack of both surprise and sufficient munitions, to say nothing of the terrain, the Italian attacks get nowhere. North of Plava the Italian 27th Division attempts to cross the Isonzo River at Loga and Ajba before dawn, hoping to catch the enemy by surprise. The intention of the attackers had long since been betrayed by the noise of their assembly, and the crossing runs into a hail of fire and is shattered. A second attempt after dusk makes use of a more substantial preliminary bombardment, but is no more successful. South of Görz, 3rd Army assaults the Karst plateau at 10am. Only along small sections of the front do Italian infantry manage to even reach the first enemy trench line, and these successes are soon erased by fierce Austro-Hungarian counterattacks. Only on a two hundred yard stretch of the Austro-Hungarian line north of Mt dei sei Busi are the Italian attackers able to hold captured ground against enemy counterattacks. By nightfall hundreds of Italian dead lay before Austro-Hungarian positions on Mt S Michelle. After dark the Italian VII Corps attacks up the slope of Heights #121 east of Monfalcone, and after four failed attempts the fifth managed to reach the enemy trenches just before midnight.
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| The 3rd Battle of the Isonzo, Oct. 19th to Nov. 4th, 1915. |
- Today British and French warships bombard the port of Dedeagach and other points on the Aegean coast of Bulgaria.
Tuesday, October 20, 2015
October 20th, 1915
- At OHL Falkenhayn has been observing the progress of the Serbian campaign with apprehension, as he views the progress to date, especially over the past week as the Kossava raged, as insufficient to secure the desired rapid victory. The German chief of staff decides today to commit the German Alpine Corps, currently in the Tyrol, to the Serbian campaign, and decides to visit Mackensen's headquarters in three days' time.
- Four days ago, the British government offered to cede the island of Cyprus, acquired from the Ottoman Empire in the 19th-century, to Greece in exchange for Greek entry into the war on the side of the Entente. The inducement is not sufficient to move King Constantine off of his policy of neutrality, and today the Greek government declines the British offer.
- In southern Serbia, Bulgarian forces attack and capture Veleš on the Salonika-Skopje railway forty kilometres north of Krivolak. The Serbs appeal to General Sarrail to advance further north to maintain the line of communications with Skopje, but he refuses to move beyond Krivolak. Between Krivolak and the Strumica rail station, he has already committed most of the forces at his disposal - the last elements of the French 57th Division are still disembarking at Salonika even as its lead elements are arriving at Krivolak today, and a third French division is still en route to the port. Moreover, French forces at the Strumica rail station continue to engage Bulgarian forces, and defeat here would isolate the French forces moving to Krivolak, and reports from Krivolak itself indicate that the railway has already been cut just north of the town.
- As the Italian preliminary artillery bombardment continues, Italian prisoners captured by the Austro-Hungarians indicate that the anticipated infantry assault is to begin tomorrow morning. Not only the timing but the location of the attack has been ascertained - the pattern of bombardment clearly shows that a major effort will be made against the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps south of Görz, and reserves of the adjacent III Corps are ordered to prepare to move north to aid their neighbour once the enemy attack begins. Though outnumbered, the Austro-Hungarians are thoroughly prepared to meet the Italian offensive.
- Four days ago, the British government offered to cede the island of Cyprus, acquired from the Ottoman Empire in the 19th-century, to Greece in exchange for Greek entry into the war on the side of the Entente. The inducement is not sufficient to move King Constantine off of his policy of neutrality, and today the Greek government declines the British offer.
- In southern Serbia, Bulgarian forces attack and capture Veleš on the Salonika-Skopje railway forty kilometres north of Krivolak. The Serbs appeal to General Sarrail to advance further north to maintain the line of communications with Skopje, but he refuses to move beyond Krivolak. Between Krivolak and the Strumica rail station, he has already committed most of the forces at his disposal - the last elements of the French 57th Division are still disembarking at Salonika even as its lead elements are arriving at Krivolak today, and a third French division is still en route to the port. Moreover, French forces at the Strumica rail station continue to engage Bulgarian forces, and defeat here would isolate the French forces moving to Krivolak, and reports from Krivolak itself indicate that the railway has already been cut just north of the town.
- As the Italian preliminary artillery bombardment continues, Italian prisoners captured by the Austro-Hungarians indicate that the anticipated infantry assault is to begin tomorrow morning. Not only the timing but the location of the attack has been ascertained - the pattern of bombardment clearly shows that a major effort will be made against the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps south of Görz, and reserves of the adjacent III Corps are ordered to prepare to move north to aid their neighbour once the enemy attack begins. Though outnumbered, the Austro-Hungarians are thoroughly prepared to meet the Italian offensive.
Wednesday, October 14, 2015
October 14th, 1915
- Overnight five German Zeppelins undertake a bombing raid on London. While L11 turned back near the English coast after coming under fire, dropping his bombload on several small villages, and L16 strikes the town of Hertford, twenty miles north of London, the three others all manage to hit the British capital. Most notably, L15, watched by members of Parliament who had been debating an emergency taxation measure, drops its bombs from Charing Cross to the Bank of England, with the second bomb exploding in Wellington Street and killing seventeen, the greatest number of deaths caused by a single bomb in a raid to date. L13, meanwhile, targets pumping and power stations at Hampton as well as Woolwich Arsenal, and L14, after a lengthy diversion to Hythe on the Kent coast where it dropped nine bombs on an army encampment and killed fifteen soldiers, struck the suburb of Croydon where a number of homes were damaged or destroyed. Though the Zeppelins had trouble with fog on the return voyage, all return safely (though L15 landed three miles short of Nordholz, necessitating repairs). This raid is one of the deadliest of the war, with 71 killed and 128 injured, including 38 killed and 87 injured in London itself.
- The Kossava continues unabated in Serbia today, and the only craft able to cross the swollen Save and Danube Rivers are boats with motors or steam engines, of which only two are available to transport supply for the entire German III and X Reserve Corps. For the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the south banks of the rivers, supply problems continue.
South of Belgrade further attacks by the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps succeed in pushing the Serbians back from their forward positions, and elements of the German 43rd and 44th Reserve Divisions advance on either side of the railway running towards Ripanj. On the front of the German 11th Army, after reconnaissance patrols yesterday established that the Serbs had evacuated Požarevac, the German 3rd Bavarian Regiment occupies the town today.
Meanwhile the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies begin their advance today. Given that the former is clearly aimed directly at Niš, the Serbs have deployed strong forces, totalling five infantry divisions and one cavalry division, to contain the Bulgarian advance in the mountain passes east of the city. Given the strong resistance, coupled with the continuing bad weather, the Bulgarian 1st Army makes no progress today. However, given the continued pressure the Serbs are under on all fronts, they are incapable of being strong everywhere, and only small forces can be spared to hold back the Bulgarian 2nd Army.
- French forces begin to arrive at Strumica Station today, where they join seven Serbian battalions. Given their proximity to the Bulgarian frontier here, however, they quickly come under Bulgarian artillery fire.
- The Kossava continues unabated in Serbia today, and the only craft able to cross the swollen Save and Danube Rivers are boats with motors or steam engines, of which only two are available to transport supply for the entire German III and X Reserve Corps. For the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the south banks of the rivers, supply problems continue.
South of Belgrade further attacks by the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps succeed in pushing the Serbians back from their forward positions, and elements of the German 43rd and 44th Reserve Divisions advance on either side of the railway running towards Ripanj. On the front of the German 11th Army, after reconnaissance patrols yesterday established that the Serbs had evacuated Požarevac, the German 3rd Bavarian Regiment occupies the town today.
Meanwhile the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies begin their advance today. Given that the former is clearly aimed directly at Niš, the Serbs have deployed strong forces, totalling five infantry divisions and one cavalry division, to contain the Bulgarian advance in the mountain passes east of the city. Given the strong resistance, coupled with the continuing bad weather, the Bulgarian 1st Army makes no progress today. However, given the continued pressure the Serbs are under on all fronts, they are incapable of being strong everywhere, and only small forces can be spared to hold back the Bulgarian 2nd Army.
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| The deployment of the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies and the Serbian forces assigned to contain them, Oct. 14th, 1915. |
- French forces begin to arrive at Strumica Station today, where they join seven Serbian battalions. Given their proximity to the Bulgarian frontier here, however, they quickly come under Bulgarian artillery fire.
Monday, October 12, 2015
October 12th, 1915
- After numerous delays, the next big push by the British 1st Army is scheduled to go in tomorrow afternoon, and this evening BEF commander Field Marshal Sir John French issues new objectives for 1st Army. To this point, Haig's instructions have remained those issued on September 18th; namely, to reach the line of Haute Deule Canal, which south of Lille runs in a curve towards the front before angling to Douai to the southeast. Now, however, French abandons the canal as the ultimate objective. Instead, after the hoped-for success tomorrow in recapturing the Hohenzollern Redoubt and securing its northern flank, 1st Army will conduct subsidiary operations to secure ground from which another major offensive can be launched in the future. This is a distinctive, and deliberate, reduction in the overall aim of the British offensive - though ground around the village of Loos has been gained, the broader aim of a breakthrough has not been achieved, and French is already looking towards preparations for the next major offensive.
- For several months, discontent with the French war effort has been percolating through political circles in Paris, and these concerns have been amplified in recent weeks with the failure of the autumn offensives in Artois and Champagne, coupled with the imminent entry of Bulgaria into the war. Today Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé, whose efforts to keep Bulgaria neutral have failed, resigns, which leads to a vote of confidence in the Chamber of Deputies regarding the government of Prime Minister René Viviani. Though the government wins the vote 372 to 9, the large number of abstentions indicate that Viviani's grip on power is slipping.
- The postponed attack of the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps south of Belgrade goes in today, and the Germans, supported by a carefully planned and precise artillery bombardment, drive the Serbs back several kilometres and seize the Petlovo Hills. The Austro-Hungarians, however, make significantly less progress, in part due to poor weather preventing support from monitors on the river. Further east the advance of the German 11th Army continues: today 105th Division of IV Corps moves south of the Leštar Hills and 11th Bavarian Division reaches the outskirts of Požarevac. On their left, the German X Reserve Corps seizes the Anatema Hills, which pushes the Serbs sufficiently behind the Danube River to allow the corps' heavy equipment to cross on pontoon bridges. The most important development of the day, however, is beyond the control of the invading forces - the rain preventing river monitors from supporting the Austro-Hungarian attack is growing more intense.
- Today General Sarrail arrives at Salonika to take command of the Army of the Near East, where he receives instructions from the war minister to 'cover the lines of communication between Salonika and Serbia against the advance of Bulgarian forces.' This means defending, first of all, the railway that connects Salonika and Skopje, running alongside the Vardar River. Sarrail orders an infantry regiment and an artillery battalion to advance to the Strumica rail railway station a hundred kilometres north of Salonika and thirty kilometres into Serbian territory. Here, the Bulgarian border is a dozen kilometres from the Salonika-Skopje railway (the village of Strumica itself is just inside Bulgaria), making a defence of the line here essential if the railway is to remain open to Entente forces.
- For several months, discontent with the French war effort has been percolating through political circles in Paris, and these concerns have been amplified in recent weeks with the failure of the autumn offensives in Artois and Champagne, coupled with the imminent entry of Bulgaria into the war. Today Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé, whose efforts to keep Bulgaria neutral have failed, resigns, which leads to a vote of confidence in the Chamber of Deputies regarding the government of Prime Minister René Viviani. Though the government wins the vote 372 to 9, the large number of abstentions indicate that Viviani's grip on power is slipping.
- The postponed attack of the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps south of Belgrade goes in today, and the Germans, supported by a carefully planned and precise artillery bombardment, drive the Serbs back several kilometres and seize the Petlovo Hills. The Austro-Hungarians, however, make significantly less progress, in part due to poor weather preventing support from monitors on the river. Further east the advance of the German 11th Army continues: today 105th Division of IV Corps moves south of the Leštar Hills and 11th Bavarian Division reaches the outskirts of Požarevac. On their left, the German X Reserve Corps seizes the Anatema Hills, which pushes the Serbs sufficiently behind the Danube River to allow the corps' heavy equipment to cross on pontoon bridges. The most important development of the day, however, is beyond the control of the invading forces - the rain preventing river monitors from supporting the Austro-Hungarian attack is growing more intense.
- Today General Sarrail arrives at Salonika to take command of the Army of the Near East, where he receives instructions from the war minister to 'cover the lines of communication between Salonika and Serbia against the advance of Bulgarian forces.' This means defending, first of all, the railway that connects Salonika and Skopje, running alongside the Vardar River. Sarrail orders an infantry regiment and an artillery battalion to advance to the Strumica rail railway station a hundred kilometres north of Salonika and thirty kilometres into Serbian territory. Here, the Bulgarian border is a dozen kilometres from the Salonika-Skopje railway (the village of Strumica itself is just inside Bulgaria), making a defence of the line here essential if the railway is to remain open to Entente forces.
Friday, October 09, 2015
October 9th, 1915
- Though the German attack at Loos yesterday has forced yet another postponement of the British offensive, Foch is unwilling to delay the attack of the French 10th Army any further, and insists that it go ahead as planned. Now, however, the weather intervenes: the preliminary artillery bombardment scheduled to begin today is delayed by heavy fog which prevents accurate fire on German positions. The infantry assault is thus put off until the 11th.
- With German forces approaching from the west and the Austro-Hungarian troops into the city fighting house-to-house, General Mihailo Živkovic, commanding the Serbian defenders at Belgrade, concludes that the city can no longer be held. Shortly after midnight, he orders his exhausted battalions to abandon the city, retreating south to a line running approximately from Mirijevo east of Belgrade to Zarkova south of the city. During the day, the German 43rd Reserve Divisions pushes into the city from the west, capturing the Konak, the official residence of King Peter I of Serbia, while 44th Reserve Division covers its southern flank and occupies the summit of Banovo Mountain. The Austro-Hungarian 59th Division, meanwhile, fights its way through the streets of Belgrade and by this evening have captured the Kalemegdan. For the second time in the war, Belgrade has fallen to the enemy; this time, however, there will be no miraculous reversal of fortune as there was in December of last year.
East of Belgrade, the German X Reserve Corps goes onto the attack today after its crossing of the Danube on the 7th, and make gradual progress in hilly terrain. An attack by IV Reserve Corps, meanwhile, is delayed by morning fog, and when artillery fires prior to the attack, rescheduled for 230pm, a number of shells fall short and strike German positions. The Serbs, taking advantage of the confusion, launch a counterattack along the entire front of IV Reserve Corps, taking advantage of cornfields to advance unseen. In heavy fighting, the Serbs are finally driven off with the aid of artillery fire from the north bank and Temesziget Island. A German counterattack makes slow progress, the Serbian trenches hidden by the same corn that had masked their earlier advance, but by this evening have captured Petka. 11th Bavarian Division has suffered 750 men over the past two days, but the Serbs defenders have lost approximately a thousand, and they are far less able to replace their casualties than the Germans. Twenty miles to the west, the German III Corps makes its crossing of the Danube today, the last of 11th Army's three corps to do so. 6th Division secures a bridgehead opposite Kevevára, and corps commander General Ewald von Lochow decides to redeploy his other division - 25th Reserve - to follow the route of 6th Division, given the difficulties its lead regiment - 168th - has encountered attempting to cross at Semendria Island.
- As General Sarrail has yet to arrive at Salonika, General Maurice Bailloud, who had formerly commanded the French contingent on Gallipoli, has been in charge. The orders he has received from his government since the landing show the extent to which the Entente, having committed to aiding the Serbs, had not worked out how precisely this was to be done. On October 7th, Bailloud received instructions not to cross the border into Serbia. Yesterday, this order was countered by another message ordering him to advance thirty kilometres into Serbia. Today, Bailloud is again instructed not to enter Serbian territory. Not surprising, the net result has been no advance beyond Salonika for the forces that have arrived since the 5th.
- With German forces approaching from the west and the Austro-Hungarian troops into the city fighting house-to-house, General Mihailo Živkovic, commanding the Serbian defenders at Belgrade, concludes that the city can no longer be held. Shortly after midnight, he orders his exhausted battalions to abandon the city, retreating south to a line running approximately from Mirijevo east of Belgrade to Zarkova south of the city. During the day, the German 43rd Reserve Divisions pushes into the city from the west, capturing the Konak, the official residence of King Peter I of Serbia, while 44th Reserve Division covers its southern flank and occupies the summit of Banovo Mountain. The Austro-Hungarian 59th Division, meanwhile, fights its way through the streets of Belgrade and by this evening have captured the Kalemegdan. For the second time in the war, Belgrade has fallen to the enemy; this time, however, there will be no miraculous reversal of fortune as there was in December of last year.
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| Kalemegdan castle after its capture by the Austro-Hungarian 59th Division, October 9th, 1915. |
East of Belgrade, the German X Reserve Corps goes onto the attack today after its crossing of the Danube on the 7th, and make gradual progress in hilly terrain. An attack by IV Reserve Corps, meanwhile, is delayed by morning fog, and when artillery fires prior to the attack, rescheduled for 230pm, a number of shells fall short and strike German positions. The Serbs, taking advantage of the confusion, launch a counterattack along the entire front of IV Reserve Corps, taking advantage of cornfields to advance unseen. In heavy fighting, the Serbs are finally driven off with the aid of artillery fire from the north bank and Temesziget Island. A German counterattack makes slow progress, the Serbian trenches hidden by the same corn that had masked their earlier advance, but by this evening have captured Petka. 11th Bavarian Division has suffered 750 men over the past two days, but the Serbs defenders have lost approximately a thousand, and they are far less able to replace their casualties than the Germans. Twenty miles to the west, the German III Corps makes its crossing of the Danube today, the last of 11th Army's three corps to do so. 6th Division secures a bridgehead opposite Kevevára, and corps commander General Ewald von Lochow decides to redeploy his other division - 25th Reserve - to follow the route of 6th Division, given the difficulties its lead regiment - 168th - has encountered attempting to cross at Semendria Island.
- As General Sarrail has yet to arrive at Salonika, General Maurice Bailloud, who had formerly commanded the French contingent on Gallipoli, has been in charge. The orders he has received from his government since the landing show the extent to which the Entente, having committed to aiding the Serbs, had not worked out how precisely this was to be done. On October 7th, Bailloud received instructions not to cross the border into Serbia. Yesterday, this order was countered by another message ordering him to advance thirty kilometres into Serbia. Today, Bailloud is again instructed not to enter Serbian territory. Not surprising, the net result has been no advance beyond Salonika for the forces that have arrived since the 5th.
Wednesday, October 07, 2015
October 7th, 1915
- Foch and d'Urbal meet today to discuss the resumption of the offensive in Artois. Despite the withdrawal of III Corps Foch insists that 10th Army go on to the attack on October 10th alongside the planned British advance. They agree that three corps in the centre of 10th Army will advance towards the crest of Vimy Ridge, still agonizingly out of reach, while IX Corps will assault Hill 70 in close coordination with the British to the north.
- With the most recent attack in the Champagne having failed to gain significant ground, and given Castlenau's reports that his armies would require time to prepare a further assault, Joffre reluctantly terminates the offensive late today. The offensive that appeared to hold such promise after the first day on September 25th has thus ended in yet another failure.
- In the early morning hours the invasion of Serbia begins when lead units of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and German 11th Armies begin their crossing of the Save and Danube Rivers. First into action is the German 208th Reserve Regiment, of 44th Reserve Division/XXII Reserve Corps, when it puts fifteen pontoons, each carrying ten soldiers, in the water at 330am. Their objective is the cigar-shaped Big Zigeuner Island and the Serbian shore of the Save River west of Belgrade. By dawn elements of four corps have swung into action, including all of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army: in addition to the German XXII Reserve Corps west of Belgrade, the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps crosses further west and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps moves against Belgrade itself. Of the German 11th Army, X Reserve Corps, easternmost of the army's three corps, crosses at Ram, the seizure of which is deemed a necessary precondition for the assault of the army's two other corps on October 9th.
The assaulting forces achieve mixed results over the course of the day's fighting. Furthest west, infantry of the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps is able to cross at Progar and Boljevci almost unopposed, but the swampy ground on the southern shore hinders the movement of the Austro-Hungarian infantry and the Serbian II Drina Division is able to halt their advance short of the town of Obrenovac, their initial objective. The German XXII Reserve Corps is able to capture the western end of Big Zigeuner Island and push a regiment across to the southern shore of the Save, where heavy German artillery fire prevents a Serbian counterattack against the bridgehead. However, the limited number of pontoons, plus the inevitable losses to mines and enemy fire, slows the pace of the crossings, while 43rd Reserve Division is tasked with clearing both Big and Little Zigeuner Island. East of Belgrade the German X Reserve Corps has the easiest day - Serbian resistance is negligible at Ram, and by 10am two regiments of 103rd Division have secured the Gorica Hills, overlooking the corps' crossing points. By this afternoon most of 101st and 103rd Divisions is on the southern shore, and a Serbian counterattack is repulsed with heavy losses to the attackers.
At Belgrade the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps has a difficult day; the Serbs have committed significant forces, including artillery to holding the city, and a light rain prevents spotter aircraft from observing friendly artillery fire. After 4am pontoons carrying infantry from 74th, 84th, and 87th Regiments push towards the Belgrade shoreline, but are quickly illuminated by Serbian searchlights and come under heavy fire. Only the latter regiment is able to get across largely intact while the commander of the former is awarded the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa for extreme bravery in leading his soldiers in hand-to-hand fighting to gain a lodgement on the southern shore. Over the course of the day's fighting two-thirds of the pontoons are sunk and by nightfall the surviving Austro-Hungarian infantry are clinging to the shoreline from the western edge of Belgrade to the confluence of the Save and Danube just below the old Ottoman fortress of Kalemegdan.
By nightfall the two German corps have achieved the most significant success, while the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps in particular is clinging to its bridgehead at Belgrade. Nevertheless, the first day of the Serbian campaign is a success for Mackensen's two armies - the amphibious crossings were the most dangerous part of the initial invasion, and each has been successful to varying degrees.
- Over the past two days 12 000 French and 3 000 British have disembarked at Salonika, but they lack transportation and supply units. Moreover, it is becoming apparent that cavalry will not be able to operate in the region, given the mountainous terrain and lack of fodder. Further, in places the narrow roads are insufficient to allow movement of the standard French 75mm artillery guns, necessitating their replacement by smaller and lighter 65mm guns.
- Fourteen Italian reconnaissance aircraft drop twenty-seven bombs totaling 350 kilograms on the town of Castagnevizza today, the first 'mass' bombing raid undertaken by the Italian airforce.
- With the most recent attack in the Champagne having failed to gain significant ground, and given Castlenau's reports that his armies would require time to prepare a further assault, Joffre reluctantly terminates the offensive late today. The offensive that appeared to hold such promise after the first day on September 25th has thus ended in yet another failure.
- In the early morning hours the invasion of Serbia begins when lead units of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and German 11th Armies begin their crossing of the Save and Danube Rivers. First into action is the German 208th Reserve Regiment, of 44th Reserve Division/XXII Reserve Corps, when it puts fifteen pontoons, each carrying ten soldiers, in the water at 330am. Their objective is the cigar-shaped Big Zigeuner Island and the Serbian shore of the Save River west of Belgrade. By dawn elements of four corps have swung into action, including all of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army: in addition to the German XXII Reserve Corps west of Belgrade, the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps crosses further west and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps moves against Belgrade itself. Of the German 11th Army, X Reserve Corps, easternmost of the army's three corps, crosses at Ram, the seizure of which is deemed a necessary precondition for the assault of the army's two other corps on October 9th.
The assaulting forces achieve mixed results over the course of the day's fighting. Furthest west, infantry of the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps is able to cross at Progar and Boljevci almost unopposed, but the swampy ground on the southern shore hinders the movement of the Austro-Hungarian infantry and the Serbian II Drina Division is able to halt their advance short of the town of Obrenovac, their initial objective. The German XXII Reserve Corps is able to capture the western end of Big Zigeuner Island and push a regiment across to the southern shore of the Save, where heavy German artillery fire prevents a Serbian counterattack against the bridgehead. However, the limited number of pontoons, plus the inevitable losses to mines and enemy fire, slows the pace of the crossings, while 43rd Reserve Division is tasked with clearing both Big and Little Zigeuner Island. East of Belgrade the German X Reserve Corps has the easiest day - Serbian resistance is negligible at Ram, and by 10am two regiments of 103rd Division have secured the Gorica Hills, overlooking the corps' crossing points. By this afternoon most of 101st and 103rd Divisions is on the southern shore, and a Serbian counterattack is repulsed with heavy losses to the attackers.
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| The German and Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, Oct. 7th to 17th, 1915. |
At Belgrade the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps has a difficult day; the Serbs have committed significant forces, including artillery to holding the city, and a light rain prevents spotter aircraft from observing friendly artillery fire. After 4am pontoons carrying infantry from 74th, 84th, and 87th Regiments push towards the Belgrade shoreline, but are quickly illuminated by Serbian searchlights and come under heavy fire. Only the latter regiment is able to get across largely intact while the commander of the former is awarded the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa for extreme bravery in leading his soldiers in hand-to-hand fighting to gain a lodgement on the southern shore. Over the course of the day's fighting two-thirds of the pontoons are sunk and by nightfall the surviving Austro-Hungarian infantry are clinging to the shoreline from the western edge of Belgrade to the confluence of the Save and Danube just below the old Ottoman fortress of Kalemegdan.
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| The German and Austro-Hungarian assault at Belgrade, Oct. 7th to 10th, 1915. |
By nightfall the two German corps have achieved the most significant success, while the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps in particular is clinging to its bridgehead at Belgrade. Nevertheless, the first day of the Serbian campaign is a success for Mackensen's two armies - the amphibious crossings were the most dangerous part of the initial invasion, and each has been successful to varying degrees.
- Over the past two days 12 000 French and 3 000 British have disembarked at Salonika, but they lack transportation and supply units. Moreover, it is becoming apparent that cavalry will not be able to operate in the region, given the mountainous terrain and lack of fodder. Further, in places the narrow roads are insufficient to allow movement of the standard French 75mm artillery guns, necessitating their replacement by smaller and lighter 65mm guns.
- Fourteen Italian reconnaissance aircraft drop twenty-seven bombs totaling 350 kilograms on the town of Castagnevizza today, the first 'mass' bombing raid undertaken by the Italian airforce.
Tuesday, October 06, 2015
October 6th, 1915
- For several days Foch has been pleading with the British, to no avail, to accelerate their preparations for a further attack near Loos, to be coordinated with a further French assault in Artois. Now, however, his subordinate General d'Urbal of 10th Army has imposed another delay. For several days, III Corps has been involved in heavy fighting, and believing it to be exhausted d'Urbal ordered its withdrawal from the front overnight. Doing so postpones the next attack, given that it will take time for III Corps' replacements to familiarize themselves with the German defences and position themselves for an assault. D'Urbal only informs Foch of his order a few hours before it occurs, and Foch is furious, writing a letter of reprimand that the withdrawal of III Corps was 'absolutely contrary' to the directions d'Urbal had received from his superior. The damage is done, however, and Foch postpones the next push in Artois yet again.
- After two days of preliminary bombardment, the infantry of the French 2nd and 4th Armies begin their assault at 520am. Their objective is to rupture the German second line which has held up their advance since the afternoon of the 25th, and push forward three kilometres and driving the Germans north of the Py River. Though the Germans have made great strides in improving the defences of the reserve trench line since late-September, they are still not as strong as those of the first line which the French pierced on September 25th. On the other hand, the attacking infantry have had less time to study the German defences, meaning the French are advancing over unfamiliar terrain with little knowledge of the enemy positions they seek to storm. In places the French are able to push forward: in 4th Army, two brigades from the French II Colonial Corps are able to drive forward a kilometres, seize numerous prisoners, and destroy a German artillery battery. Reserves from the German 20th Division are quickly sent forward, however, and are able to retake the lost trenches. In the French 2nd Army, a division of XVI Corps is able to advance five hundred meters and seize the height at Tahure. Here the French are able to hold the captured ground, repulsing counterattacks by elements from 53rd Saxon Reserve and 50th Divisions. Everywhere else, however, the French attacks get nowhere, and the small gains do nothing to unhinge the German defence. Afterwards the commander of XIV Corps reports to Pétain that the German wire remains intact, and that it will take five or six days to make another assault, which includes four or five days to dig approach trenches to lessen the time his infantry are exposed before reaching the German line. Pétain in turn reports to Castlenau that his corps are exhausted and only two are able to continue the attack at present. While the commander of the Army Group of the Centre wants assaults to continue tomorrow, Castlenau yields to his subordinates' judgement and orders them to secure their positions and only attack where necessary to straighten the line. Finally he reports to Joffre that 'the operation . . . has not succeeded. It can be resumed only after a new preparation, more complete than that which was accomplished on October 4th and 5th.'
- Overnight the last reconnaissance trips are made by German and Austro-Hungarian soldiers to test the state of the Serbian defences on the southern banks of the Save and Danube Rivers and see if any new minefields had been laid. This afternoon artillery from both the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and German 11th Armies open fire on the enemy. With spotter aircraft aloft to mark the accuracy of the shelling, the heavy artillery fire slowly and deliberately, taking the time after each shot to ensure that it had struck the desired target. Known Serbian artillery batteries and defensive positions are targeted, while Belgrade also suffers a heavy bombardment - its commander estimating fifteen thousand shells fall today and the naval guns sent by Russia and France are destroyed. After dark, the Austro-Hungarian and German infantry move to the northern shore and prepare for the crossings.
- After his dismissal of Venizelos yesterday, King Constantine meets today with the British ambassador to Greece today. The monarch is keen to impress on the Entente that the change of government does not imply a pro-German policy - he does not want to fight Germany, but neither wants to fight alongside Germany. As such, Greece will not resist the Entente landing at Salonika, but at the same time the mobilization of the Greek army will continue.
- With the occupation of Kut-al-Amara by General Townshend's 6th Indian Division after yet another defeat of Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia, attention has turned to the next, and biggest, prize: Baghdad. Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, writes to Austen Chamberlain, secretary of state for India, today recommending that Baghdad be captured, primarily on the prestige benefits that would ensue:
- After two days of preliminary bombardment, the infantry of the French 2nd and 4th Armies begin their assault at 520am. Their objective is to rupture the German second line which has held up their advance since the afternoon of the 25th, and push forward three kilometres and driving the Germans north of the Py River. Though the Germans have made great strides in improving the defences of the reserve trench line since late-September, they are still not as strong as those of the first line which the French pierced on September 25th. On the other hand, the attacking infantry have had less time to study the German defences, meaning the French are advancing over unfamiliar terrain with little knowledge of the enemy positions they seek to storm. In places the French are able to push forward: in 4th Army, two brigades from the French II Colonial Corps are able to drive forward a kilometres, seize numerous prisoners, and destroy a German artillery battery. Reserves from the German 20th Division are quickly sent forward, however, and are able to retake the lost trenches. In the French 2nd Army, a division of XVI Corps is able to advance five hundred meters and seize the height at Tahure. Here the French are able to hold the captured ground, repulsing counterattacks by elements from 53rd Saxon Reserve and 50th Divisions. Everywhere else, however, the French attacks get nowhere, and the small gains do nothing to unhinge the German defence. Afterwards the commander of XIV Corps reports to Pétain that the German wire remains intact, and that it will take five or six days to make another assault, which includes four or five days to dig approach trenches to lessen the time his infantry are exposed before reaching the German line. Pétain in turn reports to Castlenau that his corps are exhausted and only two are able to continue the attack at present. While the commander of the Army Group of the Centre wants assaults to continue tomorrow, Castlenau yields to his subordinates' judgement and orders them to secure their positions and only attack where necessary to straighten the line. Finally he reports to Joffre that 'the operation . . . has not succeeded. It can be resumed only after a new preparation, more complete than that which was accomplished on October 4th and 5th.'
- Overnight the last reconnaissance trips are made by German and Austro-Hungarian soldiers to test the state of the Serbian defences on the southern banks of the Save and Danube Rivers and see if any new minefields had been laid. This afternoon artillery from both the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and German 11th Armies open fire on the enemy. With spotter aircraft aloft to mark the accuracy of the shelling, the heavy artillery fire slowly and deliberately, taking the time after each shot to ensure that it had struck the desired target. Known Serbian artillery batteries and defensive positions are targeted, while Belgrade also suffers a heavy bombardment - its commander estimating fifteen thousand shells fall today and the naval guns sent by Russia and France are destroyed. After dark, the Austro-Hungarian and German infantry move to the northern shore and prepare for the crossings.
- After his dismissal of Venizelos yesterday, King Constantine meets today with the British ambassador to Greece today. The monarch is keen to impress on the Entente that the change of government does not imply a pro-German policy - he does not want to fight Germany, but neither wants to fight alongside Germany. As such, Greece will not resist the Entente landing at Salonika, but at the same time the mobilization of the Greek army will continue.
- With the occupation of Kut-al-Amara by General Townshend's 6th Indian Division after yet another defeat of Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia, attention has turned to the next, and biggest, prize: Baghdad. Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, writes to Austen Chamberlain, secretary of state for India, today recommending that Baghdad be captured, primarily on the prestige benefits that would ensue:
. . . from a political point of view, the capture of Baghdad would create an immense impression in the Middle East, especially in Persia, Afghanistan, and on our frontier, and would counteract the unfortunate impression created by the want of success in the Dardanelles. It would also isolate the German parties in Persia, and frustrate the German plans of raising Afghanistan and the tribes, while the impression throughout Arabia would be striking. The effect in India would undoubtedly be good. These are considerations to which I attach great importance.Launching 6th Indian Division further up the Tigris to capture Baghdad primarily for prestige and because other operations (i.e. the Dardanelles) have failed, of course, is not the best grounds on which to base such a crucial decision. Indeed, Hardinge's letter reflects the mission creep that has been endemic to the Mesopotamian campaign: once a given point is seized, it is very easy to argue that the advance should continue to the next, both because of the apparent momentum and to protect the earlier point captured. There is an assumption exhibited by the British leaders not on the scene that because past victories have been achieved easily, future conquests will be achieved with similar ease. In fact, the further 6th Indian Division advances, the more tenuous its supply lines become, and there is a chronic lack of shipping and animal transport. The result has been increasing cases of scurvy, given the lack of any fresh meat or vegetables, and 6th Indian Division paused after the First Battle of Kut-al-Amara in an attempt to stockpile enough supplies just to meet daily requirements. Moreover, the further up the Tigris the division goes, the further wounded and (the far more numerous) ill have to travel to get back to Basra and medical care. Though Townshend is aware of these issues, his superiors have no real comprehension of the situation on the ground, and thus are willing to advocate a continuation of the campaign.
Monday, October 05, 2015
October 5th, 1915
- Overnight a reconstituted British XI Corps, with 12th and 46th Divisions (the former a New Army formation and the latter a Territorial unit; both had formerly been in the Ypres salient) replacing the shattered 21st and 24th alongside the Guards Division, has been reinserted into the frontline opposite the Hohenzollern Redoubt. Haig believes that the ground lost here over the past week must be recaptured prior to any further advance eastward, and thus has ordered the Guards Division to recapture the Redoubt and 12th Division to seize The Quarries. All of the artillery belonging to the British 1st Army will support this attack, which will also be accompanied by the release of chlorine gas from 480 cylinders. Such a maximum effort, however, takes time to prepare for, especially with respect to the deployment of the drums of gas, and as such Haig has scheduled this assault to take place on October 9th, with the subsequent attack eastward scheduled for the following. News of the delay, however, is disappointing to Joffre, who had hoped that the British attack at Loos would coincide with the renewed French assaults in Artois and Champagne, and despite a visit by Foch to Sir John French's headquarters the British refuse to be rushed. Though terrible weather has postponed the attack in Artois, the preliminary bombardment in Champagne has already begun, and Joffre feels he has no choice but to abandon the concept of simultaneous assaults, ordering the French 2nd and 4th Armies to attack tomorrow as scheduled.
- With the growing French artillery bombardment, it has become clear to the German defenders in Champagne that the enemy is preparing to make another big push to break through their line. General Einem of 3rd Army reports to Falkenhayn today that sufficient reserves are now available to halt any French assault in the coming days, though if the French attack for more than several days further reinforcements may be necessary. Further, given that the reserve line German troops now inhabit was not as well-developed as the old first trench line, French artillery fire is having a particularly severe effect on soldiers who lack dugouts to shelter in. Moreover, while the placement of much of the reserve line on the reverse side of various hills prevent the French from observing the fall of their shells, it also prevents the Germans from observing French preparations to attack.
- Joffre and Kitchener meet at Calais to discuss the expedition to Salonika and operations in the Balkans. In addition to the infantry division and cavalry regiment already en route, Joffre has agreed to send an infantry brigade shortly and an infantry and two cavalry divisions once the fall offensive in Champagne is concluded. The current French commitment to the operations thus stands at 64 000 men. During today's meeting Kitchener promises to augment the British division on the way to Salonika with an infantry and cavalry division, while agreeing to send a further three infantry divisions when the Champagne battle is over. Notably, these forces will come up about 20 000 short of the 150 000 requested by Venizelos, but when Joffre asks Kitchener to make up the difference, the latter states that this could only be accomplished by withdrawing further divisions from the British Expeditionary Force in France (from which the three infantry divisions mentioned above are to be taken). Moreover, Kitchener remains unconvinced of the soundness of intervention in the Balkans. The idea of sending forces into Serbia with winter imminent does not strike him as sound, and believes that even if the Entente force is augmented to 150 000 men it will not be sufficient to alter the balance of forces in the Balkans without Greek intervention. Kitchener informs Joffre that the British contingent will not advance beyond Salonika unless the Greeks enter the war. As a result, the two agree that the British will be responsible for defending Salonika itself while the French would undertake an advance northward to aid the Serbs.
- Though yesterday both the British and French governments had signaled their concurrence with the Russian ultimatum of the 1st, the Bulgarian government formally rejects the ultimatum today, unwilling to be dissuaded from entering the war. The Entente interprets the rejection as the last straw, and instructions go out to the Entente ambassadors in Sofia to leave the country.
Meanwhile the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive against Serbia is about to begin - artillery today fires registration shots, aircraft tracking the fall of shells, so that when the main bombardment opens the Germans can be reasonably sure their shells are falling on the targets they intend to target. On the other side the Serbian army has been preparing for the imminent attack, and General Radomir Putnik has deployed the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies to defend the line of the Save and Danube Rivers. After repulsing three separate Austro-Hungarian attempts to conquer Serbia in 1914, both Putnik and the Serbian soldier have earned well-deserved reputations for toughness and tenacity. However, the Serbian army of late 1915 is not the same as that of late 1914. First, a series of epidemics had decimated Serbia earlier this year, striking down thousands and crippling many more. The army was not immune, and disease has thinned its ranks. Second, the mobilization of 1914 had drafted almost every able-bodied male into the army, and while this contributed to victory in 1914 it means that there are practically no replacements for the 120 000 casualties the Serbians have suffered in the war to date. Quite literally, this is the last Serbian army - should it be defeated, it would be impossible to raise another. Third, the supply situation has worsened. Prewar ammunition stocks, already low from the two Balkan wars, had been largely depleted by the fighting in 1914, and while the minimal Serbian armaments industry has proved wholely inadequate to the demands of modern war, supplies from France, while vital, can hardly make up the shortfall. The Serbians thus face a severe shortage of weaponry and munitions at the moment they are needed most. Fourth, the obvious agreement of Bulgaria to enter the war means that the Serbs cannot deploy their entire army to face the Germans and Austro-Hungarians attacking from the north; instead, 2nd Army and smaller forces have to be deployed along the eastern frontier to prevent a Bulgarian offensive from cutting behind the Serbian forces to the north. Finally, Putnik himself is ill, suffering from influenza, and his role in directing the Serbian army is necessarily reduced. Thus the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive will face a Serbian army in significantly more dire straits than it had been in 1914, which should be kept in mind when comparing the results of the 1915 campaign with that of 1914.
- Despite the vote in parliament yesterday, significant domestic opposition in Greece remains to the policy of the government: the idea of foreign troops arriving unimpeded at Salonika is seen as a gross affront of Greek sovereignty by the opposition press, which over the past few days has been giving vent to its frustrations. Further, the leadership of the Greek army is opposed to intervention in the war. Most importantly, Venizelos has been entirely unable to assuage the concerns of King Constantine regarding Greek entry into the war. Unwilling to accede any longer to Venizelo's pro-Entente policy, he dismisses Venizelos as Prime Minister, and appoints as his replacement Alexandros Zaimis, an adherent of Constantine's policy of strict neutrality. In choosing this course of action, Constantine has set the course of Greek politics on a fateful path to what will become known as the 'Great Schism' - Venizelos has no intention of going quietly into retirement.
Regardless of the dismissal of the Greek government, the Entente landing at Salonika begins today as the first elements of two brigades and an artillery battalion from the French 156th Division start to disembark.
- After yesterday's order dispatching the Ottoman XVIII Corps to Baghdad, Enver Pasha orders the formation of a new 6th Army to take command of all Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia. His hope is that a unified command for the region with new leadership will stabilize the front and keep the British away from Baghdad. To command 6th Army Enver assigned German Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz, currently in command of 1st Army in Thrace. Goltz's responsibilities, however, go beyond Mesopotamia: 6th Army includes Persia within its zone of operations. His appointment meets the request of the Persian government for a senior German officer to be made responsible for Persia, and in addition to meeting the British advance in Mesopotamia Goltz is to win Persia to the side of the Germans, ideally to open the way to a land attack on India.
It will, however, take a number of weeks for the elderly Goltz to reach Baghdad, given the poor transportation system, and in the meantime command of 6th Army will reside in Colonel Nur-ud-din, who has led Ottoman forces in the region since mid-June. Despite the record of defeat, Nur-ud-din is an experienced officer with lengthy service in the Ottoman army, and his defensive efforts have largely been let down by poor morale. With reinforcements en route, however, Nur-ud-din hopes to be able to hold the British at Ctesiphon.
- With the growing French artillery bombardment, it has become clear to the German defenders in Champagne that the enemy is preparing to make another big push to break through their line. General Einem of 3rd Army reports to Falkenhayn today that sufficient reserves are now available to halt any French assault in the coming days, though if the French attack for more than several days further reinforcements may be necessary. Further, given that the reserve line German troops now inhabit was not as well-developed as the old first trench line, French artillery fire is having a particularly severe effect on soldiers who lack dugouts to shelter in. Moreover, while the placement of much of the reserve line on the reverse side of various hills prevent the French from observing the fall of their shells, it also prevents the Germans from observing French preparations to attack.
- Joffre and Kitchener meet at Calais to discuss the expedition to Salonika and operations in the Balkans. In addition to the infantry division and cavalry regiment already en route, Joffre has agreed to send an infantry brigade shortly and an infantry and two cavalry divisions once the fall offensive in Champagne is concluded. The current French commitment to the operations thus stands at 64 000 men. During today's meeting Kitchener promises to augment the British division on the way to Salonika with an infantry and cavalry division, while agreeing to send a further three infantry divisions when the Champagne battle is over. Notably, these forces will come up about 20 000 short of the 150 000 requested by Venizelos, but when Joffre asks Kitchener to make up the difference, the latter states that this could only be accomplished by withdrawing further divisions from the British Expeditionary Force in France (from which the three infantry divisions mentioned above are to be taken). Moreover, Kitchener remains unconvinced of the soundness of intervention in the Balkans. The idea of sending forces into Serbia with winter imminent does not strike him as sound, and believes that even if the Entente force is augmented to 150 000 men it will not be sufficient to alter the balance of forces in the Balkans without Greek intervention. Kitchener informs Joffre that the British contingent will not advance beyond Salonika unless the Greeks enter the war. As a result, the two agree that the British will be responsible for defending Salonika itself while the French would undertake an advance northward to aid the Serbs.
- Though yesterday both the British and French governments had signaled their concurrence with the Russian ultimatum of the 1st, the Bulgarian government formally rejects the ultimatum today, unwilling to be dissuaded from entering the war. The Entente interprets the rejection as the last straw, and instructions go out to the Entente ambassadors in Sofia to leave the country.
Meanwhile the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive against Serbia is about to begin - artillery today fires registration shots, aircraft tracking the fall of shells, so that when the main bombardment opens the Germans can be reasonably sure their shells are falling on the targets they intend to target. On the other side the Serbian army has been preparing for the imminent attack, and General Radomir Putnik has deployed the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies to defend the line of the Save and Danube Rivers. After repulsing three separate Austro-Hungarian attempts to conquer Serbia in 1914, both Putnik and the Serbian soldier have earned well-deserved reputations for toughness and tenacity. However, the Serbian army of late 1915 is not the same as that of late 1914. First, a series of epidemics had decimated Serbia earlier this year, striking down thousands and crippling many more. The army was not immune, and disease has thinned its ranks. Second, the mobilization of 1914 had drafted almost every able-bodied male into the army, and while this contributed to victory in 1914 it means that there are practically no replacements for the 120 000 casualties the Serbians have suffered in the war to date. Quite literally, this is the last Serbian army - should it be defeated, it would be impossible to raise another. Third, the supply situation has worsened. Prewar ammunition stocks, already low from the two Balkan wars, had been largely depleted by the fighting in 1914, and while the minimal Serbian armaments industry has proved wholely inadequate to the demands of modern war, supplies from France, while vital, can hardly make up the shortfall. The Serbians thus face a severe shortage of weaponry and munitions at the moment they are needed most. Fourth, the obvious agreement of Bulgaria to enter the war means that the Serbs cannot deploy their entire army to face the Germans and Austro-Hungarians attacking from the north; instead, 2nd Army and smaller forces have to be deployed along the eastern frontier to prevent a Bulgarian offensive from cutting behind the Serbian forces to the north. Finally, Putnik himself is ill, suffering from influenza, and his role in directing the Serbian army is necessarily reduced. Thus the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive will face a Serbian army in significantly more dire straits than it had been in 1914, which should be kept in mind when comparing the results of the 1915 campaign with that of 1914.
- Despite the vote in parliament yesterday, significant domestic opposition in Greece remains to the policy of the government: the idea of foreign troops arriving unimpeded at Salonika is seen as a gross affront of Greek sovereignty by the opposition press, which over the past few days has been giving vent to its frustrations. Further, the leadership of the Greek army is opposed to intervention in the war. Most importantly, Venizelos has been entirely unable to assuage the concerns of King Constantine regarding Greek entry into the war. Unwilling to accede any longer to Venizelo's pro-Entente policy, he dismisses Venizelos as Prime Minister, and appoints as his replacement Alexandros Zaimis, an adherent of Constantine's policy of strict neutrality. In choosing this course of action, Constantine has set the course of Greek politics on a fateful path to what will become known as the 'Great Schism' - Venizelos has no intention of going quietly into retirement.
Regardless of the dismissal of the Greek government, the Entente landing at Salonika begins today as the first elements of two brigades and an artillery battalion from the French 156th Division start to disembark.
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| French infantry at Salonika, October 1915. |
- After yesterday's order dispatching the Ottoman XVIII Corps to Baghdad, Enver Pasha orders the formation of a new 6th Army to take command of all Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia. His hope is that a unified command for the region with new leadership will stabilize the front and keep the British away from Baghdad. To command 6th Army Enver assigned German Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz, currently in command of 1st Army in Thrace. Goltz's responsibilities, however, go beyond Mesopotamia: 6th Army includes Persia within its zone of operations. His appointment meets the request of the Persian government for a senior German officer to be made responsible for Persia, and in addition to meeting the British advance in Mesopotamia Goltz is to win Persia to the side of the Germans, ideally to open the way to a land attack on India.
It will, however, take a number of weeks for the elderly Goltz to reach Baghdad, given the poor transportation system, and in the meantime command of 6th Army will reside in Colonel Nur-ud-din, who has led Ottoman forces in the region since mid-June. Despite the record of defeat, Nur-ud-din is an experienced officer with lengthy service in the Ottoman army, and his defensive efforts have largely been let down by poor morale. With reinforcements en route, however, Nur-ud-din hopes to be able to hold the British at Ctesiphon.
Saturday, October 03, 2015
October 3rd, 1915
- Joffre writes a long memorandum to the war minister today in response to General Sarrail's dispatch on operations in the Balkans. Not surprisingly, the French commander in chief strongly objects to the suggestion of transferring three or four corps to Salonika. Britain. he suggests, should assume primary responsibility for aiding their allies in the Balkans, and while France should contribute to any such support, it should be kept to a bare minimum. A larger commitment, he fears, would be a fruitless dispersal of strength and involve a weakening of the Western Front. Joffre also acknowledges has failed to break through the second German defense line. He prepares his civilian master for the suspension of the offensive in the near future, given the need for fresh infantry and additional ammunition before another operation of similar scope can be undertaken. This does not preclude, however, the assault Joffre ordered yesterday, hoping to secure additional ground through one final effort. Moreover, he insists that the initial success in Champagne 'gives us confidence in the final victory' and that 'all our efforts should seek to achieve a large strategic rupture that will have as its first consequence the liberation of national territory.' A significant commitment to the Balkans, however, would constitute an unacceptable and unnecessary diversion from this effort.
- At Loos the French IX Corps has taken over the British line up to the ruins of the Puit 14 factory, including responsibility for the village of Loos itself. This has allowed the entire Guards Division to be pulled out of the line for rest before the planned resumption of the offensive. To the north, following the recapture of a stretch of Gun Trench on the 30th, German forces launched a series of attacks over the past few days against the northern side of the salient carved out by the initial British attack on the 25th. After heavy fighting, early this morning German infantry manage to recapture the Hohenzollern Redoubt, a significant loss for the British as it exposes any future British attack towards Hulloch to flanking fire from the north.
- As the French prepare for one last push in Champagne, Falkenhayn asks Lieutenant-General Konstantin Schmidt von Knobelsdorf, chief of staff to Crown Prince Wilhelm, whether it would be possible to undertake a major offensive in Alsace, the plans for which Knobelsdorf had examined during the summer. Though the conclusion is that, with significant forces committed to the Serbian offensive, such an operation is not practical at present, Falkenhayn's inquiry speaks to the extent to which the great crisis of September 25th, when it appeared that both the British and French had broken through at Loos and in Champagne respectively, has passed.
- The Greek government lodges a formal diplomatic complaint of the imminent violation of its neutrality by British and French forces landing at Salonika. Having fulfilled the requirements of international law to preserve the facade of diplomacy, no interference is offered when British and French officers land at Salonika today to begin planning for the arrival of the lead French brigades on the 5th.
- At Loos the French IX Corps has taken over the British line up to the ruins of the Puit 14 factory, including responsibility for the village of Loos itself. This has allowed the entire Guards Division to be pulled out of the line for rest before the planned resumption of the offensive. To the north, following the recapture of a stretch of Gun Trench on the 30th, German forces launched a series of attacks over the past few days against the northern side of the salient carved out by the initial British attack on the 25th. After heavy fighting, early this morning German infantry manage to recapture the Hohenzollern Redoubt, a significant loss for the British as it exposes any future British attack towards Hulloch to flanking fire from the north.
- As the French prepare for one last push in Champagne, Falkenhayn asks Lieutenant-General Konstantin Schmidt von Knobelsdorf, chief of staff to Crown Prince Wilhelm, whether it would be possible to undertake a major offensive in Alsace, the plans for which Knobelsdorf had examined during the summer. Though the conclusion is that, with significant forces committed to the Serbian offensive, such an operation is not practical at present, Falkenhayn's inquiry speaks to the extent to which the great crisis of September 25th, when it appeared that both the British and French had broken through at Loos and in Champagne respectively, has passed.
- The Greek government lodges a formal diplomatic complaint of the imminent violation of its neutrality by British and French forces landing at Salonika. Having fulfilled the requirements of international law to preserve the facade of diplomacy, no interference is offered when British and French officers land at Salonika today to begin planning for the arrival of the lead French brigades on the 5th.
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| The Anglo-French landing at Salonika, Greece, October 1915. |
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