November 29th, 1915

- Conrad orders the Austro-Hungarian navy to institute a permanent patrol of the Albanian coast to disrupt enemy troop transports and supplies crossing the Adriatic to support the retreating Serbian army.  To accomplish this, two Novara-class light cruisers, six Tátra-class destroyers, and six T-74-class torpedo-boats - the fastest and most modern light warships in the Austro-Hungarian navy - are deployed to the naval base of Cattaro near Montenegro.

- Having informed their allies of their intent to retreat to the Adriatic coast of Albania, the Serbian governments issues an urgent request to the Entente governments for them to send food and fodder to San Giovanni di Medua (the nearest port to Scutari) and Durrazo (on the coast just west of Tirana), where the bulk of the Serbian army and accompanying refugees will be arriving.  However, the Italian decision several days earlier to only send supplies to Valona in southern Albania mean that Serbs that reach the northern Albanian coast, already starving, will need to march a hundred miles further south.

- West of Görz Italian attacks concentrate on the enemy line at Oslavija, and this afternoon they manage to capture stretches of the enemy trench north and south of the village's church.  The Austro-Hungarians, however, are able to fall back to a new trench line several hundred yards to the rear, containing the Italian advance.  A major effort is also made once more against Mt. San Michele, and other than a small stretch of trench to the west of St. Martino the Italians are repulsed all along the line.

November 25th, 1915

- As the Serbian army begins the most arduous stage of its retreat, the high command publishes the following:

The only way out of this grave situation is a retreat to the Adriatic coast.  There our army will be reorganized, furnished with food, arms, munitions, clothing, and all other necessities which our allies will send us, and we shall again be a fact with which our allies must reckon.  The nation has not lost its being, it will continue to exist even though on foreign soil, so long as the ruler, the government, and the army are there, no matter what the strength of the army may be.

The retreating columns of the Serbian army are accompanied by thousands of civilians, including most parliamentary deputies, political party members, and university.  The retreat of the Serbian is far more than a military exercise - in many respects, it is the political and intellectual heart of the Serbian nation that is making its way into the mountains of Albania towards the Adriatic Sea.

A Serbian column crossing a bridge in Albania during the retreat to the Adriatic coast.

- The French naval attaché in Rome reports to his government today that, given the recent sinking of the schooner Gallinara and the steamer Palatino and the proximity of northern Albania to the Austro-Hungarian naval base at Cattaro, the Italian minister of marine has decided that supply convoys crossing the Adriatic Sea should be routed to Valona in southern Albania.  This route will be farther from Austro-Hungarian naval bases and thus convoys here will be less likely to be intercepted.

- On the Italian Front an Austro-Hungarian counterattack early this morning regains the trench on the northern slope of Mt. San Michele lost yesterday, though heavy artillery fire forces the Austro-Hungarian infantry to abandon much of the position in the course of the day.

November 23rd, 1915

- The head of the Directorate of Military Aviation at the War Office in London today authorizes the expansion of the Royal Flying Corps, which currently stands at thirty-one (fourteen in France) squadrons, to sixty, with squadron strength increasing from twelve to eighteen.  In France these squadrons are to be formed into brigades, with the ultimate aim of having one brigade tied to each army of the British Expeditionary Force.

- As the German 11th Army was overrunning Serbia, the Russian high command had struggled to do something to aid its ally, General Alexeiev being cognizant that having complained of French and British inaction during the Great Retreat of the summer, the Russian army could hardly do nothing when the situation was reversed.  Prompted by officials at the foreign ministry, he had deployed a new 7th Army on the Black Sea Coast, intended for amphibious operations against the Black Sea coast.  The Russian navy, however, had vetoed the project, and so today Alexeiev orders 7th Army redeployed to eastern Galicia and begin planning, with 9th Army, for an offensive against the Austro-Hungarian armies opposite.  In addition to 'doing something', there is a vague confidence at Stavka that the Austro-Hungarian army, having shown its inability repeatedly during the war, will collapse, and perhaps a victory here will convince the Romanians to join the war on the side of the Entente.

- Given the lack of reinforcements, General Sarrail feels that his position in southern Serbia is not tenable, given that the Bulgarians significantly outnumber his force.  Further, the ongoing collapse and retreat of the Serbian army negates the rationale behind his operations in the Vardar River valley.  As such, today he issues orders to the three French divisions in southern Serbia to withdraw south.

- Overnight elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Mountain Brigade launch an attack to regain the small stretch of the line that remains in Italian hands after their capture of it on the 20th.  Their assault, however, runs smack into an Italian advance of their own; the two attacking forces mutually repulse each other, both falling back to their starting positions.

- An Austro-Hungarian squadron of the light cruisers Helgoland and Saida plus escorting destroyers sortied towards the Straits of Otranto overnight, aiming to interrupt the Entente transport of supplies across the Adriatic Sea to the Serbs via northern Albania.  They intercept two Italian ships - the motor schooner Gallinara and the small steamer Palatino - carrying flour and sink both.

- The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria, escorted by the cruiser Pamiat Merkuriya and ten destroyers, bombards the Ottoman port of Zonguldak, the first occasion in which the new Russian warship fires its guns in anger.

The Russian dreadnought Imperatritsa Maria.

September 24th, 1915

- Overnight violent thunderstorms strike Flanders, and heavy rains turn the trench floors into mud, slowly the final movement of supplies up to the front for the British offensive scheduled for tomorrow.  At dawn visibility is reduced by low clouds and ground fog, preventing aerial bombing or reconnaissance, though artillery firing on pre-selected and pre-sighted targets.  The British bombardment of identified German artillery batteries is believed to be particularly successful, given that many of the positions targeted have ceased firing.  In practice, however, the Germans silenced their batteries voluntarily to give the impression that they have been knocked out.  They only await the main British attack before they resume firing.  Meanwhile, on the British side two field batteries per division are attached to their horses this evening, in expectation of immediately following the infantry as they advance tomorrow.

Meanwhile at the headquarters of the British 1st Army, Haig waits with his corps commanders Rawlinson and Gough for the latest weather updates, to see if conditions at dawn tomorrow will allow for the use of chlorine gas.  This afternoon Captain Gold reports that based on the morning's observations, there was a possibility only of a fair wind tomorrow morning.  As the hours passed and more recent observations could be added to his report, Gold become confident that the weather would cooperate for tomorrow - at 9pm he informed Haig that there was a favourable chance of a wind blowing west at ten miles per hour at ground level tomorrow morning.  With this assurance, Haig issues orders for chlorine gas to be used prior to the main infantry assault.

- In Artois the Entente artillery bombardment reaches a crescendo today, with the greatest volume directed against the German VI Corps in the Loos sector.  Further confirmation of the imminent enemy offensive comes via a French deserter, who is captured west of Vimy Ridge and reports that the French will attack at 5am tomorrow.

- In Champagne, French patrols enter No Man's Land to clear French wire, inspect and clear the remaining German wire, and observe the state of the enemy line.  Though they frequently come under fire from German defenders, it allows the French call down artillery fire on these surviving positions.  To this point most of the assault infantry have been kept several kilometres behind the front, to avoid casualties from German artillery fire, but after sundown they move up to their jumping-off points and prepare for the attack, scheduled for 915am tomorrow morning

- At Metz today, Falkenhayn receives reports during the day of continued heavy bombardments of the German 6th Army in Artois and the 3rd and 5th Armies in Champagne.  In response, the German chief of staff transfers several heavy artillery batteries to 3rd Army, and further agrees that 5th Division, scheduled to depart for the Balkans for the Serbian campaign, will instead be kept behind 3rd Army.  Nevertheless, Falkenhayn continues to have doubts that the Entente actually intend to launch an major offensive - in a telephone conversation with General Karl von Einem, commander of 3rd Army, that the French 'did not have the willpower' to attack.  Falkenhayn has allowed what he wants the French to do to cloud his judgement of what the French will actually do - his campaigns in the East and the Balkans are based on the premise that the forces left on the Western Front are sufficient to hold the line, and thus does not want to see an Entente offensive that could upset the delicate balance.

- On the northern flank of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, elements of the Austro-Hungarian 1st, 2nd, and 9th Cavalry Divisions clear Russian forces out of the Okonsk-Jablonka area as well as Borowicy and Kopyli on the Styr River, opening the path for the German XXIV Reserve Corps advancing rapidly from the north.

- At the request of Franz Joseph, Mackensen journeys to Vienna today to meet the aged Austro-Hungarian emperor, where he is awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephan and the two have a thirty-minute private audience after dinner.  Both Franz Joseph and his military retinue are won over by Mackensen's natural charm and character, as well as his reputation for success on the Eastern Front.  Mackensen is practically alone among his fellow German officers in being viewed positively by the Austro-Hungarian leadership (neither Falkenhayn nor Ludendorff can hide their oft-justified contempt), ensuring a degree of co-operation, even at times harmony, in the forthcoming Serbian campaign that is unimaginable had any other German general been in command.

- As the French Council of Ministers debates a French expedition to the Balkans to aid Serbia, Minister of War Alexandre Millerand sends a note to the French commander at Gallipoli, informing him that a division may be shortly ordered to cover the railway from the Greek port of Salonika to the de facto Serbian capital at Niš.  Meanwhile, Joffre advises the government that while he recognizes the desirability of propping up their Serbian allies, an expedition should be composed of four divisions - two French and two British - drawn from Gallipoli.  From his perspective, it is simply a case of redeploying the force already in the Near East from one theatre (the Dardanelles) to another (the Balkans).  This also has the advantage, from his perspective, of not requiring the withdrawal of forces from the Western Front to make up the expedition.

- The hesitant performance of the Italian navy to date has come in for criticism in the Italian press, and the unease claims a victim today as Vice-Admiral Leone Viale, the minister of marine, resigns today.  Ostensibly stepping aside for health reasons, having just undergone minor surgery, in practice he had quarrelled with Vice-Admiral Paolo Count Thaon di Revel and was increasingly left out of the loop regarding operational decisions.

- The British 6th Indian Division has completed its assembly at Sannaiyat on the Tigris River, and begins today the advance towards the Ottoman defensive line east of Kut-al-Amara.  Given the overall strength of the Ottoman position, General Townshend has decided on deception: the bulk of the division today moves slowly westward on the southern bank of the Euphrates River, giving the impression that it is here that the British intend to concentrate their attack.  On the north bank only 18th Brigade remains, which is deployed between the Tigris and Suwada Marsh.  North of Suwada Marsh sits another Ottoman defensive position, three redoubts supported by a trench system leading up to another marsh - Ataba - to the north.  This is the northernmost section of the Ottoman line, but reconnaissance has informed Townshend that Ataba Marsh is rapidly drying out, and that a gap of three hundred yards has emerged between the end of the Ottoman trenches and the start of the swamp.  It is this gap that has caught Townshend's attention and is to be the key point of the assault.  After the force on the southern bank makes a suitable demonstration of British intent to convince the Ottomans to keep significant strength here, this force is to cross over to the north bank at night and pass behind both 18th Brigade and Suwada Marsh where it will split into two forces: the first to assault the three Ottoman redoubts, and the second to pass through the gap to the north.  This force is intended to roll up the Ottoman line from the north, resulting in the capture of the Ottoman 35th Division deployed on the north bank.  It is a plan that would be inconceivable on the Western Front, but the conditions of the war in the Middle East - fewer soldiers and greater supply difficulties - means that flanks exist and can be turned.

The First Battle of Kut-al-Amara, September 24th to 29th, 1915.

September 10th, 1915

- On the Eastern Front, the corps of the Austro-Hungarian 4th and 1st Armies are ordered by Conrad to make 'an immediate, decisive attack' on the northern wing of the Russian 8th Army, in yet another attempt to turn the Russian flank and envelop the enemy line.  Given the deteriorating situation to the south, a successful assault here is imperative if the offensive is to be successful.  Conrad's demands, however, overlook the battered and exhausted state of 4th and 1st Army, both having suffered heavy losses in near-constant combat over the past two weeks.  Supplies have been drawn by horse-cart over poor roads from rail-heads that are two hundred kilometres to the west, and even food is running short.

To the south, the situation worsens for the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army.  After XIII Corps on its northern wing was forced back yesterday, the Russian 9th Army strikes at a scratch corps commanded by General Johann Henriquez, forcing its 15th Division back to the confluence of the Strypa and Dniester Rivers.  The Russians now threaten to drive over the Dniester between XIII Corps and Henriquez's command, with only half a cavalry division covering the growing gap between them.

- As part of the military convention with Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary had pledged to dispatch six divisions from the Eastern Front for operations against Serbia, the same number promised by Germany.  The rapidly deteriorating situation of the Austro-Hungarian armies participating in Conrad's ill-fated offensive makes it uncertain whether the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff can afford to pull six divisions out of the fight to transfer to the Balkans.  Falkenhayn recognizes the difficulty of his ally, and writes to Conrad today to offer German divisions to take the place of the Austro-Hungarians.  He cannot resist, however, commenting on the apparent necessity of the German army once again bailing out their ally after the latter botches yet another operation: 'Certainly such a change in plans won't make up for the political and military damage already inflicted.  However, it may avert even more unfavourable results, which to me seems all the more important because of the affect on the morale of the Russian army and on Romania.'  Conrad thus decides that VI Corps, which had been about to board trains for the Serbian front, will instead be dispatched to reinforce the faltering 7th Army.

- There is growing unease regarding the performance, or more accurately the lack thereof, of the Italian navy to date in the war.  Expecting dramatic victories over the Austro-Hungarian foe, instead the first months have been marked by hesitancy and embarrassment.  Today a leading article appears in the newspaper Giornale d'Italia penned by Enrico Arlotta, a Deputy in the Italian parliament.  Sharply critical of the navy, it questions the adequacy of pre-war preparations and questions whether those responsible for the navy have all the 'desirable mental agility'.  Given not only that the article was allowed to be published by government censors, but that it appeared in a newspaper associated with Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, it suggests that dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war at sea has reached the highest political circles.

August 18th, 1915

- Overnight four German Zeppelin undertake a bombing raid on London.  Two turn back due to engine trouble, and the captain of L11 manages to confuse the village of Ashford with the British capital, dropping his forty-one bombs in farmers' fields.  L10, however, guided by the lights of towns and villages after making landfall on the Suffolk coast, is able to find London.  Even its navigation is imperfect, though, and drops its bombs on what its captain believes is the City but is actually the north-east suburbs of Leyton and Wanstead Flats.  Nevertheless, it is the first time a Zeppelin of the German navy bombs London, and the strike kills ten and damages the Leyton railway station.

- Wilhelm II and Falkenhayn meet with Archduke Friedrich and Conrad at the latter's headquarters at Teschen today, ostensibly to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph, but also to decide further operations on the Eastern Front.  Despite his continuing lack of faith in the fighting ability of the Austro-Hungarian army, Falkenhayn approves Conrad's suggestion of the latter's army conducting an offensive through Kowel.  It is also agreed that the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will be transferred from the left flank of the German 11th Army in Poland to the southeast, to join the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army in Conrad's offensive.  This will leave 11th Army directly adjacent to the forces under General Worysch, and will help facilitate a clearer division of the Eastern Front between German and Austro-Hungarian sectors.

In central Poland Prince Leopold's army group push forward in pursuit of retreating Russian forces, while 12th Army on its northern flank aims for the railway between Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok.  To the south, Mackensen's army group opens its offensive against Brest-Litovsk itself.  The Army of the Bug has been assigned additional responsibility for the line from the Krzna River west of the fortress southeast to the Bug River, and its 119th Division, alongside XXII Reserve Corps of 11th Army to the north, is to confront the western face of Brest-Litovsk.  This adjustment of responsibility has allowed 11th Army to reinforce its left wing for a drive across the Bug River downstream from Brest-Litovsk to enable the fortress to be enveloped from the northeast.  Here the advance is to be led by X Reserve Corps, followed by the Guard Corps, 103rd Division, and the Guard Cavalry Division.  Today XXII Reserve Corps and 47th Reserve Division of X Reserve Corps, after hard fighting, push forward to the line Kijowiec-Lipnica-Tielesnica to the west of Brest-Litovsk, while elements of 105th Division of X Reserve Corps secures a bridgehead across the Bug River downstream from the Russian fortress.

The German advance towards Brest-Litovsk, August 18th to 26th, 1915.

- After the successful Austro-Hungarian bombardment of Pelagosa yesterday, the Italian navy orders the evacuation today of the island, believing that it cannot be held in the face of active enemy opposition.  Covered by a strong cruiser and destroyer force from Brindisi, the Italian withdrawal is accomplished without difficulty.  The evacuation, however, does nothing for the reputation of the Italian navy in the eyes of their allies, as Captain Richmond, the British liasion officer, writes in his diary today:

They have by this admitted that the Austrians have command of the sea in the Adriatic in spite of inferior naval force & without fighting an action!  They have surrendered to them.  They had better sell their Fleet & take up their organs & monkeys again, for, by Heaven, that seems more their profession than sea-fighting.

- Immediately after assuming command of the French Army of the Near East, General Sarrail sent the government a memorandum which outlined a wide range of possible operations, from landings at Salonika in the Balkans to operations along the Anatolian and Syrian coast.  The government forwarded the note to Joffre, who today offers his comments to the minister of war.  Not surprisingly, Joffre is scathing, arguing that Sarrail's operations are 'incomplete, unrealizable, and disastrous,' and that one of the landings in the Near East could only be supplied by 'Arabs and mules.'  Behind the harsh criticism is Joffre's continued opposition to any diversion of French strength from the Western Front.

- A revolution in 1906 had transformed the Persian government into a constitutional monarchy, and an effort by the shah to reverse the reforms ended in his deposition and exile in 1909.  His son, Ahmad, came to the throne as a minor, and was only crowned ruler in his own right in 1914 at the age of 17.  While the unrest weakened the control of the central government over the country, the elected assembly (the Majlis) has become a hotbed of liberal and nationalist sentiment, who see Britain and Russia (quite rightly) as the primary threats to Persian independence, and thus after the outbreak of war Persian liberals and nationalists have seen an alliance with Germany as the means by which the British and Russians can be ejected from the country.  Government instability is endemic, however, with cabinets constantly collapsing, and the Maljis is just one of the interests in the country to be taken into account in the formation of new cabinets.  The past month has seen yet another cabinet crisis, which is resolved today with the formation of a government by Mustaufi ul-Mamalik, whose reliance on support in the Majlis necessitates an approach to Germany.  He informs the German ambassador, Prince Heinrich XXXI Reuss, that his government desires an alliance, a guarantee of independence, gold to pay the police force, and munitions with which to fight.  Though Reuss recognizes the limited ability of the German government to provide material aid to the Persian government, he knows that if such an approach is rejected, a similar opportunity is not likely to arise again, and thus opens negotiations.

August 17th, 1915

- The French government passes the Dalbiez Law today to regulate the industrial workforce.  While allowing for the conscription of unskilled labourers, it also exempts skilled workers from military service, limiting the ability of the army to draft as many soldiers at it desires.  It is a further recognition that in a war of material as well as manpower, some are more valuable in the factory instead of the trench.

- On the Eastern Front General Alexeiev of North-West Front, though responsible for the line from the Baltics to the Bug River south of Brest-Litovsk, his attention has been squarely focussed on the ongoing threat posed by Mackensen's offensive.  Concerned over the German threat in Courland, Stavka decides to split off the northern stretch of the line into a separate Northern Front, and in typical Russian fashion they appoint disgraced General Nicholas Ruzski, who had been dismissed as commander of North-West Front in April.  The appointment is a reflection of both the conservatism and unimaginativeness of the Russian army.

Meanwhile, for the past nine days the Germans have systematically reduced the Russian fortifications at Kovno, which had not been modernized prior to the war.  Further, though the garrison numbered ninety thousand, it was composed of poorly-trained territorial soldiers, and the fire from the defensive batteries was uncoordinated - on one occasion Russian artillery fired on a fort still held by their countrymen, thinking it had already fallen to the Germans.  General Vladimir Grigoriev, the seventy-year-old commander of Kovno, had no experience with modern warfare and was convinced of German superiority, and when the German XL Reserve Corps assaults the last forts today, Grigoriev panics and flees, abandoning the garrison to its fate.  In capturing Kovno the Germans seize over 1300 artillery pieces, 5300 heavy artillery shells, and 800 000 light artillery shells.

Further south, this morning the German XXV Reserve Corps of 9th Army crosses the Bug River northeast of Siedlec, while to the southeast the German X Reserve Corps of 11th Army reaches the Bug near Janow.  Between the two German corps the Austro-Hungarian XVII and VIII Corps of 4th Army have also reached the river.

- The Austro-Hungarian navy bombards the Italian garrison on the island of Pelagosa in the central Adriatic today.  Undertaken by the light cruisers Helgoland and Saida, accompanied by two destroyers, they blanket the island with shells, destroying among other installations the fresh-water cistern before withdrawing unhindered by the Italian navy, which had no warning of the sortie and was thus unable to respond before the Austro-Hungarians had departed.

August 5th, 1915

- In Russian Poland, the primary axes of the German advance have been from the northwest across the Narew River, and from the south between the Vistula and Bug Rivers.  The line to the east, at the 'apex' of the Russian salient, has been covered by the German 9th Army and a German force under the command of General Woyrsch.  As the German focus has been elsewhere, 9th Army in particular has been reduced over the past few months, and now consists of only three infantry and one cavalry divisions.  The Russian evacuation of the west bank of the Vistula River, however, necessitates a vigorous pursuit by 9th Army and Woyrsch's command to pin the Russians while their flanks to the northwest and south are pushed in.  To ensure their movements are coordinated, the two forces are formed into a single army group under the command of Prince Leopold of Bavaria, with instructions to drive to the east.

There is, however, another purpose behind Falkenhayn's formation of this army group, as the German chief of staff has placed Prince Leopold's command directly subordinate to OHL, as opposed to placing it under OberOst.  While ostensibly this is to ensure that its advance is in line with the flank attacks, it also reduces the role of Hindenburg and Ludendorff in deciding strategy on the Eastern Front; now there is a formation in the east that reports only to Falkenhayn.  It is another episode in the ongoing rivalry between the German chief of staff and the command duo at OberOst.

- After the failed Austro-Hungarian landing on the tiny island of Pelagosa in the central Adriatic on July 28th, the Italians had assigned the submarine Nereide to the island to deter the enemy from making a second attempt.  The crew is lackadaisical as it slowly patrols the waters off Pelagosa, making no attempt to obscure themselves, assuming that they are the hunters, not the hunted.  It is a fatal mistake -  when they fly the Italian flag from their signal mast this morning, it is spotted by the Austro-Hungarian submarine U5, allowing the latter to torpedo and sink Nereide.  U5 is commanded by First Lieutenant Georg von Trapp (yes, that von Trapp), who has already made a name for himself in the war after sinking the French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta on April 27th.

- Since his dismissal as commander of the French 3rd Army on July 22nd, the question of General Maurice Sarrail's further employment has been a delicate one, given his position as the most prominent republican general in an army whose enthusiasm for the Third Republic has always been something less than wholesale.  An alternative command on the Western Front is out of the question, given that it would greatly offend Joffre and undermine his authority.  Instead, the government has looked further afield, and has decided to appoint Sarrail commander of the Expeditionary Corps of the Near East, currently stalemated on Cape Helles on Gallipoli.  Sarrail initially refused the offer, asserting that a corps command would in effect be a demotion, and so the French government today renames the formation to the Army of the Near East and assures Sarrail that he will not be subordinate to British generals.  Sarrail accepts with the further promise from the government of reinforcements, which makes a clash between Joffre's focus on the Western Front inevitable.

August 1st, 1915

- After the Morane fighter of Frenchman Roland Garros crash-landed behind German lines on April 18th, aircraft designer Anthony Fokker had examined its pioneering firing mechanism, in which the bullets of its forward-firing machine gun were deflected away from the propeller.  Fokker adapted and improved Garros' device through the addition of a mechanical interrupter gear, which stopped a machine gun from firing at the precise moment that the propeller blade was directly in front of the muzzle.  The device was added to his newly-designed monoplane E-plane, or Eindecker, which in itself was a major advancement in aerial technology, being much lighter and more maneouvrable than earlier aircraft.  Initial reaction to the Eindecker was mixed: mechanical difficulties with the interrupter gear still occasionally shot off the propellor, and several German pilots, used to flying more stable aircraft, accidentally crashed, leading to suggestions that the Eindecker should be grounded.  Moreover, production of the aircraft was slow - by mid-July, only eleven were at the front.

Despite the difficulties, skilled pilots capable of flying the Eindecker realize its potential to revolutionize aerial combat by allowing them to fly and aim their machine gun simultaneously.  One of the first is Second Lieutenant Max Immelmann, who today achieves his first kill flying the Eindecker when he downs an unarmed British reconnaissance craft after firing five hundred rounds over ten minutes.  The rise of the Eindecker and talented pilots able to press the aircraft's advantages herald a new era in the skies over the Western Front.  No longer is air-to-air combat limited to pilots or observers firing pistols and either unmounted or side-mounted machine guns; instead, the first recognizable fighter has appeared, dedicated solely to shooting down enemy aircraft.  Moreover, the Entente has nothing remotely comparable to the Eindecker, and its appearance is a very rude shock to British and French pilots who now must confront what they refer to as the 'Fokker scourge'.

Lieutenant Immelmann in the cockpit of his Eindecker fighter.  Note the machine gun mounted directly behind the propeller.

- The Russian fortress at Ivangorod, on the east bank of the Vistula River, also include strong fortifications on the west bank, which have been covered for the past few days by Austro-Hungarian forces under General Kövess.  Having brought up several heavy artillery batteries, the Austro-Hungarian 35th Division launches the first attack on the forward Russian position at Slowiki Nowe after a four-hour preliminary bombardment.  In bitter fighting the Austro-Hungarian infantry manage to break through, forcing the Russians to withdraw to the second ring of fortifications.

To the east, Mackensen's planned attack on the Russian positions opposite 11th Army is foiled when the Russian pull back to the north during the night, retiring to prepared defensive positions south of Wlodawa-Ostrow.  The German 11th Army and the Army of the Bug set off in pursuit, with 4th Division of the latter seizing the city of Cholm at 10am.  By this evening the advancing Germans are encountering increasing resistance by nightfall.  On the left flank the Russians hold their positions in front of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, and the latter is unable to make significant progress.

- Over the past few days Italian forces along the Isonzo south of Görz have undertaken local attacks under cover of darkness, but have been unable to secure additional ground.  They have succeeded, however, in inflicting casualties on the defenders - the Austro-Hungarian VII Corps has lost four thousand men during the past few days, mainly from the artillery bombardments that preceded the Italian attacks.

- Captain Herbert Richmond is the British liaison officer to the Italian fleet, and is among those disenchanted with the lack of Italian naval activity in the war to date.  His written reports to his superior Rear-Admiral Cecil Thursby, commander of the British battleship squadron attached to the Italian fleet, are so scathing in their criticism that the latter feels they cannot be sent on to London.  In private Richmond is even more dismissive of the Italians, as he writes in his diary today: 'These folk deserve to lose, for by heaven they do nothing towards trying to win.  What the deuce is the use of a superior Fleet if you don't use it.'  The Italians have certainly earned their reputation for hesitancy, but it is also worth comparing the situation in the Adriatic to that in the North Sea; there the superior navy is the Grand Fleet, whose commander well understands that there can be value in 'doing nothing.'

July 30th, 1915

- In southern Poland the Russian XVI Corps, now reinforced by the Grenadier Corps, continues to confine the German Landwehr Corps to the narrow bridgehead it secured over the Vistula River yesterday.  General Woyrsch had anticipated sending the German 4th Landwehr and the Austro-Hungarian 1st Cavalry Brigades across the Vistula to reach and break the Warsaw-Ivangorod railway, but due to the confined space in the bridgehead he is forced to cancel the operation.

East of Ivangorod, in the face of the successful attack of the German 11th Army yesterday, and the cutting of the Lublin-Cholm railway, the Russian armies between the Vistula and the Bug Rivers are ordered to fall back to a new defensive position north of the two cities.  Mackensen's army group quickly takes up the pursuit, with cavalry from the Austro-Hungarian IX and XVII Corps occupying Lublin at noon, and by evening are approaching the new Russian line.

- The chief of the Italian naval staff issues a circular today to naval commanders which notes that frequent use of light craft such as torpedo boats and submarines can rapidly wear them out, and given that the war is likely to continue for many months to come, it is important to conserve Italian naval strength so that in the even of a decisive naval battle their full strength can be brought to bear.  In some respects this is a reasonable view, the caution this reflects among Italian naval officers does not exactly endear them to their British and French colleagues.

July 28th, 1915

- In southern Poland the German force under General Woyrsch arrives at the mouth of the Radomka River on the west bank of the Vistula, downriver from Ivangorod, having redeployed over the past four days from a position upriver of the Russian fortress.  Here the Landwehr Corps will attempt a crossing of the Vistula tonight to outflank the Russian defensive line running east-southeast from Ivangorod.  In the meantime, Ivangorod itself will be screened to the west by an Austro-Hungarian force under General Kövess consisting of XII Corps plus 7th and 9th Cavalry Divisions.

- In the two months since Italy entered the war, the performance of its armed forces has been a significant disappointment.  On land, the Italy army is bogged down in brutal trench warfare along the Isonzo River in conditions that could hardly be more unfavourable to attackers.  At sea the Italian navy has not only failed to bring the Austro-Hungarian fleet to battle but has suffered losses of its own while being unable to prevent regular enemy naval bombardments along the Adriatic coast of central Italy.  Prime Minister Salandra has demanded an accounting of the fleet's performance from the naval minister, and the latter submits a lengthy defence today.  He argues that the navy has nowhere near enough mines or submarines to prevent bombardments by Austro-Hungarian warships, and that the narrowness of the Adriatic makes it possible for the enemy to cross and escape before the Italian fleet can arrive from its naval bases at Venice or in the south.  As he points out, the far stronger Royal Navy has been unable to stop German raids on the British coast, and the distance across the Adriatic is much shorter than that across the North Sea.  As for the loss of warships, the sinking of Amalfi in particular is blamed on the admiral commanding the operation, but that removing him from command is a political decision best reserved for Salandra and the government, a suggestion that deftly shares responsibility for personnel decisions.

- In the central Adriatic, the Austro-Hungarian navy launches an effort to retake the tiny island of Pelagosa.  A flottila of two light cruisers, six destroyers, and a number of torpedo-boats lands 108 men on the island, but the Austro-Hungarians had underestimated the size of the Italian garrison, and reembark after a brief firefight that results in two Italian and twelve Austro-Hungarian casualties.  It is a small victory, but given the Italian performance in the war to date they need every one they can trumpet.

July 18th, 1915

- In central Poland the Russians fall back after the German breakthrough at Sienno yesterday, burning the bridges over the Vistula River at Solec and attempting to form a new defensive line along the Ilzanka River.  Before they can entrench, however, the German Landwehr under General Worysch is upon them, and by this evening have crossed the Ilzanka and seized the villages of Ciepielow and Kazanow.  In addition to disrupting the Russian positions west of the Vistula, the advance of Woyrsch's force benefits his eastern neighbour on the other side of the Vistula, the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army.  Their main attack towards Lublin has stalled in the face of staunch Russian resistance, but the retreat of the Russians to the west has uncovered their flank and forced them to fall back northwards as well.

Further east, the advance of the German 11th Army has prompted General Alexeiev of North-West Front to assign his reserves - the Guard and II Siberian Corps - to 3rd Army to halt the enemy offensive.  In particular, II Siberian Corps is deployed to the west of the Wieprz River, but are unable to halt the momentum of the German Guard and XXII Reserve Corps, which gains substantial ground again today and by nightfall have captured the villages of Czestoborowice and Olszanka.  Over the past two days of fighting, these two German corps have taken fifteen thousand prisoners while blasting a hole 32 kilometres wide and 12 kilometres deep in the Russian line.

- This morning the Italian 3rd Army opens the 2nd Battle of the Isonzo with heavy attacks on enemy lines south of Görz.  The Italians have at least learnt the value of coordinating their artillery fire, concentrating on the Austro-Hungarian positions on the Karst plateau before the infantry assaults begin at 11am.  However, the Italians are repulsed all along the line, and the only 'success' they are able to achieve today is to force two companies of 20th Honved Division to fall back two hundred yards.

The Italian offensive on the lower Isonzo River, part of the 2nd Battle of the Isonzo.

- On June 5th, an Italian squadron had shelled the railway between Ragusa and the Austro-Hungarian naval base of Cattaro on the Dalmatian coast.  Learning that repairs have been completed, the Italian navy undertakes a second bombardment raid, but the warships were spotted by an enemy airplane yesterday evening as they departed Brindisi, and the Austro-Hungarian submarine U4 has been sent to intercept.  The Italian squadron sails right past U4, and the latter torpedoes and sinks the armoured cruiser Garibaldi this morning.  The remaining Italian warships promptly depart the scene at high speed, their mission abandoned.  Despite the success, the head of the Austro-Hungarian navy is not pleased; not content with one sinking, he argues U4 had the time to torpedo several enemy warships, a criticism that the head of the submarine service does not take kindly to.

The Italian armoured cruiser Garibaldi, torpedoed and sunk of the Dalmation coast, July 18th, 1915.

- The German light cruiser Breslau stumbles into a minefield laid by the Russians off the Black Sea coast of Anatolia today.  Striking a mine, it is able to limp back to Constantinople, but repairs will take several months.

July 11th, 1915

- In the centre of the Adriatic, equidistant from the Italian and Austro-Hungarian shores, sits the tiny island of Pelagosa, barely more than one kilometre wide and 330 metres wide.  For several months, stretching back even prior to the Italian entry into the war, the Italian navy had examined plans to occupy not only Pelagosa but also Lagosta, a larger island further east near the eastern Adriatic coast.  The objective of the operation was to establish signal stations on both islands that could alert the Italian mainland of enemy warships at sea if weather conditions prevented radio communications.  Within the Italian navy, however, there had also been significant reservations over the operations, as in particular a landing on Lagosta would expose Italian warships to enemy interdiction, especially from submarines.  After much debate, the navy decides on a typically indecisive course of action by landing a small garrison on only Pelagosa today, and postponing a decision on Lagosta into the future.  Ninety soldiers land on the undefended island, the most significant structure of which is a lighthouse.  By only occupyin Pelagosa, the Italians have forgone the benefit of observer posts covering the width of the Adriatic (which would require occupying Lagosta as well), while still taking on the risk of Austro-Hungarian countermeasures against a small garrison that requires the active support of the Italian navy if it is to be held indefinitely.

July 9th, 1915

- Even though the Kaiser had given permission on May 5th for Zeppelin raids on London east of the Tower, this has been insufficient for those within the German navy who desire a more thorough and intensive bombing campaign against Britain, one which specifically targets the City of London, the financial heart of the British Empire and home to the Stock Exchange, the Bank of England, and the headquarters of numerous mercantile firms.  Desiring to have the restriction lifted, Vice-Admiral Gustav Bachmann uses the recent French bombing of Karlsruhe in approaching Bethmann-Holweg today to argue for free reign for the navy's Zeppelins.  The Chancellor agrees to permit bombing raids on the City, provided that they be undertaken only on weekends (to prevent significant civilian casualties) and that historic buildings such as St. Paul's Cathedral and the Tower be spared.  While such limits may sound good in theory, they are hopelessly impractical for Zeppelin crews struggling to identify targets in darkness and while under fire.  Bachmann is thus not satisfied with Bethmann-Hollweg's concession.

- The Russian 3rd Army attacks all along the front in southern Poland today, and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army is able to hold its positions only by the slenderest of margins after bitter hand-to-hand fighting and several counterattacks to recover lost ground.  Reports from the Austro-Hungarian corps commanders, however, emphasize the exhaustion of the infantry, especially in light of the oppressive heat and lack of water.  Fearing that the Russians may be able to break through by tomorrow afternoon, 4th Army commander requests additional reinforcements; in response Conrad reassigns 4th Division, formerly of 1st Army and en route to the Bug River, to 4th Army.

- In March 1915 the Austro-Hungarian navy, realizing that the war would be lengthy, decided to order the construction of four submarines based on the design of the Havmanden-class, three of which had been built for Denmark before the war by the Whiteyard in Fiume.  This being Austria-Hungary, of course, internal politics naturally had their role to play: the Hungarian government demanded a significant share of production be allocated to Hungarian firms.  To achieve this, the contract signed today provides for the submarines to be partially built in Linz and Pola, after which the parts will be transferred to Pola or Fiume for completion.  Such unnecessary duplication of effort has been endemic to the Dual Monarchy both before and during the war, and is one of the key impediments to an adequate mobilization of the economy to support the war effort.

- Prime Minister Botha of South Africa accepts the surrender of the German colony of South West Africa today, the latter becoming the second of Germany's four colonies (the first being Togoland) to submit to the Entente since the outbreak of the war.  In the course of this campaign the South Africans suffered a mere 113 dead through enemy action and 153 through disease or accident; a further 263 had been wounded; indeed, the South Africans had suffered greater losses suppressing the Boer Rebellion than in the fight for German South West Africa.  Central both to the low casualty total and indeed the campaign itself has been mobility; repeatedly as the main South African column advanced inland from the coast, it used mobility to outflank German positions and force the latter to fall back.  More than half of the soldiers under Botha's command were mounted, a ratio not only in complete contrast to the fighting in Europe but largely unseen since the sixteenth century.  Coupled with the timeless use of horses and mules, however, was a modern innovation: the internal combustion engine, as the rapid advances were only sustainable because trucks carried water over deserts.

German casualties were also light; only 103 were killed and 195 wounded, while 890 were made prisoner.  The preponderance of POWs among the German total reflected the unwillingness of the defenders to fight to the bitter end.  Further, the remaining German force in the field upon surrender numbered 4730 men, and included thirty-seven field guns, eight thousand rifles, and two million rounds of ammunition.  The Germans had the manpower and material to continue resistance through a guerilla campaign, but lacked the willingness.  Of crucial import was that the white officers and soldiers were also colonists.  Not only would a guerilla campaign destroy the economy and infrastructure of the colony they had created, but the social dislocation that would have ensued would have undermined the racial hierarchy that was the very basis of the colonial project.  For many Germans in the colony, the maintenance of white rule was a greater priority than the maintenance of German rule.

Further, this concern was shared by the South Africans:  the terms of the armistice allowed Germans reservists to return to their homes, German schools to function, and the German civilian administration to remain in place.  What Botha and the South Africans aspired to was to rule German South West Africa as a colony, and in this endeavour white rule would be as crucial as it was in South Africa itself.  Thus, once military resistance had ceased, it was in the interests of South Africa to cooperate with the white German colonial population to maintain minority rule over the majority indigenous population.  Though the campaign in German South West Africa had been triggered by the outbreak of war in Europe, how the campaign was fought and the settlement which followed were of a piece with the nature of European imperialism and colonial rule in Africa.

July 7th, 1915

- The first major conference of the Entente powers is held today at Chantilly, the headquarters of General Joffre, as representatives of Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Serbia, and Belgium meet to discuss strategy.  Given that the Entente powers are arranged almost in a circle around their main antagonists - Germany and Austria-Hungary - the focal point of discussion is the coordination of multiple simultaneous offensives, utilizing their numerical superiority to force their enemies to fight on all fronts.  In such a scenario, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians would not be able to defend everywhere in sufficient depth, and eventually one of the fronts would collapse.  Joffre particularly emphasizes operations on what he calls the 'larger' fronts - Western, Eastern, and Italian/Balkan - and that only attacks here can have a decisive effect.  Missing from Joffre's formulation are operations against the Ottoman Empire, implying the British would be more useful if they abandoned the Gallipoli campaign and refocused all of their strength on the Western Front.  Though details are avoided, the Entente countries (minus Russia, given the deteriorating situation on the Eastern Front) agree to launch major operations this fall.

A corollary of the co-ordination of offensives is that it is not necessary for any particular offensive to actually work; even if an attack fails to gain any ground, it will have contributed to the overall victory of the Entente if, by simply pinning enemy reserves and inflicting casualties, it contributes to the success of an offensive elsewhere.  This is a potent rationalization of failure, and is is particularly well-suited to the Italian Front, given the Italian army has shown no ability to win a battle on its own anyway; at least this will give the appearance of 'purpose' behind the throwing away of thousands of lives along the Isonzo River.

- General Castlenau, commander of the Army Group of the Centre, replies to Joffre's inquiry regarding future offensives by identifying two sectors he believes that such an operation can be undertaken.  The first is a ten-kilometre stretch of the line about twenty kilometres west of Reims, near the Chemin des Dames and the Aisne River, while the second, centred on Perthes in Champagne, lay in 4th Army's sector.  Both regions have already been the setting for major battles in the war: in the former the Battle of the Aisne River in September 1914, and in the latter the 1st Battle of Champagne over the winter.

- Having failed to break through at any point, the Italian offensive along the Isonso River is called off today, bringing the 1st Battle of the Isonzo to an end.  Overall, the Italians have suffered 15 000 casualties, which pale in comparison to future battles on the Isonzo, but already the pattern of attack, failure, and attack again is being set; Cadorna is already preparing for his next offensive in the sector.  Austro-Hungarian losses, meanwhile, number almost 10 000, but confidence has grown that the meagre forces defending the Isonzo may actually be able to hold off the Italians.

- Shortly after the Italian entry into the war, they had deployed a squadron of four Pisa-class armoured cruisers to Venice to support hit-and-run operations against the Adriatic coast, and also to ameliorate concern from the army over a lack of naval support for the advance across the Isonzo River (such that it was).  The British and French liaison officers to the Italian fleet see the move as pointless, as the armoured cruisers would lack the speed to catch their most likely opponent, the Austro-Hungarian Novara-class light cruisers, and otherwise are too far to support the main Italian fleet at Taranto.  Today Amalfi, one of the Pisa-class armoured cruisers, puts to sea to support a sweep by Italian destroyers while escorted by only two torpedo-boats itself, and is torpedoed and sunk by UB14.  Of note, the identity of the submarine is a matter of some uncertainty.  It was a German boat, commanded by a German and with a German crew, and after shipment overland it had been assembled at the main Austro-Hungarian naval base of Pola and was en route to the Aegean to combat.  The potential issue, of course, is that Germany and Italy are not at war, so a German submarine theoretically has no business attacking an Italian armoured cruiser.  This technicality is evaded by the presence of an Austro-Hungarian naval officer on UB14 as a pilot, thereby allowing the Austro-Hungarians to claim that the submarine was under their 'direction' while in the Adriatic.

- For several months the Ottoman authorities have been pursuing a campaign of genocide against the Armenian population, the victims being either murdered outright or expelled from their homes and force-marched to the deserts of Syria.  The Ottoman government has presented this as an operation based on military necessity, in that the Armenian population in eastern Anatolia is fundamentally disloyal and needs to be removed from regions near the front lines in the Caucasus.  This invented justification is notably the excuse conveyed to their German allies, and German officials in the Ottoman Empire initially accepted that the deportations were necessary limited.  Over the past several weeks, however, the true intentions of the Ottoman leadership have become clear to Hans Wangenheim, German ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, who writes to Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg today that deportations are occurring 'even in those parts of the country . . . not threatened by any enemy invasion' and that 'the government is indeed pursuing its purpose of eradicating the Armenian race from the Turkish[sic] Empire.'

June 9th, 1915

- For the past several days corps from the German 11th and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Armies have been attacking the Russians lines south of  Mosciska and east of Przemysl, aiming to straighten out the front and seize the ground from which the resumption of the offensive will begin on the 13th.  Despite some successes, however, the Russians have held their positions tenaciously, and after minor successes Mackensen orders a halt to the attacks today, it being more desirable to conserve the strength of the armies for the major operation ahead.

To the southeast, the Russian VI Corps continues its counterattack against the left wing of Südarmee, forcing General Linsingen to redeploy a division and brigade of Austro-Hungarian infantry from his right wing to the left, and pull back those forces in the centre that had already crossed the Dniester.  Though Südarmee is able to contain the Russian advance, Linsingen is forced to postpone assembling a strong force on the north bank of the Dniester to roll up the Russian defensive positions along the river.

- Upon Italy's entry into the war, Britain and France dispatched warships to reinforce the Italian fleet in the Adriatic, as per the naval convention signed between the three powers on May 10th.  Since that time, the combined fleet has been conducting naval exercises, so as to acquaint themselves with each other and learn to be able to operate (in theory at least) as a single cohesive force.  The warships, however, do not make a particularly impressive sight: the French capital ships are poorly handled, the Italian ones emit sufficient smoke as to obscure each other and any potential target, and the British ones are very much the dregs of the Royal Navy, with all the first-rate warships in the North Sea and the second-rate off Gallipoli.  The most modern and effective of the British contingent is the light cruiser Dublin, so naturally during exercises today it is torpedoed by the Austro-Hungarian submarine U4.  Dublin manages to return to the port of Brindisi under its own power, but it will be out of commission for some time.  Hardly the start the Entente had hoped for in the Adriatic, but it has the 'benefit' of being no more successful than the start of the Italian campaign on land.

- Today the second American note on the sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania is formally dispatched to the German government.

May 24th, 1915

- The ongoing German offensive in Galicia, and the continued inability of the Russian army to substantially halt the enemy advance, have led to increasingly strident requests from the Russian government to France, begging the latter to intensify their efforts on the Western Front to force the Germans to redeploy divisions from the east.  In response Joffre sends a message to Grand Duke Nicholas, stating that no significant German forces have moved from the west to the east in recent weeks.  That is the most Joffre can offer; the ongoing Artois offensive is the most the French can go, and the Russian pressure makes the continuation of efforts there of even greater importance.

- While the German 11th Army was securing its bridgehead across the San River, the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army confronted the former Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl, now a key defensive point in the Russian line.  However, 3rd Army has been unable to make any substantial process against the Russian-held fortifications, nor has the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army to the east been able to break through to the north to outflank Przemysl from the south.  Thus for the offensive in Galicia to continue, the Germans will once again have to do the heavy work of breaking the Russian defence.

General Mackensen's plan is for VI, XXXXI Reserve, and Guard Corps to cross the Rada River (a tributary of the San) and capture Radymno before moving further east and southeast, cutting behind Przemysl.  X Corps, meanwhile, will guard the northern flank of the advance along the Lubaczowka River from Russian counterattacks.  After spending several days to bring up supplies and munitions, German artillery began a preliminary bombardment of the Russian line north of Przemysl, and at 8am today the infantry advance begins.

The first attack is against a bulge in the German line held by the Russian XXI Corps west of the San.  Under heavy pressure from VI Corps to the north and XXXXI Reserve Corps to the south, the Russians break and fall back in disorder.  Hundreds die attempting to retreat back across the San, while thousands surrender, and by noon XXXXI Corps captures Radymno.  To the north, 1st Guard Division breaks through the Russian line north of Wietlin and reaches Bobrowka.

The new commander of the Russian 3rd Army issues orders to III Caucasian, XXIV, and XXIX Corps to attack southwards into the flank of the advancing German 11th Army.  Before the orders can be executed, however, XXIX Corps is itself outflanked by the advancing German Guard Corps, and is forced to fall back northwards across the Lubaczowka.  Overall the renewal of the German assault has seen the Russian 3rd Army battered yet again, as the Germans take 21 000 prisoners today.

The advance of the German 11th Army north of Przemysl, May 24th to 28th, 1915.

- At midnight hostilities commence between Italy and Austria-Hungary, in line with the former's declaration of war yesterday.  This represents the failure of months of diplomatic efforts by both Germany and Austria-Hungary to keep their erstwhile ally neutral.  As their ambassadors depart Italy, Bernhard von Bülow observes to his Austro-Hungarian colleague today: 'We were just not meant to succeed.  But we can say to ourselves, as Bismark said to Prince Alexander of Battenberg when he was a candidate for the Bulgarian throne: "At least we shall have interesting memories."'

Meanwhile, on the first day of fighting on the Italian Front, General Luigi Cadorna, chief of staff of the Italian army, begins to implement his plan for the invasion of Austria-Hungary.  His primary advance is to be undertaken by 2nd and 3rd Armies, moving east along the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea.  Their first objective is to secure the Isonzo River and vital mountains of the Julian Alps, before a further advance towards Trieste and beyond.  Along the northern portion of the Italian Front, the 1st and 4th Armies are aligned against Trentino and the Tyrol, and are to secure important high ground in order to better hold the line.  However, the lack of information from the government regarding when the war was to begin has impaired Cadorna's preparations, and the Italian army is hardly a model of effective organization to begin with.  By today less than half of the supplies necessary have actually reached the front.  Thus the first day of the war for Italy sees only halting movement towards the enemy frontier.

As for the Austro-Hungarians, Conrad, along with the Emperor and much of the government, are incensed at the supposed betrayal of their former ally.  Conrad for weeks has desired to launch a major offensive against Italy upon its entry into the war, largely as a punishment expedition that would shatter Italian morale; indeed, Conrad has argued for the suspension of operations in Galicia to ensure the transfer of sufficient forces to the Italian Front.  To Falkenhayn this is sheer madness, as nothing that can be effectively accomplished against Italy could compensate for the lost opportunity for a great victory over the Russians.  The German chief of staff has thus refused not only to send German divisions to the Italian Front, but also to replace Austro-Hungarian divisions on the Eastern Front sent to the Alps.  As a result of Falkenhayn's refusal, Conrad has begrudgingly abandoned plans to attack Italy.  Instead, those forces assembling on the Italian frontier, mainly augmented by divisions drawn from the Serbian Front, are ordered to adopt defensive positions, especially along the Isonzo River, a decision of monumental importance in the years to come.

The Italian Front, May 24th, 1915.

At sea, while the Italian navy shows as much initiative and foresight as the army does, the Austro-Hungarians are eager to get in the first strike.  At 8pm yesterday evening the fleet sailed from its anchorage at Pola, and at dawn bombardment Ancona and other points along the northern Italian coast, targeting port facilities, railway bridges, and other strategic objectives.  The Italian fleet is caught napping, and regardless its main fleet is far to the south.  The only naval combat sees the old Italian destroyer Turbine sunk by the light cruiser Helgoland and two destroyers off Pelagosa.  Simultaneously, several Austro-Hungarian aircraft arrive in the skies above Venice and drop a number of bombs.  By noon the Austro-Hungarian fleet is back in port, having struck the first blow at sea without loss.

- Word of the massacres of Armenians in eastern Anatolia has reached the outside world, and further details have come to light since the Russian occupation of Van on the 20th.  Confronting growing evidence of a systemic campaign of annihilation, the governments of the Entente powers issue a public statement today, stating that the leadership of the Ottoman Empire will be held to account after the war for their role in the mass murder of Armenians.

May 10th, 1915

- Almost since the outbreak of the war the German government has been fighting a losing battle over its image abroad among neutrals.  While Entente propaganda has undoubtedly made its mark, views on Germany have been inevitably tainted by the way in which it has conducted the war, as more recent incidents such as the use of gas at Ypres and the sinking of Lusitania join with such older episodes as the Rape of Belgium to cast Germany as the villain.  The German government has attempted to counter such impressions since the first weeks of the war, and today publishes a White Book on the German occupation of Belgium.  Its title - The Conduct of the War by the Belgian People in Violation of International Law - says all that needs to be said regarding its aim.  Its objectivity is questionable at best and much dubious 'evidence' is included, and does little to dissuade those who already believe in German perfidy from continuing to do so.  Moreover, the Germans are not the only ones who can publish reports . . .

- Even as the German government attempts to defend its conduct of the war, the latest outrage - the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania - is provoking a violent reaction in Britain, especially in Liverpool and other west coast ports in which many of the dead resided.  For these civilians, the torpedoing of Lusitania is seen as culmination of a German campaign of deliberate barbarism that has included the Rape of Belgium, the bombardment of Scarborough and other towns, Zeppelin bombing raids, and the use of gas at Ypres.  For many the news of Lusitania's loss is the final straw, and over the past few days anti-German riots have broken out in several British cities, including most prominently Liverpool, the destination of the doomed liner.  Large crowds rampage through commercial districts, attacking any shop identified as being owned by Germans and looting its contents.  Local police struggle to maintain order, with hundreds arrested.  Today is the worst day of violence in Liverpool, and hardly a single commercial enterprise owned by a German remains unscathed at the end of the day.  While the violence builds on existing anti-German sentiments and indeed xenophobia, they also arise from the general sense among the British public that the German methods of waging war are a fundamental threat to Western civilization, and that the war is not only worth fighting but must be fought until absolute victory can be secured and 'Prussian militarism', as it is often referred to, is crushed forever.  Whether right or not, such views are genuinely held by much of the British public, and go some way to explaining the overwhelming support for the continuation of the war in the months and years ahead.

The aftermath of the Lusitania riots.

- A more measured reaction to the sinking of Lusitania is seen today in the United States when President Woodrow Wilson delivers a speech before fifteen thousand in Philadelphia.  After several days of deliberation, he has come to the conclusion that an immediate declaration of war is not the proper course of action.  More crucially, imbued with a moral sense of American righteousness, he proclaims to the assembled crowd that:

. . . the example of America must be a special example . . . the example, not merely of peace because it will not fight, but of peace because peace is the healing and elevating influence of the world and strife is not.  There is such a thing as a man being too proud to fight.  There is such a thing as a nation being so right that it does not need to convince others by force that is is right.

Wilson's proclamation is greeted by prolonged cheering.  In Britain, perhaps not surprisingly, the president's words are not so welcome - Wilson's high-minded rhetoric appears completely divorced from the perceived reality of a struggle for civilization, and there is little inclination to take lessons in morality from someone whose country is resolutely on the sidelines.

- In Germany, reaction to the sinking of Lusitania has been mixed.  Much of the public, convinced that the liner was carrying munitions, celebrates its destruction, as does the naval leadership.  For the Chancellor and the Kaiser, the sinking is seen as a disaster.  Wilhelm II directly orders the naval chief of staff that

. . . for the immediate future, no neutral vessel shall be sunk.  This is necessary on political ground for which the chancellor is responsible.  It is better than an enemy ship be allowed to pass than that a neutral shall be destroyed.

Learning of the Kaiser's order, Bethmann-Hollweg informally conveys to Washington that German submarines have been instructed to avoid neutral vessels.  Unfortunately for the pair, the naval chief of staff is committed to unrestricted submarine warfare, and in an act of deliberate insubordination does not convey the Kaiser's order to the fleet.  For now the ostensible leaders of Germany are kept in the dark.

- In Artois today the French 10th Army attacks all along the German line, attempting to repeat the fleeting success of yesterday.  Overall the French attacks fail: an attempt to move further east on the Lorette spur was held, and repeated attacks by 70th Division at Carency were also repulsed.  However, a German counterattack by elements of 58th and 11th Divisions also fails, and the French XXXIII Corps is able to maintain control of the ground seized yesterday.  This salient also leaves German positions at Carency and Ablain just to the north almost isolated, and the commander of the German 28th Division, responsible for this section of line, is concerned that the villages may have to be abandoned.

Further north, in light of the complete failure of the attacks of yesterday, Sir John French calls off the British offensive towards Aubers Ridge early this morning.  General Haig, whose 1st Army had been responsible for the operation, is dismayed at the failure.  Writing in his diary, he concludes that the defeat 'showed that we are confronted by a carefully prepared position, which is held by a most determined enemy, with numerous machine guns.'  To overcome such defences, Haig believes that an 'accurate and so fairly long' preliminary bombardment will be necessary in future to ensure enemy strong points are destroyed before the infantry advance.  However understandable Haig's conclusions may be, he is learning the wrong lessons.

- Overnight the Russian counterattack in Galicia is launched, with 44th Division advancing towards Jacmierz into the gap between 11th Bavarian and 119th Divisions and 33rd Division to the south advancing towards Besko.  Though the Russians are able to initially gain some ground, the German commanders are more than equal to the task.  To the north, 11th Bavarian Division pushes back the southern flank of XXIV Russian Corps to the north, which creates space for the German 20th Division to come up from its reserve position and launch a attack co-ordinated with 119th Division on the Russian 44th Division, throwing the latter back.  To the south, the Austro-Hungarian X Corps secures the high ground near Odrzechowa, threatening the flank of the Russian 33rd Division.  By nightfall the Russians have been repulsed and are retreating eastward towards Sanok.

The counterattack by the Russian XXI Corps had been the last throw of the dice for 3rd Army, and its defeat means any hope of holding the Germans west of the San River has evaporated.  General Ivanov's chief of staff sends a despondent message to Stavka this evening, stating that the army is shattered and the situation is hopeless, and the only option is a pell-mell retreat eastwards: Przemysl will have to be surrendered, the Germans will soon invade the Ukraine, and Kiev should be fortified.  The chief of staff is promptly fired, but Stavka finally acknowledges reality and finally acquiesces today to General Dimitriev's repeated requests to retreat behind the San, 3rd Army is a mere shell of its former self.  Of the 200 000 men it had on May 2nd, only 40 000 remain to retreat eastwards today, and this despite 3rd Army having received 50 000 replacements in the meantime.  Further, the Germans have taken 140 000 prisoners, reflecting the shattered morale of the Russian infantry.  Some of its formations have simply ceased to exist: IX Corps has suffered 80% casualties, while III Caucasus Corps, which was sent into the battle on May 4th to restore the situation, has instead lost 75% of its strength in the six days since.

The strategic implications of the crushing defeat suffered by 3rd Army also continue to spread.  In order to maintain some semblance of coherent line on the Eastern Front, Stavka issues orders for the southern flank of 4th Army to pull back east almost to the confluence of the San and Vistula Rivers, while 8th Army in the Carpathians will have to retreat to the northeast and reorientate to face to the west instead of the south.

The German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, May 10th to 12th, 1915.

- Though the Treaty of London had been signed on April 26th, details remained to be finalized regarding the nature of Italian co-operation with the Entente, and at sea Italy is in particular eager to secure substantial naval support in the Adriatic.  Today in Paris a naval convention is signed between Britain, France, and Italy which calls for the creation of an allied fleet in the Adriatic under Italian command, to which the French would contribute twelve destroyers, a seaplane carrier, and a number of torpedo-boats and submarines, while the British pledged to dispatch four pre-dreadnoughts and four light cruisers.  The British reinforcements in particular, however, are to be drawn from the fleet off the Dardanelles, and will not be sent to the Adriatic until they have been replaced by similar warships from France.  This detail will be the source of friction between the allies once Italy formally enters the war.

- For Italian Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, the driving force behind Italian intervention on the side of the Entente, the struggle now is to carry the rest of the Italian government with them into the war.  This is no easy task, as many politicians do not share their passionate desire for intervention.  Instead, a vague desire for neutrality is the most common sentiment, a position to which some within the Cabinet itself adhere to.  Moreover, King Victor Emmanuel is unreliable; just yesterday he proclaimed to Salandra his uncertainty as to the right course of action for Italy and the possiblity of abdicating in favour of his uncle the Duke of Aosta.  There is also the necessity of securing a majority in parliament for war, which is far from assured.  Finally and perhaps of most concern to the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, there is an alternative political leader known to oppose intervention: Giovanni Giolitti, who has served as prime minister on no fewer than four occasions from 1892 to 1914.  The possibility exists that if Salandra and Sonnino cannot carry either the cabinet or parliament in support of intervention, Giolitti may form a government pledged, at minimum, to strict neutrality, if not a pro-German attitude.  Indeed, when German Ambassador Bülow browbeats the Austro-Hungarian ambassador today to agree to further concessions, he communicates the offer not to the goverment but to Giolitti; the Germans see Giolitti as the last chance to keep Italy out of the war.

For all of the difficulties that Salandra and Sonnino face, the forces opposed to intervention are not without their own problems.  Giolitti is 73 years old, and both his grip on and influence in Italian politics is not what it once was.  He also has little desire to form a government led by himself, fearing he would be branded as a lackey of Austria, and crucially communicates this belief to Victor Emmanuel in an interview this afternoon, which does much to calm the nerves of the king.  Salandra and Giolitti also meet this afternoon, and the former sufficiently dissembles to leave the latter with the impression that he is not wholeheartedly committed to war.  Still, it is possible that Giolitti may still instruct his supporters in parliament to vote against the war when it reconvenes on May 20th.  The next ten days will thus determine not only whether Italy enters the war, but indeed the future course of Italian politics overall.

- Today Admiral de Robeck cables the Admiralty a proposal for a renewed naval attack on the Dardanelles.  The suggestion originated in a meeting with Commodore Keyes, who remains a strong advocate of naval action, and is convinced that futher naval pressure can yet secure victory.  Robeck is more doubtful, and his message reflects his continued pessimism.  Even if a naval attack succeeds, 'the temper of the Turkish army in the peninsula indicates that the forcing of the Dardanelles and subsequent appearance of the fleet off Constantinople would not of itself prove decisive.  These are hardly fighting words, but Keyes hopes that even a tepid proposal will inspire Churchill to order another attempt.

- Near the mouth of the Bosporus the Russian Black Sea Fleet makes another appearance to bombard the forts, and this time the recently-repaired ex-German battlecruiser Goeben makes a brief appearance.  The Germans are dismayed to discover that the 12-inch guns of the outdated Russian pre-dreadnoughts can still fire farther than the 11-inch guns of Goeben.  After the battlecruiser takes two glancing blows it uses its superior speed to break off the battle and return to the Sea of Marmara.

April 18th, 1915

- After the loss of Hill 60 yesterday evening, the Germans have moved up 19th Saxon Regiment, and at 630 launch a desperate counterattack.  Under heavy fire, and despite taking heavy casualties, the Germans are able to reach the British line, and hand-to-hand fighting ensued.  By nightfall, however, a British bayonet charge has cleared their trenches of Germans, and, however narrowly, they remain in command of the hill.

- Over the Western Front, French pilot Roland Garros, in his specially-modified Morane-Saulnier aircraft, shoots down his third German aircraft this month, demonstrating the effectiveness of being able to fire forward through the propeller.  Shortly afterwards, however, Garros' aircraft is damaged by German anti-aircraft fire, and he is forced to crash-land behind German lines.  Garros is made prisoner, and of greater importance his Morane-Saulnier aircraft is captured by the Germans.  It will quickly be sent back to Berlin for study, and in particular will draw the attention of aircraft designer Anthony Fokker.

- For several months the leadership of the Italian navy has been developing plans in the event of war breaking out with Austria-Hungary, and today they are officially approved by the Italian government and transmitted to Duke Abruzzi, commander-in-chief of the Italian Navy.  At the outbreak of hostilities, the Italian navy is to be based in the southern or central Adriatic, most likely at Taranto where they can be most easily reinforced by the British and French navies.  If the Austro-Hungarian fleet comes south from its main naval base at Pola, the Italians will give battle.  If the enemy remains at Pola, the Italian navy would remain in the south until called north to support the advance of the Italian army towards Trieste.  It was at this point that the Italians most expected a major naval battle to occur, and the plan emphasizes the importance of maintaining the strength of the Italian navy until this point.  This means that major warships of the Italian navy are not to be risked in minor operations; plans, for example, to seize islands on the Dalmatian coast have been abandoned.  While sensible, the plan assumes that at some point, the main battle fleet of the Austro-Hungarian navy will put to sea and seek battle.  The question, of course, is what if they do not?