July 2nd, 1915

- In Britain the Munitions of War Act comes into effect today, providing the legislative machinery for government control of armaments production by the new Ministry of Munitions under David Lloyd George.  Under the legislation any business involved in war production can be designated a 'controlled establishment', in which case a series of government restrictions would be imposed in the name of productivity.  Critically, these restrictions were primarily directed not at employers, but at employees: strikes are prohibited, arbitration made compulsory, and restrictions on the ability to change jobs.  In exchange, workers in 'controlled establishments' are given badges that effectively exempted them from military service.

- Though yesterday Foch expressed a desire to conduct another offensive by the French 10th Army against Vimy Ridge, General d'Urbal reports today that the infantry of 10th Army are exhausted after fifty days of near-constant combat, and are in no condition to undertake major operations.  Joffre is sympathetic to d'Urbal's concerns, and orders 10th Army to focus on establishing strong defensive positions only.

- Falkenhayn meets with Hindenburg and Ludendorff today at Posen in the presence of the kaiser to discuss future operations on the Eastern Front.  When the German chief of staff had originally committed 11th Army to the east in April, he had envisioned its deployment lasting until the liberation of Austro-Hungarian Galicia.  Once this had been accomplished, Falkenhayn reasoned, the threat to Austria-Hungary from Rusia would be removed, and 11th Army could return to the Western Front for operations there.  Though the purpose of the Gorlice-Tarnow offensive have been achieved, Falkenhayn has reconsidered his views.  He had been concerned with Entente superiority on the Western Front, but the 2nd Battle of Artois has demonstrated the ability of the German army in the west to successfully stand on the defensive even when substantially outnumbered.  Further, Falkenhayn has concluded that more damage can yet be inflicted on the Russian army.  Crucially, however, he does not foresee a decisive, war-winning victory as possible, given the space in Russia and the ability of the Russians to retreat from any grand envelopment.  Instead, Falkenhayn's desires to inflict further hammer blows on the Russian army in the vein of Gorlice-Tarnow to wear the Russians out and convince them to agree to a peace amenable to Germany.  This is a logical extension of the views expressed by Falkenhayn since the fall; namely, that Germany must reduce the number of its enemies through negotiation in order to concentrate on the others.

Thus at today's meeting Falkenhayn rejects Ludendorff's proposal for a major offensive to be undertaken in Courland by the Army of the Niemen, which the latter proposes can advance through Kovno and Vilna to join with Mackensen's 11th Army in encircling the entire Russian army in Poland.  Falkenhayn views such an operation as widely optimistic, and that such sweeping envelopments are simply not possible in the conditions of modern warfare, which in particular limit the ability of cavalry to exploit breakthroughs and surround opposing forces.  Instead, Falkenhayn proposes to stick to the Gorlice-Tarnow formula in which the Russian army would be worn out through a series of step-by-step offensives relying on the power of artillery.  Wilhelm II sides with Falkenhayn, and his more moderate plans are approved.  In the north, the army under General Gallwitz, stretching from the Vistula River towards the Masurian Lakes, will undertake the primary attack, advancing towards Warsaw.  Further, the forces under General Worysch in central Poland will pin the Russians opposite to prevent reserves being redeployed from this stretch of the line.  Finally, 11th Army will undertake a major offensive northwards between the Vistula and Bug Rivers, and to allow for it to concentrate on its advance as opposed to flank protection, the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army is to be withdrawn from west of the Vistula in southwestern Poland and inserted into the line northeast of Lemberg between 11th Army to the north and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army in the south.  To allow time for the redeployments to be completed and munitions stockpiled, the offensives are planned to begin July 13th.

The Eastern Front in early July, 1915.

- Meanwhile in southern Poland the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army wins several local successes, seizing several villages, but fails to secure a decisive breakthrough.

The 2nd Battle of Kraśnik, July 2nd to 10th, 1915.

- For the past two days the Italian 3rd Army has been concentrating its efforts against the Karst plateau southwest of Görz along the Isonzo River, but a series of infantry attacks have failed to secure any significant ground.

- The influence of German consul Wilhelm Wassmuss in southern Persia continues to grow, securing alliances with numerous tribes in the region that, as opposed to the central government, are the real power.  Through Wassmuss the interior of southern Persia is essentially under German control, and British influence has been confined to a few coastal enclaves - Wassmuss has even been able to erect a wireless station to communicate with Germany proper.  The growing German influence has attracted the attention of British officials in India, who fear losing control over the Northwest Frontier.  Today, the Indian viceroy tells British consuls in Persia to seek out tribal allies that can be used to directly confront German influence in the country.

- In German South-West Africa German forces holding the line east of Otavifontein defending Grootfontein fall back on Gaub today, given the appearance of South African forces before them and the retreat of the defenders at Otavi uncovering their western flank.

June 26th, 1915

- After elements of the French II and VI Corps attacked the German 9th Division on the western face of the St.-Mihiel salient six days ago and seized a stretch of the first trench line, the German 10th Division just to the north undertakes its own attack today to relieve the French pressure, and succeeds in occupying most of the high ground at Les Éparges, which had been one of the key positions seized by the French during the Battle of the Woevre in April.

- In Russia the disaster in Galicia has inevitably led to witch hunts for those deemed responsible, and the mantle has fallen on War Minister General Vladimir Sukhomlinov.  The generals at the front, unwilling to accept responsibility for their own mistakes, instead focus on the shortage of munitions, the production of which is the responsibility of the Sukhomlinov.  While the war minister has jealously guarded his powers, the problem of munitions is as much about distribution as it is about production, and stockpiles of hundreds of thousands of shells continue to sit in obsolete fortresses.  Moreover, Sukhomlinov has alienated many in the aristocratic officer corps, who have deeply resented some of his halting efforts to modernize the more antiquated aspects of the Russian army, and his long-standing personal rivals eagerly seize the moment to condemn him.  Sukhomlinov thus makes the perfect scapegoat and the Tsar is prevailed upon to dismiss him today, his replacement being General A. A. Polivanov.

- In Galicia the German 11th Army begins the next stage of its offensive, driving north from Rawa Ruska towards the pre-war frontier between Austria-Hungary and Russian Poland.  The advance of the left wing heavily contested, and only after hard fighting is it able to reach Miasteczko, its objective for today, by this evening.  To the east, however, the Russian XII and XXVIII Corps of 8th Army have already retreated, allowing the German XXII Reserve and Guard Corps, plus the Austro-Hungarian VI Corps, to advance uncontested.  On the right wing of 11th Army, XLI Reserve Corps plus the Beskid Corps (the latter reassigned from the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army) largely remain in place to preserve the connection between 11th Army and 2nd Army to the south.

The advance of the German 11th Army in southern Poland, June 26th to 30th, 1915.

- In the six months since the abject failure of the 3rd Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, the front between the two countries has been generally inactive.  This has suited the Serbs, given that over the winter and spring the country has been ravaged by a typhus epidemic.  On the Austro-Hungarian side, however much Conrad might have wished to crush the Serbs, the crisis in Galicia meant that there was a steady transfer of units from the Serbian front to the Eastern Front.  Moreover, by the time German intervention at Gorlice-Tarnow saved the Austro-Hungarian position in Galicia, Italian entry into the war had become apparent, which necessitated a further drawdown of forces facing the Serbs to man the Italian Front.  The result has been that the Austro-Hungarian units in the Balkans are actually outnumbered, and moreover are composed primarily of reservists and Landsturm militia.

To deter the Serbs from undertaking an offensive, the Austro-Hungarians begin a campaign of deception today to convince the Serbs that a more powerful force opposes them than is actually the case.  Infantry march regularly between camps, rail traffic is increased, and artillery batteries maintain a steady barrage across the Danube River into Serbian territory, while the small number of German detachments sent to support the Austro-Hungarians in the Balkans make themselves particularly visible among the Serbian population of southern Hungary, knowing that word of their presence will inevitably travel across the border.  The expectation is that the Serbian army, while it may relish an opportunity to fight an Austro-Hungarian army it has already defeated three times, would certainly refrain from attacking if they believe a sizeable German contingent is present

June 20th, 1915

- Another diversionary attack is launched today by the French army, this time against the northern flank of the St.-Mihiel salient, where repeated attacks by II and VI Corps manage to seize the first trench line held by the German 9th Division.  The French, however, are not the only ones capable of such secondary operations: today 9th Landwehr and 27th Württemberg Division attack on the western edge of the Argonne, and with the aid of flamethrowers seize a strech of the French line.

- With the German breakthrough of the Russian position at Horodysko and the subsequent advance to the Rawa Ruska-Lemberg road yesterday, General Brusilov of 8th Army realizes that the rest of the Russian line running south along the Wereszyca is now in danger of being outflanked from the north.  As a result, he issues orders this morning for 8th Army to fall back on Lemberg to the east, occupying the trenches protecting the city.  On the German side, General Mackensen directs the bulk of 11th Army to pivot to the north; while the advance eastward has lengthened the northern flank of 11th Army, it has also stretched the Russian 3rd Army opposite, and opened an opportunity to strike against the exposed flank of the Russian armies holding central Poland.  The Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, meanwhile, was assigned responsibility for the recapture of Lemberg.

As the Russian corps south of Zotkiew pull back this morning, the southern wing of the German 11th Army and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army spend today in pursuit, and by evening IV, XIX, and XVIII Corps of the latter had closed up to the Russian defences at Lemberg.  To the north, while the German Guard Corps holds its position along the Rawa Ruska-Lemberg road, advance elements of XXII Reserve Corps enter Rawa Ruska itself.

- At the beginning of the month, the Russian government had appointed a special commission to supervise the supply of the war, mainly to head off criticism of their management of the war.  Reflective of the administrative chaos endemic within the Russian government, today that commission is replaced by a new council that does essentially the same thing, and has the authority to compel private industry to accept government orders for munitions.  The primary purpose of this new council, however, remains to counter political criticism; hence the inclusion among its membership the president and four other members of the Duma.

June 1st, 1915

- Earlier this month the leadership of the German armed forces prevailed on the Kaiser to loosen his restrictions regarding the bombing of London; henceforth, it is permissible to target the city east of the Tower of London.  Overnight the first bombing raid on the British capital is undertaken by the zeppelin LZ-38, which drops several bombs and killing thirteen people.  No targets of any real strategic significance are hit, but the experience of being under fire is new to the city's inhabitants, and the raid also highlights the current inability of the Royal Flying Corps to stop such attacks.  Of fifteen aircraft scrambled to intercept the zeppelin, only one so much as makes a visual sighting, while anti-aircraft fire is negligible; LZ-38 is never in any real danger.

- In Artois elements of the German XIV Corps retakes the trenches north of the sugar factory west of Souchez, but the trenches on the factory's other flank remain in French hands.  To the south, the French 5th Division of III Corps attacks between Neuville and a confused network of trenches to the north of Roclincourt known as the Labyrinth.  In bitter fighting they are repulsed near Neuville, but are able to seize and hold the first trench line of the Labyrinth.

- Overnight the Russians launch counterattacks all along the front of the German 11th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Armies in Galicia.  Those that fall on the Germans, and in particular X and Guard Corps, are particularly heavy, but fail to make any headway whatsoever.  To the north, however, the Russians have more success.  Attacking at 2am, elements of the Russian XIV Corps break through the southern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 8th Division, capturing the town of Rudnik and establishing a bridgehead three kilometres wide on the west bank of the San River.  In response the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army pulls five battalions from VIII Corps to the northwest and sends them to south in an effort to hold the line.

The advance of the Russian XIV Corps at Rudnik, June 1st, 1915.

- In the context of the ongoing disaster in Galicia the Russian government is increasingly sensitive to criticism of its management of the war effort, and one perceived shortfall of the government has been the supply (or lack thereof) of munitions.  To head off this line of attack, the government today appoints a special commission to supervise the supply of the army, implicitly diminishing the role of army headquarters in dictating the production of munitions.

- North of Qurna on the Tigris River elements of 6th Indian Division hit the main Ottoman defensive line at Bahran, only to encounter token resistance; most of the defenders have already broken and fled to the north.  General Nixon, arriving from Qurna, convinces a reluctant General Townshend to order a pursuit to take advantage of the success.  By necessity the advance will be led by the naval flotilla assembled for the operation, and several gunboats lead the way up the river.

- In Washington today President Wilson meets with his cabinet to discuss the reply of the German government, received on May 28th, to the first American note regarding Lusitania.  The German communication had avoided dealing with the American request to halt unrestricted submarine warfare; instead, it had stated that Lusitania was an armed merchant cruiser with guns on its deck, and had often flown the American flag illegally to avoid German attacks.  The Americans should investigate this situation, and until this was done Germany would postpone any decision on unrestricted submarine warfare.  Wilson sees the German statement as a diversion from the central issue of the impossibility of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare without risking the lives of neutral, especially American, lives, and he has come to the meeting with a draft for a second American note:

Whatever may be the facts regarding the Lusitania, the principal fact is that a great steamer, primarily and chiefly a conveyance for passengers and carrying more than a thousand souls who had no part or lot in the conduct of the war, was torpedoed and sunk without so much as a challenge or a warning and that men, women, and children were sent to their death in circumstances unparalleled in modern warfare. . . . The United States cannot admit that the proclamation of a war zone . . . may be made to operate as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights . . . of American citizens bound on lawful errands as passengers on ships of belligerent neutrality.'

Wilson is thus staking his position on the right of American citizens to travel as they see fit, without risk of death due to a war in which they are not involved.  As the cabinet discusses the note, the Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, is increasingly restless.  He feels that the American government is not being equally critical of the British, given that their blockade manifestly interferes with the ability of American citizens to trade as they saw fit.  Moreover, he felt that if American citizens chose to sail on the liners of belligerents, they assumed responsibility for the consequences.  Bryan's core argument is that the United States must treat Germany and Britain equally, and fears Wilson's note deviates from that position.  As the discussion continues, Bryan snaps and interjects: 'You people are not neutral.  You are taking sides.'  President Wilson responds coldly to the accusation: 'Mr. Bryan, you are not warranted in making such an assertion.  We all doubtless have our opinions in this matter but there are none of us who can justly be accused of being unfair.' His resolve unshaken, Wilson ensures the meeting endorses his note, even as the gulf between himself and his secretary of state grows.

May 17th, 1915

- This morning a letter reaches Andrew Bonar Law, the Canadian-born leader of the British Conservative Party, from Admiral Fisher, in which the latter announces his resignation as First Sea Lord.  In his typical manner, Fisher holds nothing back: 'W.C. MUST god at all costs!  AT ONCE . . . because a very great disaster is very near us in the Dardanelles . . . W.C. is a bigger danger than the Germans by a long way.'

Even without the hyperbole, Bonar Law recognizes the significance of this information.  For the past three days he has been struggling to maintain control of his backbenchers, the latter enraged over the report of the 14th in The Times regarding a shortage of shells during the Battle of Aubers Ridge.  Bonar Law wants to maintain the electoral truce, but he may not be able to control his own party.  With this morning's letter he realizes that the resignation of Fisher will be the final straw for many Conservative MPs, who have long despised Churchill for abandoning the party in 1904 over Tariff Reform.  Further, in their eyes Churchill's a administration of the Admiralty in wartime has been a failure: not only has there not been a decisive victory over the High Seas Fleet, but the Antwerp diversion was a debacle and the Dardanelles operation appears to be going nowhere.

After receiving Fisher's letter Bonar Law calls on Lloyd George and asks for confirmation of Fisher's resignation.  When Lloyd George provides this, Bonar Law replies that 'the situation is impossible.'  Lloyd George agrees, and the pair visit 10 Downing Street where they inform Asquith of the situation.  The Prime Minister recoils at the prospect of heated parliamentary debates and denunciations of the management of the war.  Further, the Liberal government is a minority, and the possibility exists that it might not survive under effective Conservative criticism.  Lloyd George recommends the formation of a coalition government between the parties, in order to head off opposition in the House of Commons.  Asquith does not hesitate in accepting this, his willingness to fight for his government perhaps fatally undermined by the news of the 14th regarding Venetia Stanley.  It is certainly the case that Asquith never seriously appears to have contemplated fighting the Conservatives, and is perfectly willing to jettison Liberal colleagues to find cabinet places for Conservatives.  Most prominent of Bonar Law's conditions for a coalition government is that Churchill must be removed as First Lord of the Admiralty.  Neither Asquith nor Lloyd George flinch at the prospect of dismissing their colleague, perhaps realizing it may be the price of keeping their own positions.

Churchill, for his part, has no idea what has transpired when he arrives at 10 Downing Street later this morning to report that he has a new First Sea Lord and is ready to defend his record in the House of Commons.  Asquith instead replies that there will be no debate in the House; instead, a coalition government will be formed and, turning to Churchill, asks 'what are we to do with you?'  It is at this moment that Churchill realizes that his time at the Admiralty may be at an end.  Later this evening, after digesting the news, Churchill writes to Asquith that he would only accept office in the new government if it is directly related to the war effort; otherwise, he would prefer to take up a command in France.

- Overnight the German zeppelin LZ39 was intercepted by several aircraft of the Royal Naval Air Service.  They attack the airship by dropping bombs on it, and though it remains in the air LZ39 is sufficiently damaged to force a return to base.

- The first of the new attacks by the French 10th Army in Artois was scheduled to be launched today, but is postponed due to poor weather.  Meanwhile the Germans have been attempting to retake the ground lost to the French on Lorette Spur.  These attacks, however, have failed, and have worn out the regiments of 117th Division.

- After an intensive bombardment the British launch another attack near Festubert today, and succeed in pushing back the German lines.  Indeed, there are indications of a crisis of morale in German ranks, as a number of prisoners are taken before the British infantry had even begun their advance.  To reinforce the line 6th Army brings in several battalions of Bavarians and Saxons, as well as 38th Landwehr Brigade.  Crucially, they are drawn not from 6th Army's reserve, but rather from the north; the brigade is taken from 4th Army.  Thus even though the British have achieved some tactical success at Festubert, they have failed in drawing away German forces from the French offensive to the south, which was the primary reason for the operation.

- The German 11th Army secures a third crossing of the San River today at Nielepkowice north of Jaroslau.  Meanwhile Mackensen orders those forces already across the river to consolidate their bridgeheads.

- Just after midnight elements of the Russian 9th Army attempt to storm the town of Delatyn in Bukovina, in the centre of the line held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army.  In bitter fighting the latter are forced back from the outer defences, but the Russians are unable to break into the town itself.  Just as with the Austro-Hungarian attacks to the west, initial advances quickly degenerate into static fighting.

- The reappointed cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra meets today to discuss Italian entry into the war, and agrees to submit a bill to parliament when it reconvenes on the 20th to vest full financial powers in the government in case of war.  Also, ex-premier Giovanni Giolitti departs Rome for Piedmont today, knowing full well that attempting to fight for peace when parliament meets in three days would be a lost cause.

May 14th, 1915

- This morning the fuse lit by Sir John French five days earlier explodes on the pages of The Times newspaper, which runs an extensive report and editorial on the recent failure at Aubers Ridge.  Given the close relationship between French and the newspaper's military correspondent, it is no surprise that the coverage praises the plan for and management of the battle itself.  Instead, the paper is harshly critical of the supply of both artillery shells and heavy artillery pieces, and lays blame for this failure directly on the War Office and the Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener.  The proprietor of The Times, Lord Northcliffe, has come to see Kitchener not as the imperial hero, but as the stubborn incompetent whose mismanagement is damaging the British war effort.  Northcliffe is not alone in this view; some within the Conservative party, as well as the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, have become exasperated with Lord Kitchener, and feel he must go if Britain is to fully mobilize its industry in support of the war.

The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated.  Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst.  In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort.  This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.

This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th.  With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli.  Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room.  Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.

Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that Queen Elizabeth is being withdrawn.  Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships.  After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles.  It is a fateful decision.

As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst.  For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet.  He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support.  Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician.  Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.'  The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.

- Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez.  On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today.  However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line.  In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.

- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.

- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday.  Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.

- The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public.  In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment.  What happens next, however, will transform the political situation.  Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary.  This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August.  These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat.  Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order.  In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.

These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds.  Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion.  The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.

- Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles.  In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.'  The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.

April 20th, 1915

- Prime Minister Asquith gives a speech today to armaments workers in Newcastle, attempting to calm public and press concerns over a shortage of artillery shells by suggesting that the supply of munitions is adequate in present circumstances.  Asquith bases his speech on advice from Lord Kitchener, who has assured the Prime Minister that worries over a 'shells crisis' are vastly overblown.  The reality being otherwise, Asquith will come to regret his comments.

- Preceded by heavy artillery bombardments, the Germans have launched repeated attacks against the British position on Hill 60 for three days.  After bitter fighting the Germans have reestablished themselves on the slopes of the hill, with the British defenders left clinging to the large craters the detonation of their mines on the 17th created.

- From the outbreak of the war, when it declined to side with Austria-Hungary and Germany in fulfillment of its obligations under the Triple Alliance, Italy has remained on the sidelines.  This neutrality, however, has never meant indifference; indeed, the Italian government has keenly followed the fortunes of both sides, for it has always intended to leverage its neutrality to secure territorial concessions.  There is a powerful sentiment among many of the ruling class that Italian unification is not yet complete, as long as Italians live outside of Italy.  This has inevitably drawn attention to Austria-Hungary; not only to secure the city of Trieste and the region of Trentino, but also to achieve a dominant position in the Adriatic and influence in the Balkans.  Italy has already taken advantage of the war to occupy the Albanian port of Valona, and negotiations have been ongoing with Austria-Hungary over territorial concessions.  However, even despite the intransigence of Conrad, Franz Joseph, and others in the Austro-Hungarian government, it was always improbable that Austria-Hungary would ever willing cede all the territory desired by the Italian government.

This has inevitably drawn the Italian government towards the Entente, as the British and French are more than happy to promise whatever Italy desires to secure its entry into the war on their side.  Since March 3rd, secret negotiations have been underway to find the size of the bribe necessary for Italy to join the Entente.  The only significant stumbling block has been Russia - whereas Britain and France have no problem handing over whatever portion of the Balkans Italy desires, Russia has been more reticent, as it desires both to maintain its own influence in the Balkans and secure territorial acquisitions for its Serbian ally.  The lands desired by both Serbia and Italy are not mutually compatible, and much of the focus of the negotiations has been on the fate of the Dalmatian coast and the islands just offshore.  Generally, it has been the Russians who have compromised, for they have been promised post-war control over Constantinople and the Dardanelles by the British and French, and are not willing to endanger that pledge for the sake of their Serbian ally.  The last stumbling block has been the date on which Italy will actually enter the war.  The Italian government, on the advice of the army, has requested a delay until mid-May; the Russians, meanwhile, want Italian intervention as quickly as possible, in order to force Austria-Hungary to divert forces from the Carpathians.  After personal messages from President Poincaré and King George V, this evening the tsar agrees to the delay, clearing the path for a final agreement.

- When the Ottoman Empire entered the war in November 1914, its Young Turk leadership had sought to utilize the conflict to achieve their ambition of transforming the state into a revitalized pan-Turkic empire, seizing lands in central Asia from Russia inhabited by Turkic peoples.  The crushing defeat at Sarikamish in January 1915 had destroyed these hopes, and in the aftermath the Young Turks had sought to assign blame to minorities within the Ottoman Empire, seeing non-Turkic peoples as inherently disloyal.  The focus for such accusations had rapidly become the Armenian people, whose Christian religion had also told against them.  Armenians had long been a scapegoat in Ottoman history, with widespread ethnic massacres occurring in the two decades prior to 1914.  Further, though 2 million Armenians lived on the Ottoman side of the frontier in the Caucasus, another 1.5 million lived on the Russian side, which made it easy for the Ottoman government to portray the Armenians as sympathetic to the enemy.

Over the past several months, increasingly harsh measures have been taken against Armenians.  Those who served in the Ottoman army had been removed from combat formations and reassigned to labour battalions, preemptively disarming them lest they cause any trouble.  In the countryside of the western Caucasus, and in particular the region around Lake Van, Ottoman police and soldiers have taken ever-harsher measures against the Armenian population, and by April massacres of civilians are increasingly commonplace.  These atrocities have occurred with the knowledge and complicity of governor Cevdet Bey, brother-in-law to Enver Pasha - indeed, Cevdet's appointment to Van in February aimed to ensure that anti-Armenian measures adopted by the national leadership would be enthusiastically enforced at the local level.

Yesterday Cevdet yesterday had ordered Ottoman police and army detachments into the Armenian-dominated city of Van.  After several attacks on Armenian civilians, the Armenian population rises in rebellion today, and this uprising will provide the Young Turk leadership with the excuse to implement the policy they desired to implement anyway: genocide.

The Ottoman Empire, showing the location of the city of Van in the Caucasus.

April 16th, 1915

- Today the Belgian army passes on to the French intelligence that a German unit in the Ypres salient having received special training in the use of gas.  Despite this report and that of the deserter of the 14th, the French army does not believe the Germans will launch an attack using chemical weapons, believing the deserter to have been a plant and that the Germans would not so brazenly violate the Hague Conventions outlawing the use of asphyxiating gases.

- Shortages of artillery shells are not the only problem plaguing the major combatants; artillery pieces themselves are often in short supply.  As of today, the French army has lost 805 more of the vital 75-mm cannon than have been produced.

- As preparations continue for the major offensive to be launched in the Gorlice-Tarnow region, Falkenhayn orders Hindenburg at OberOst to plan a series of diversionary attacks, to launched on the Eastern Front north of central Poland, designed to confuse the Russians as to German intentions and tie down Russian reserves.

- Today Count Burián, the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, formally rejects the territorial demands made by Italy on the 10th, and states that the most the Dual Monarchy is willing to cede above its initial offer of South Tyrol is perhaps a portion of Trentino.  This 'concession' does not come close to meeting the terms required by Italy in exchange for continued neutrality.

- Simultaneously, Austro-Hungarian army headquarters instructs General Franz Rohr, commander of garrison units along the Italian border, to concentrate resistance along the Isonzo River should the Italians attempt to invade.  It is not the last time this river shall figure in the war . . .

April 15th, 1915

- The German 4th Army had designated today as the earliest possible date at which the planned gas attack on the Ypres salient could be undertaken by XXVI Reserve Corps and 46th Reserve Division.  However, throughout the day the winds are totally calm, and the attack is postponed.

- At the start of the war the enormous pressure to increase artillery shell production led to a willingness to comprise quality in the name of quantity, by allowing automobile factories to bore out shell casings with a turning-lathe instead of an hydraulic press.  While the new method meant significantly more factories could be switched immediately to shell production, the new shells have a range of problems.  The fuses on some shells fail to fire properly; in January a German officer had calculated that 50% of French shells fired in a given day were duds.  In other cases, faulty shells exploded prematurely; whereas before the war one artillery piece burst for every 500 000 rounds, by this spring one gun bursts for every 3000 rounds.  Thus the issue of munitions production is not simply one of quantity - there is little point in increasing output if the resulting shells are defective.  In response to the defects in French artillery shells, the government today reimposes the pre-war standard regarding the use of forged steel.

- When the morning dawns at Shaiba in Mesopotamia, the Ottoman forces have disappeared completely, and such was their haste to retreat that they left behind their camps and everything from rifles to cooked food.  For his part, the Ottoman commander felt sufficiently disgraced by the defeat that he assembled his officers and promptly shot himself in front of them.  Indeed, the British victory at the Battle of Shaiba results in a growing disinclination among many Arabs to answer the Ottoman call to jihad; indeed, the retreating Ottoman forces are harried by Arabs for a hundred miles up the Euphrates River.  The British, however, are unable to immediately follow up their victory by pursuit, the cavalry unprepared to run down the beaten foe.  Indeed, the battle itself, for a time on the 14th, hung in the balance, as the British were held up by the Ottoman trench line.  Even the British admitted the Ottoman soldiers fought bravely and resolutely, and only a last-minute bayonet charge by the Dorsets had been enough to capture the trench and turn the tide.

April 8th, 1915

- In Britain Prime Minister Asquith announces the formation of yet another committee: the Treasury Munitions of War Committee.  This new body is chaired by the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, who sees the committee's work as being an extension of his own and the means by which to wrestle control over the financing of munitions production from Lord Kitchener and the War Office.  The ongoing internecine battle between the two, combined with Asquith's penchant to delay decisions through endless debate, can hardly be expected to increase munitions output.

- With the attacks against the St.-Mihiel salient going nowhere, Joffre orders a shift in tactics today, ordering General Dubail of the Provisional Group of the East to shift to methodical attacks designed to overwhelm the enemy.  Dubail halts the broad-front attacks currently underway and prepares to concentrate his forces for a small number of hopefully-irresistible assaults.

- Emden's landing party successfully reached the town of Djidda several days ago without further incident, where the injured are treated in hospital and supplies restocked.  Given the recent Arab attack, First Officer Mücke has decided to continue the journey northwards by sea, chartering a large zambuk.  In light of the British blockade offshore, Mücke also spread the rumour that his expedition intended to continue by land.  Remarkably, once again the British fall for disinformation from the German officer, and when the zambuk departs Djidda this evening there are no British warships in sight.

March 22nd, 1915

- In Britain the ongoing shortage of artillery shells leads Prime Minister Asquith to appoint a committee to plan for the formation of a new committee on munitions.  Beyond this reflecting the inanity of bureaucratic processes and the deliberate (to put it charitably) decision-making process of the Prime Minister, it also illustrates the growing marginalization of the War Office with respect to munitions production.  The new committee is to be under Cabinet, not the War Office, and David Lloyd George, but not Kitchener, was invited to attend its first meeting.  The growing belief in government circles is that however lustrous Kitchener's image is among the British public, his contempt for politicians and the normal procedures of administration has left the War Office in bureaucratic chaos.

- Overnight the Austro-Hungarian artillery at Przemysl fire off their remaining ammunition, and this morning are destroyed.  At 6am, the last of the fortifications are reduced to rubble, and at 7am an automobile carrying two staff officers depart Przemysl to negotiate the surrender of the garrison.  As white flags flutter over the remnants of the defences, the first Russian detachments enter Austro-Hungarian lines by 9am.

As a result of the surrender of Przemysl, 9 generals, 93 staff officers, 2500 other officers, and 117 000 men march into Russian captivity.  The rank-and-file of the Austro-Hungarian garrison has suffered terribly over the past months, their rations reduced to almost nothing.  The Russians, however, cannot help but notice that the senior Austro-Hungarian officers have a well-fed look about them.

The fall of Przemysl is undoubtedly a significant disaster for Austria-Hungary, it constituting one more military embarassment in a war that has gone completely off the rails for the Dual Monarchy.  The fortress' surrender also formally ends the efforts undertaken by the army over the past few months to break through the Russian lines to relieve the garrison.  Conrad's tunnel vision regarding the relief of Przemysl blinded him to the realities of attempting to conduct major offensive operations in mountainous terrain in the midst of terrible winter conditions.  The Winter Battles of the Carpathians have been a shattering debacle far beyond the mere failure to reach Przemysl.  Over the past few months, the Austro-Hungarian army has suffered 800 000 casualties, three-quarters as a result of sickness and exposure; the efforts to relieve the fortress squandered far more men than the besieged garrison itself contained.  In the end, Conrad's offensive has resulted in the worst of both worlds: not only has Przemysl been lost, but the catastrophic losses further cripples the fighting capacity of the field army.  It is one of Conrad's greatest failures in a war marked by them.

- Senior Entente commanders in the eastern Mediterranean meet today in the wardroom of Queen Elizabeth to plot the next move after the rebuff of the 18th.  For several days Admiral Robeck has continued to ruminate on the losses suffered in that day's bombardment, and opens the conference by declaring his opinion that the Dardanelles cannot be forced by warships alone.  Instead, the only way the minefields could be swept would be if the mobile batteries were destroyed and the enemy shore occupied by landing forces.  This declaration finds support from General Sir Ian Hamilton, who had been dispatched by Kitchener to command the various British forces assembling in the eastern Mediterranean and had arrived on the 17th.  His reaction to the failure of the 18th was that the army would now have to play a central part in the operation, and after communication with Kitchener had been informed by the latter that if large scale landing operations were necessary, then so be it.  With Hamilton's support, Robeck is able to carry the room, and the conference unanimously resolves that the naval attack should be postponed until the landing operation was ready to commence.  As the forces under Hamilton's command are scattered across the Mediterranean, he advises the admirals that it will be about three weeks before he is ready to move.

Keyes is absent from the meeting, attempting to reorganize the minesweeper fleet, and when he learns of the decision he works to change Robeck's mind.  Keyes is convinced that the Ottomans are tottering, and that one more push will shatter the defenders and open the way to Constantinople.  Robeck, however, still fearing additional warship losses more than anything else, refuses to budge.

January 4th, 1915

- After closing on the outbreak of war in August, the London Stock Exchange reopens today.

- The ability of the French army to increase its stock of artillery shells is hampered by the necessity of supplying ammunition to its allies in order to enhance their fighting ability.  As the French minister of war reports today, at a time when Joffre is demanding the production of 60 000 rounds per day, France is exporting 12 000 per day to Russia, 3000 to Romania, 2000 to Serbia, and between 1000 and 2000 to Belgium.

- At the far southern end of the Western Front, the line runs just inside the German province of Alsace until it reaches the Swiss border.  Here the French have entrenched themselves on the eastern ridges of the Vosges Mountains, giving them observation of the upper Rhine River and allowing bombardment of the German-held plains to the east.  The Vosges are rocky and forested, preventing the construction of continuous trench lines.  Instead, each side entrenches on available high ground and emphasizes strong points.  Nevertheless, the stalemate to the north has replicated itself in the Vosges - indeed, advancing exposed up hillsides, where artillery shells create lethal airborne rock splinters, advances are particularly arduous.

The Western Front in the Vosges.

Winter in the Vosges, 1915.

For the past month, French infantry have been attacking at several points in order to push the line eastward and bring more of the German rear under artillery fire.  In order to bring a halt to the enemy attacks, Army Detachment Gaede, responsible for defending German Alsace, has been reinforced by six battalions and three batteries of artillery and ordered to seize Hartmannswillerkopf (known to the French as Vieil Armand), at 3136 feet one of the highest points in the Vosges and one from which the French have been able to direct artillery fire on the vital railway linking Mulhouse and Colmar.  Today three German regiments of light infantry, grenadiers, and dismounted light cavalry attack Hartmannswillerkopf, but are repulsed by the entrenched French defenders.

- For several months the vital Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl has been besieged by the Russians, who are content to simply starve out the defenders.  Indeed, the food stocks, never high, are continuing to dwindle.  Today, the commander at Przemysl radios Conrad to inquire whether the garrison should attempt to break out around February 1st, or simply hold out until March 7th, the date on which it is expected food supplies (including the slaughter of horses) will run out.  Conrad views the fall of Przemysl not only as a military but also a political catastrophe, as its loss would further undermine the prestige of Austria-Hungary among neutral states, and thus views an early offensive in Galicia to relieve Przemysl to be of vital importance.

- At Sarikamish the shattered remnants of the Ottoman IX Corps, surrounded and attack from Bardiz to the rear, surrender today.  Enver Pasha, who had been with IX Corps, manages to escape through Russian lines to reach XI Corps, which is still attacking in a vain effort to recover the situation.

November 14th, 1914

- Early this afternoon at Ypres an attack is made by the Guards' Regiments of Winckler's Division and 4th Division on the British lines opposite.  In several places German soldiers managed to reach British trenches, but any occupation of them was shortlived in the face of timely counterattacks.  Thus the second assault of Plettenberg's Corps never posed the same risk to the Entente line as the first three days earlier.  Elsewhere, the French lost a few hundred yards of no real consequence north of Ypres, while the French XVI Corps took nearly a thousand German prisoners in attacks near Wytschaete.

The frequency and intensity of German attacks at Ypres are clearly in decline, and they are also facing a shortage of artillery shells - Falkenhayn today concludes that there are enough shells for only four more days of fighting around the Ypres salient.

- Lord Roberts, one of the great military and imperial figures of pre-war Britain, dies at St. Omer this evening at 8pm.  Roberts had had a long and distinguished career, serving as Commander-in-Chief in India (1885-93), commander of British forces in the Boer War (1899-1900), and Commander-in-Chief of the British Army (1900-04).  After retirement he was president of the National Service League, which advocated for peacetime conscription in Britain.  Though he was unable to convince the governments of the day of conscription, he was consistent in warning of the German threat and the necessity of Britain committing a large army to the fight against Germany.  He lived long enough to see the war he long prophesized begin, and the first battles of the army he had once led.  He had arrived in France three days ago to visit the troops, but caught a cold which led to his passing.

- In Poland the German 9th Army is making excellent speed in its advance southeastward towards Lodz, as the first winter frost has frozen the mud which had slowed prior campaigns.  After the virtual destruction of the Russian V Siberian Corps, General Mackensen has deployed one corps along the Vistula to guard against the Russian 1st Army; given the sluggishness of Rennenkampf, this is more than sufficient.  The other four corps of 9th Army continue the push towards Lodz against little opposition.  General S. M. Scheidemann of the Russian 2nd Army, which is immediately west of Lodz, is the first Russian commander to realize the threat of the German offensive, and begins to reorientate his army from facing westward for the invasion of Germany to facing northward to confront the German 9th Army.  The rest of the Russian command leadership remains in the dark - Grand Duke Nicholas remains focused on the invasion of Germany, discounting any threat from the northwest to the line of advance westward.

- In Constantinople today the Sheikh-ul-Islam, the highest religious authority in Islam, proclaims a holy war, or jihad, in the presence of the Ottoman Sultan.  All Muslims throughout the world were called upon to fight Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, and Montenegro.  In particular, the Muslim inhabitants of the Asian and African colonies of the first three were called upon to rise up and make common cause with the Ottoman Empire.

This is a proclamation that threatens wholesale rebellions throughout the empires of Britain, France, and Russia, and the three Entente powers take the announcement very seriously.  The efficacy of the call for jihad is limited, however, by a number of factors.  First, it was not a call for all Muslims to rise up against all imperial powers - despite their recent occupation of Libya, there is no mention of Italy, a neutral that Germany and Austria-Hungary do not wish to offend.  Thus the jihad is to be limited, not universal.  Second, the call is clearly linked to the secular and imperial interests of the Ottoman Empire, and in particular Muslims in the Caucasus were not being asked to rise against Russia for freedom, but rather to trade Russian imperialism for Ottoman imperialism.  Finally, because the call for jihad is so clearly linked to the Ottoman Empire, its credibility is linked to the effectiveness of Ottoman arms on the battlefield.  Thus the Young Turks in the Ottoman government who have driven the empire to war need early victories to demonstrate to Muslims outside the empire that the Ottomans are worthy of its claimed position as the leader and protector of global Islam.

- The Muslim group that most enthusiastically embraces the call to jihad is the Senussi, a puritan sect of Islam with between 1.5 and 2.5 million adherents in the Sahara and equatorial Africa.  In 1912 the Ottoman province of Libya was conquered by Italy, and since that time the Senussi have led the resistance to the imposition of Italian rule, and by 1914 they have ten thousand under arms in eastern Cyrenaica near the Egyptian border.  Despite the proclamation of jihad not actually applying to the Senussi, given their presence in an Italian colony, their doctrine does not allow certain non-believers to be exempted from a call to jihad.  Thus the banner of holy war is raised by the Senussi in Fezzan in southern Libya, and the ongoing fight of the Senussi will become increasingly linked to the broader world war.

- Additional elements of the Indian 6th Division arrive at the British camp at Sanniya on the Shatt al-Arab this morning to reinforce Indian Expeditionary Force D.  They bring with them new orders from the Viceroy of India that if they have sufficent force, they are to advance and occupy the city of Basra.  The orders come from India, not London, as the expedition is being undertaken not only to protect British oil interests in Persia, but as a form of 'active defense' of the western frontier of India.

October 24th, 1914

- The Entente crisis deepens today along the Yser.  By dawn the Germans have secured five kilometres of the river, and all of 6th Reserve Division is on the west bank.  Though the Germans continue to be unable to bring artillery or supplies across due to enemy bombardment, the Belgian defensive line on the river has been broken.  The Belgian divisions are being ground down, and there are no reserves to relieve them.  General d'Urbal authorizes the French 42nd Division at Nieuport to send a brigade to the Belgian centre to keep it from crumbling, which arrives this morning.  Nevertheless, the north and centre of the Belgian line along the Yser is withdrawn to the Noordvaart and Beverdyk, small streams running north-south between the river to the east and the Nieuport-Dixmude railway embankment to the west.  The German 4th Army also undertake a heavy bombardment of Dixmude, including by the massive siege guns used at Antwerp, clearing in preparation for a major attack on the town.

- The developments along the Yser mean that the planned by Foch and d'Urbal is reduced to an attack by the recently arrived IX Corps.  From 7am this morning the French 17th Division of IX Corps attacks the German lines between Langemarck and Zonnebeke northeast of Ypres, held by portions of the German XVII and XVIII Reserve Corps.  In the morning most progress is achieved near Langemarck where they are able to advance a thousand yards.  Early in the afternoon the German 51st Reserve Division counterattacks at Zonnebeke, but is driven off, and the village recaptured by this evening.

- On the left of the French 17th Division the British 1st Division of I Corps has a relatively uneventful day, only experiencing heavy bombardment in the evening.  The plan is to relieve 1st Division with two French territorial brigades, so that all of I Corps is out of the line and thus can be utilized in a British counteroffensive to the south.  The heavy shelling in the evening, however, delays the handover of the trench line.

On the right of the French 17th Division, the British 7th Division of IV Corps has a very trying day.  It sits holding the southeastern 'angle' of the Ypres salient, and comes under heavy attack throughout the day.  The most critical moments come at the tiny village of Rethel, which sits just in front of Polygon Wood.  This section of line was at the junction of two brigades, and was defended by the 2nd Battalion, Wiltshires and a company of 2nd Battalion Scots Guards.  A preliminary bombardment begins at 430am, and in the early morning light two regiments of the German 53rd Reserve Division advance.  The German artillery keeps firing as their infantry reaches Rethel which, though it places the infantry at risk of being hit by friendly fire, suppresses the British infantry - many are too busy hiding from enemy shells to fire on the German infantry advancing on their trenches.  The Wiltshires initially are able to hold up the German advance, but the artillery fire has largely destroyed the position of the company of the Scots Guards - when the Germans reach the latter's position, they are able to easily overrun them and capture the British trench.  This outflanks the Wiltshires, and the Germans are able to work their way down the trench, systematically wiping out the British defenders.  The Wiltshires collapse, and most of the survivors fall into German hands.

The Germans had managed to blast a hole in the British line - there was nothing directly west of Rethel to hold the Germans.  The commander of 7th Division had no further reserves at hand - they had been committed to hold against other German attacks today - so he calls on 2nd Division to the rear for any aid they can send.  He also orders all of the headquarter staff, orderlies, clerks, and other administrative individuals to rally for a last stand.

The position of 7th Division is saved by the simple fact that the commander of the German 244th Regiment, who had achieved the breakthrough, had no idea that he had accomplished any such thing.  He is content to remain at Rethel, and only tentatively sends part of his force into Polygon Wood after over two hours of relative inactivity.  It is at this point that two battalions dispatched from 2nd Division arrive, and in desperate hand-to-hand fighting with the bayonet, the Germans are ejected from the Wood.  Rethel remains in German hands, but the relief force is able to reconstitute the British line at the edge of Polygon Wood.  For only the briefest of moments, the opportunity for a breakthrough appeared, but in the confusion of the battlefield it vanished before the Germans even knew it was there.

To the south the Germans launch a series of attacks near Gheluvelt this afternoon, but are repulsed.  After a difficult day, 7th Division has held its line with the exception of the loss of Rethel.  But the victories have not been without cost.  In the fighting between the 22nd and today, 7th Division has lost just over 2800 men, or almost 40% of its total strength.

- To the south, nine battalions from the German XIII and XIX Corps advance on positions of the British III Corps at Le Quesne, while elements of the German VII Corps, eager to come to grip with the enemy after they escaped unnoticed the day before, launch a series of methodical attacks on II Corps.  In heavy fighting the British lines bend but do not break, and by midnight all ground lost in fighting earlier in the day has been recaptured.

- From the perspective of the German 4th Army, the capture of the ruins of Rethel hardly compensates for both failures elsewhere and the French advance between Langemarck and Zonnebeke.  The reserve corps have been thoroughly battered after several days of fighting, with casualties over 60% in some regiments.  It is clear that they are no longer in any shape to undertake offensive operations, so the decision is made to order them to entrench and go on to the defensive.  The situation to the north, however, is much more promising, with the expanding bridgehead across the Yser by III Reserve Corps.  A breakthrough here might still achieve victory by sweeping along the Channel coast.  Moreover, it is known that the French have reinforced the Belgian lines west of the Yser, which opens the possibility that they have no reserves left to support the defenders of Dixmude.  The major focus of 4th Army thus shifts from the Ypres salient to the line Nieuport-Dixmude.

- A shortage of artillery shells is becoming acute in the BEF.  Field Marshal French today telegrams Kitchener that while his guns have fired as many as seventy-six shells per day, only the equivalent of seven rounds per day were arriving from Britain, and there were only one hundred fifty shells per gun that had not already been issued to the artillery positions.  Kitchener advised that restrictions on ammunition expenditure be considered to avoid running out at a critical moment.

The lines around Ypres, October 24th and 25th, 1914.

- In South Africa Marwitz's force, which had sparked the Boer Rebellion, is defeated by government forces led by Coen Brits at Kakamas.  Marwitz briefly considers surrender, but the news of the general rebellion, in particular of De Wet in the Orange Free State and Beyers in the western Transvaal, encourages Marwitz to continue.

October 21st, 1914

- Awareness has finally dawned for Sir John French of the enormity of the threat facing his command.  His operations order for today, issued last night at 930pm, still included the instructions for the advance of I Corps, but the other formations of the BEF were instructed to assume defensive positions - the hope at the time was that I Corps, pushing to Thourout and beyond, would serve as the outflanking force while the rest of the BEF held the line and fixed the Germans opposite.  By morning, however, prisoner interrogations indicated the presence of four new reserve corps in Flanders, which meant both that the BEF was significantly outnumbered and that a major German offensive was unmistakably taking place.  For the BEF commander the situation begins to take on similarities with the retreat from Mons to the Marne, where he daily worried about the safety of his army.

It is with this mindset that Sir John French greets Joffre as the latter arrives at the former's HQ at St. Omer.  Joffre brings welcome news - the French IX Corps is being transferred to Flanders to join General d'Urbal's detachment - and the meeting goes well until Field Marshal French requests Joffre to make available the resources necessary to construct a great armed camp at Boulogne sufficient to hold the entire BEF.  French's desire is for a secure base to which he can retreat to if overwhelmed at the front, from which the BEF can be supported and/or evacuated by the Royal Navy.  Joffre is instantly reminded of the great difficulties he had in convincing his British counterpart to stay in the fight in the two weeks between Mons and the Marne, and does not want to give any effect to French's fears.  Though inwardly seething, he keeps his composure and states that while he is willing to guard against a German coup-de-main against Boulogne the resources and manpower are simply not available to do anything more.  Joffre assures French that he will not prioritize the portions of the front lines held by the armies of France for reinforcements, but that it was vital that they stand together and fight the Germans where they stood.  Departing with expressions of good intentions, Joffre's mood recovers during a subsequent meeting with King Albert and with the arrival of the first units of IX Corps.

- The front held by the BEF extends about thirty-five miles, and in addition to I through IV Corps and the Cavalry Corps, there are several French cavalry divisions holding the line.  Overall, on this stretch of the front there are seven and a third infantry divisions and five cavalry divisions of the British and French armies.  Opposing them are eleven German infantry and eight cavalry divisions.  The contrast is heightened by the prolonged fighting most of the BEF has already experienced, in contrast to the fresh divisions of the new reserve corps of the German 4th Army.  The length of the front line held is simply too long for it to be covered in anything like reasonable depth.  Along much of the front there is only a single shallow trench, entrenching tools being in very short supply, with perhaps a few strands of barbed wire.  In places there are gaps in the line, which are covered by artillery or crossfire from nearby positions.  The range of fire is also shorter than desired, as much of the buildings, trees, and other impediments have yet to be completely pulverised into dust by artillery bombardments.

For their part the Germans attack all along the line, seeking out weak points in the Entente line, as opposed to concentrating their forces and blasting their own holes in the enemy formations.  Throughout the battle the Germans consistently overrate the density and strength of the Entente, believing the lines they encounter are only advanced pickets when in reality they are the only defensive line at all.  The more experienced corps of 6th Army are also beginning to learn from the harsh lessons of the battlefield, advancing in small groups instead of a single wave.  The inexperienced formations of 4th Army, however, have no such experience to draw upon, much to their detriment.

- II and III Corps as well as the Cavalry Corps are hard-pressed today by German attacks.  Indeed, the latter is effectively fighting as infantry as well, defending trenches and only using their horses to shift from one position to another.  The Germans achieve no breakthroughs, but at several points British units are forced to withdraw to avoid envelopment.  A mistaken retreat order nearly opened a gap between the Cavalry Corps and IV Corps to the north, but the German cavalry opposite are slow to exploit and the British are able to close the gap.  Indeed, the lethargy of the German cavalry is sufficient to prompt a change of command this evening, General Hollen being replaced by General Marwitz.

IV Corps' 7th Division is also under severe pressure - their prior attempt to advance on Menin has left them in poor defensive positions, the Germans opposite them on a ridge at Passchendaele, allowing the latter to direct accurate artillery fire upon the British.  The Germans temporarily break through 7th Division's two brigades, but a company of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers is able to plug the gap.  To the north Haig attempts to execute French's orders to advance this morning, though the streams of refugees on the roads forces a delay of almost two hours.  Heavy losses are suffered by I Corps as it attempts to fight through hedgerows, and German artillery fire intensifies the further the British advance.  By the afternoon further progress is impossible, and I Corps has only advanced 1000 to 2000 yards to just beyond Zonnebeke.  The left flank of I Corps is nearly uncovered by the continued retreat of General de Mitry's French cavalry, the latter having yielded Houthulst Forest to the attack of the German XXIII Reserve Corps.  Fortunately for I Corps, the commander of the immediately adjacent French cavalry division refused the order until the British flank was secured.  De Mitry's cavalry retreat to the line of the Ypres Canal, also defended by two territorial divisions, running between Ypres and Dixmude.  The effect is to create a sharp angle in the British line from Bixschoote to Langemarck, in which elements of I Corps are facing almost north.  Beyond there the German III Reserve Corps spends the day pounding the Belgian positions along the Yser.

The attacks of the German 4th Army on the British lines, October 21st, 1914.

- Sixth Army also commences a heavy artillery bombardment not only of the French lines defending Arras, but also of the town itself, in preparation for a major attack scheduled for tomorrow.

- General Ivanov believes the Russian armies assembled in central Poland are finally ready to go onto the offensive, advancing west from the Vistula River.  Unfortunately for the Russians, the delays in organizing the armies has given the Germans the opportunity to retreat, which as per Ludendorff's orders began yesterday.  However, the fighting is not yet at an end, for the Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff has a plan of his own.  Conrad orders 1st Army to concentrate on the Itxanka River south of Ivangorod, and attack northwards into the Russians when they have only partially crossed the Vistula.

- In Britain, the Cabinet Committee on Munitions meets for the third time today, and their solution to the ongoing shortages of weapons and ammunition has been largely to increase the number of orders placed with armament firms.  This does little, however, to address the root causes of the shortages - i.e. many highly-skilled engineers and munitions workers have volunteered for the army, leaving armaments firms understaffed, and many firms either do not have the equipment to expand production or do not have the proper experience to produce the items desired by the government.  As such, the primary result of placing additional orders for munitions is to heighten the sense of panic over a lack munitions - the more orders there are, the more go unfulfilled, creating a cycle of crisis.

October 14th, 1914

- Along the Channel coast, the retreating Belgians reach the Yser River, where they begin to entrench between Nieuport and Dixmude.  To the east, the pursuing German III Reserve Corps occupies Bruges.

- Early today the British 3rd Cavalry Division makes contact with the British Cavalry Corps at Kemmel, linking the British force retreating from Antwerp with the BEF deploying between Béthune and Ypres.  By this evening Rawlinson's 7th Division has taken position just east of Ypres, covering the arrival of the French 87th Territorial Division in the town.  To the south the Cavalry Corps has secured village of Messines, while III Corps takes Bailleul, abandoned early by the Germans.

- As the XXII, XXIII, XXVI, and XXVII Reserve Corps begin their march west from Brussels today, Falkenhayn orders Rupprecht's 6th Army to halt offensive operations, to give time for the reserve corps to reach the front and to avoid giving the Entente indications of the coming attack.  Instead, 6th Army will hold on a line from Menin southwards, and today the XIII and XIX Corps take up position between Menin and Armentières.

- At 7am this morning, the first ships of an important convoy arrive in Plymouth in southwest England.  The ships had departed Quebec City on October 3rd, and contained twenty-five thousand volunteers for military service, as well as a further five hundred from the separate Dominion of Newfoundland.  These soldiers comprised the Canadian Contingent, whose formation and organization had been agreed to in August.  As in most other combatants, the onset of war had seen a rush of volunteers, and it was decided that, in addition to the existing militia, they would be sent to Britain for service on the Western Front.  They will be a part of the British army, and initially Lord Kitchener wanted to scatter the Canadians throughout British divisions as replacements and individual battalions.  This course of action was fiercely opposed by Sam Hughes, the Canadian Minister of Militia and a figure of considerable energy as well as controversy, in a meeting with Kitchener.  After appeals to the British government the Canadians got their way - after several months training in England, the Canadian Contingent will be reformed as the 1st Canadian Division, and will operate as such in France.

- Despite the usefulness of its 75mm artillery pieces, the French army has been hindered in its operations over the first months of the war by an overall relative lack of artillery as compared to the German army.  Today Joffre outlines what will become known as the 'October 14th Programme', which establishes the requirements of the French army with respect to heavy artillery.  Joffre also stipulates that henceforth all artillery rounds use smokeless rather than black powder, as the smoke that results from the latter gives away the position of guns that fire it.  This illustrates that the 'shells crisis' that has and will afflict all of the major combatants in the first phases of the war is not simply about the number of shells available, but also their quality as well as the availability of the most effective types of artillery pieces.

- In Britain, it was the navy that had priority on munitions, given the widespread assumption that in a future war it would be the fleet that would experience the most combat.  Given the contrast between the continued commitment of the British Expeditionary Force to heavy fighting in France and the relative inactivity of the navy, the Admiralty reluctantly agrees to release a thousand tons of cordite from its reserves to the army for use in munitions production.

- In German Kamerun British forces undertake a second attempt to seize Jabassi.  This time, the advancing columns are directing along both sides of the river to divide the German defenders, and the British commander accompanies the advance by boat to supervise their coordination.  The result is the capture of Jabassi after a brief fight.

- A closer bombardment attempt at Tsingtao sees the British pre-dreadnought Triumph struck by a German shore battery.

- In the Pacific Japanese forces have landed on and captured the undefended German islands in the Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana island chains, formerly attached to the German New Guinea colony.  This leaves only Tsingtao as the sole German colony in the Pacific still under their control.  The British position is that the final disposition of these German colonies will be decided after the war; in practice, the Japanese have no intention of yielding them.  Indeed, the islands they secured without casualties or combat in 1914 will cost the Americans thousands of lives to take in the course of the Second World War.

- At Easter Island the German light cruiser Leipzig arrives today to join the German East Asiatic Squadron.  Having been off the west coast of North America upon the outbreak of war, it has brought three colliers with a thousand tons of coal each to the island, and the other German ships begin to top up their coal bunkers.  The squadron is now composed of two armoured cruisers and three light cruisers.

- The Admiralty finally responds today to Rear-Admiral Craddock's two telegrams of October 8th and 11th.  They signal their agreement with his suggestion of forming a separate squadron to cover the South Atlantic, and among the ships to be assigned to the new squadron is the armoured cruiser Defence.  Crucially, this new squadron is to be a separate command, not under the direction of Craddock.  By having the new squadron independent, and by assigning Defence to it rather than Craddock's command, the implication appears clear to the Rear-Admiral - the Admiralty believes that his squadron as presently constituted, and with only the old pre-dreadnought Canopus en route as reinforcement, is sufficient to engage the German East Asiatic Squadron.

September 21st, 1914

- After yesterday's failed attacks, General Heeringen of the German 7th Army orders another push by VII Reserve Corps against the British positions opposite.  The corps commander, however, refuses, replying that 'the daily repetition of attack orders could not obtain any success.'  Indeed, full-scale offensive actions by either side have petered out, and the front line becomes increasingly static.  This does not mean there is no fighting - skirmishes occur regularly, and artillery fire is near constant - but there is a growing recognition that neither side is able to break through the enemy lines, which have not shifted to a significant degree since September 14th.  Thus though fighting continues along the Aisne, the Battle of the Aisne, in terms of efforts to break through the enemy positions, has effectively come to a end.

- Today Joffre orders Foch to postpone further attacks by 9th Army, and that artillery fire should be limited.  The French army is starting to experience a shortage of artillery shells, a crisis that will in time afflict all of the major combatants.  In each case, peacetime estimates of the number of shells an artillery piece would use prove to be significantly wide of the mark.  For the French, each of their approximately three thousand 75mm guns began the war with 1244 shells each.  All of this starting ammunition has been fired off by today - the very effectiveness of the '75s' results in more and more requests from the infantry for additional fire support.  The current daily production of 75mm shells, however, is only twenty thousand, or between six or seven shells per gun.  Such a paltry amount could easily be shot off even when major operations were not underway, so the only way Joffre could stockpile shell reserves for major attacks was to reduce artillery fire at other times.

- The German 8th Army reaches the Niemen River today at three points - near Kovno, near Miroslav, and north of Grodno.  However, the Russian 1st Army has been able to cross to the east bank of the river, and has had time to prepare defenses.

- In Galicia, Conrad orders a further retreat, ordering his armies falling back to the Dunajec River, a tributary of the Vistula River.  Here the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th armies are to entrench, with 1st Army being detached to co-operate with the German 9th Army assembling to the north.  The pursuing Russian armies today isolate the Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl, and the 150 000 defenders find themselves under siege.  Otherwise, however, the advance of the Russians is slowing to a halt - September rains have turned the roads into mud, making rapid movement impossible.  Further, the Russian armies are increasingly crippled by supply shortages - there are few railways connecting Galicia with Russia, meaning supplies have to be shipped by horse and cart.

Thus the retreating Austro-Hungarian armies are granted a brief reprieve from Russian pressure.  However, the damage has been done - out of 1.8 million soldiers mobilized at the beginning of August, over 400 000 have become casualties in the fighting in Galicia alone.  Moreover, casualties have been heaviest among the German regiments that constitute not only the elite but also the most loyal units of the Austro-Hungarian army.  These losses cannot be replaced, and increasingly the army has to rely on the non-German regiments whose loyalty is always in doubt.  Finally, many regiments have lost their pre-war junior officers, for whom the rank and file felt a sense of comradeship - replacement officers, unknown and often speaking only German, increase the sense of alienation among the masses of soldiers.  As a result, the Austro-Hungarian army can never completely recover the strength lost in the Galician battles over the first two months of the war.  Conversely, though the Russians have suffered heavy casualties - over a quarter of a million - their massive manpower reserves mean they can absorb far greater losses than the Austro-Hungarian armies could ever hope to.

- In the South Pacific the German East Asiatic Squadron approaches Bora Bora in the Society Islands, owned by France.  Admiral Spee hopes to reprovision from the island, and though Bora Bora is undefended, he would much prefer to acquire food and supplies without force - if attacked, the French islanders might prefer hiding or burning supplies rather than see them seized by Germans.  He thus attempts another ruse - his ships will simply act as if they are not Germans.  Flying no identifying flags, the squadron leisurely approaches Bora Bora, where they are met offshore by several French officers.  Spee ensures that the French officers interact only with German sailors who themselves speak French or British, and imply that they are a British squadron patrolling the Pacific.  The French officers are completely fooled - they gladly offer supplies to the German ships, who pay in cash.  Further, under subtle prodding, they discuss the port defences at Papeete, vital information for the Germans as it is their next target in their journey towards South America.  As they depart, the French fire a salute from one of the antiquated cannons on the island; the cheeky response of the squadron is to raise the German ensign before disappearing over the horizon.

- As the British begin to formalize their naval blockade of Germany, a crucial question is what to do with neutral-flagged ships in the North Sea, whose cargo may be destined for Germany either directly or indirectly (unloaded at a neutral port and shipped overland to Germany).  The desire to halt all trade with Germany needs to be balanced with the opinion of neutral countries, especially the United States, as Britain depends on foreign trade, especially of foodstuffs, for its economy.  Today the British government publishes an expansion of its contraband list of items that will be seized if found on a neutral ship.  Among the goods that will now be seized are rubber, magnetic iron ore, copper, and glycerine, all important components of munitions production.

- The finance minister of France today requests that the Banque de France, the country's national bank, advance a further 3.1 billion francs to support the war effort.  By effectively printing more money, without having to acquire equivalent gold reserves, it gives the French government flexibility to meet the monetary demands of war, but creates inflationary pressure.