September 13th, 1914

- After closing up to the Aisne River yesterday, today the British and Entente armies attempt to force a number of crossings.  For the most part, the Germans do not defend at the river's edge, but rather are positioned on the heights to the north, and pouring accurate artillery fire down on advancing Entente forces.  Most of the bridges over the Aisne have been destroyed, and the heavy rains have left the river deeper than usual, so much of the day is spent by engineers constructing and maintaining pontoon bridges over which infantry and artillery can pass.  They do so under constant bombardment, and take heavy losses.

Nevertheless, at several places Entente units are able to secure bridgeheads across the Aisne.  The French 6th Army faces the German 1st Army frontally and is unable to cross at Soissons due to artillery fire.  They are, however, able to do so further west, about halfway between Soissons and the confluence of the Aisne and the Oise Rivers at Compiègne.  To the east, by nightfall most of the BEF is across the Aisne and on the slopes leading up to the plateau to the north.  Further upstream much of the French 5th Army had gotten across the Aisne, though the key crossing at Berry-au-Bac remained in German hands at nightfall.  5th Army also liberates Rheims today, cavalry patrols entering the city at 6am.  Despite liberating several villages outside Rheims, the French advance is halted just north of the city, as 9th Army is unable to get across the Suippes River in strength.  Crucially, Rheims remains in range of German artillery.

As the British and French get across the Aisne, the first units of the German 7th Army, transferred from Lorraine, arrive to man the front between 1st Army to its west and 2nd Army to its east.  Thus the gap that had existed between the two German armies, and which played such a decisive role at the Marne, has been closed before the British and French were able to exploit its existence.  The German retirement from the Marne has thus achieved its foremost objective - close the gap before the Entente can take advantage of it.

German dead after the retreat across the Aisne.

- The open space to the northwest of the German 1st and French 6th armies appears to be the ideal place for cavalry to operate and potentially turn the flank of the enemy.  In practice, cavalry proves unsuitable to this task.  Crucially, the issue is not defensive weaponry, but the pace of operations.  The first six weeks of the war in the west have demonstrated that cavalry divisions are all too quickly worn out.  The rapid retreat in August, then the turn back northwards after the Marne, has left cavalry units, and in particular their horses, exhausted.  Shoes for the horses frequently broke, stops for water were forbidden to maintain the pace of movement, and fodder was often nowhere to be found.  Thus, even before the advent of trench warfare in the West, the cavalry was demonstrating that it could not execute the responsibilities it had been given - reconnaissance, flank protection, and screening.  Today, General Sordet's Cavalry Corps, after an operation along the Oise River in the direction of Soissons, returns to French lines today exhausted and without having accomplished anything.

The front lines along the Aisne River Sept. 13th to 14th, 1914.

- The Russian 1st Army crosses over the German border and returns to Russian territory.  Though having to give up all of its gains of August, the retreat has preserves 1st Army, and ensures that it does not suffer the same fate as 2nd Army.  The escape does come with a price - 1st Army has suffered 100 000 casualties in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes.

For Ludendorff, the battle has been a frustrating one.  Though the Russians have been driven from German territory, the timely retreat of the Russian 1st Army stymied any attempt to annihilate it.  He is critical of François' management of I Corps, but in practice the issues that prevented an encirclement of the Russians - advancing units outrunning supply, fatigue, delays in bringing up reinforcements, the arrival of enemy reserves - are endemic to battles in the First World War.  Further, the German 8th Army, though victorious, has been bloodied as well, suffering approximately 70 000 casualties.

- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army attempts a second time to cross the Drina River, hoping to take advantage of the success of XVI Corps to the south.  Heavy rain hampers operations, and forces that do make it across the Drina find themselves under accurate fire from Serbian artillery.

- The British submarine E9 today torpedoes and sinks the German light cruiser Hera off the Frisian coast.

September 10th, 1914

- At 1240pm, Lieutenant-Colonel Hentsch returns to OHL in Luxembourg, and presents his report of his journey to Moltke.  He assigns blame for the retreat to General Kluck, whose withdrawal of III and IX Corps to the Ourcq had created the gap through which the British had advanced.  Perhaps to preempt criticism of himself, he claimed that 1st Army had already issued orders to retreat, and Hentsch's role was limited to indicated the direction in which they should withdraw.  At present the retreat was limited to 1st and 2nd armies - 3rd Army was expected to be able to regroup south of Châlons-sur-Marne, while 4th and 5th armies could remain in place.

On hearing Hentsch's report, Moltke's mood temporarily revives - the withdrawal will close the gap between 1st and 2nd armies, after which they can go back over to the attack, and the rest of the armies will not have to yield their gains.  Hentsch suggests to Moltke that he visit 3rd through 5th armies (but not 1st or 2nd) to see for himself their situations, and the Chief of the General Staff agrees to set out tomorrow morning.  Moltke also places Kluck under Bülow orders for their withdrawal, implicitly assigning blame to Kluck for the gap that opened between the two.

If Moltke's mood has improved, his fellow officers at OHL are all too aware that a successful retreat is hardly something to be celebrated, given the objective of the German army in the West at the start of the campaign.  Nor do they hesitate to assign blame, as General Moritz von Lyncker, chief of the Military Cabinet, commented today: 'In sum, one must appreciate that the entire operation - that is, the encirclement [of French forces] from the north and northwest - has been utterly unsuccessful.  Moltke is totally crushed by events; his nerves are not up to the situation.'

- As the German right withdraws, Joffre understands that the rapid pursuit of the enemy is now essential.  As he states in his Particular Instruction No. 21 issued today, 'to affirm and exploit the success, it is necessary to pursue energetically and leave the enemy no respite: victory depends on the legs of our infantry.'  The French armies, however, are exhausted from weeks of constant marching followed by the intense fighting along the Marne.  Many simply lack the physical strength to pursue the retreating Germans as quickly as necessary to catch the retreating Germans.  Today the most rapid advance is undertaken by the BEF - not surprising, given that it was much less involved in the fighting of the Marne than the French armies on either flank.  I Corps engages in severe fighting with the German rear-guard near Château-Thierry, taking two thousand prisoners.  However, the rear-guard does its job, allowing the bulk of the retreating German forces to avoid battle.

- In German ranks, the bitter disappointment at the order to retreat has not led to despair or disorder.  As exhausted as the German soldiers are, units remain intact and responsive to instructions from their commanding officers.  Already thoughts are turning to the next phase of the campaign.  Understanding that the war will now be longer than expected, orders are issued for the retreating soldiers to bring with them all equipment that might be of military value - in what could be seen as stereotypical Prussian efficiency, the dead are to be stripped of their weapons, ammunition, and even uniforms so they can be reused in the battles to come.

The retreat of the German armies from the Marne, indicated by the empty blue arrows above, September 10th to 13th, 1914.

- West of Verdun, Crown Prince Wilhelm, commanding 5th Army, orders a final attack on the French 3rd Army opposite.  His objective is to silent the dreaded French 75s, and decides to emulate the attack of Hausen's 3rd Army and launch a nighttime bayonet attack.  At 2am, in a cold rain, a hundred thousand German soldiers with bayonets fixed rush towards the French positions.  The attack is a dismal failure.  From the start, the artillery of two French corps slaughter the advancing Germans with rapid and accurate artillery fire, and at 745am the French counterattack, driving back the panicked and disorganized Germans.  The defeat breaks the offensive potential of 5th Army - among junior officers, leading from the front, casualties today are as high as 40%.

- In Lorraine the French 2nd Army launches a counterattack against the German 6th Army opposite.  In bitter combat the Germans begin to be pushed back.  The mobility of the French 75mm artillery pieces is a vital advantage, allowing them to keep up with the advancing infantry.

- In East Prussia I Corps seizes the town of Lyck as it advances to the northeast.  However, supply problems are bedeviling François' corps, and he is having trouble getting reserve forces to the front line.  Moreover, Rennenkampt of the Russian 1st Army is conducting a skilled retreat, shifting forces along his front to keep the pursuing Germans off-balance, and the Russians are withdrawing out of the envelopment that was briefly threatened by the attack of I Corps.

The retreat of the Russian 1st Army from the Battle of the Masurian Lakes, September 10th to 13th, 1914.

- Conrad today makes his first visit to the frontline, visiting 3rd Army.  His brief exposure to the plight of that force does little to raise his awareness of the difficulties his armies are facing and the nature of modern warfare.

- The German light cruiser Emden, detached from the German East Asiatic Squadron to raid commerce in the Indian Ocean, captures its first ship, the Greek collier Pontoporos.

September 9th, 1914

- At 5am, Hentsch has a meeting with two of Bülow's staff officers, the General himself still asleep.  The conversation confirms the conclusions of the previous day - 2nd Army can hold only if 1st Army immediately disengages and linked up with the former's western flank; if not, 2nd Army will retreat behind the Marne River.  At 6am he departs 2nd Army headquarters for 1st Army.

At 9am, Bülow receives the latest aerial reconnaissance report, which states that numerous columns of enemy forces are north of the Petit Morin moving towards the Marne.  For Bülow, the time has come.  At 902am he signals a general retreat of 2nd Army.  This is the crucial moment, and the crucial decision.  Once 2nd Army has begun to retreat, the position of 1st Army is entirely untenable - it will have to retreat to avoid complete encirclement.  Bülow's choice, made entirely without any communication with either Moltke at OHL or Kluck at 1st Army, is the effective end of the German offensive in the West.

- Along the Ourcq River the battle between the German 1st Army and the French 6th Army reaches its climax.  General Kluck knows that time is running out to defeat the French before the advance of the BEF to the east cuts behind him.  At 9am reports are received from German cavalry divisions that British and French units were across the Marne.  In response, at 930am Kluck orders II Corps to turn to face southeast to confront the threat from the enemy.  Kluck, however, remains convinced that the battle against 6th Army can be still won.  He orders IX Corps, his northern-most unit, to attack with all its strength to turn the enemy's flank and force their retreat.  As Kluck states to a staff officer: 'Every man must be convinced that the enveloping attack must bring the decision.'  The attack of IX Corps shatters the French 61st Reserve Division and is poised to envelop the northern flank of the French 6th Army.  To the commander of IX Corps, victory and Paris appear imminent.  At that moment a visitor arrives at 1st Army headquarters - Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hentsch.

Hentsch arrives at 1130am after a journey of over five hours on roads clogged by refugees, wrecked vehicles, wounded soldiers, and German cavalry fleeing the supposedly imminent advance of the British and French.  His personal experience of the gap between 1st and 2nd armies can hardly have improved the Lieutenant-Colonel's disposition.  Hentsch meets with General Hermann von Kuhl, Kluck's Chief of Staff.  The commanding general himself is not present, and though he is only a few hundred yards away at his command post neither Kuhl nor Hentsch summon him.  The fate of 1st Army is thus decided by two staff officers.

Kuhl begins the meeting with an overview of the current situation, as it appears from 1st Army headquarters.  Despite heavy fighting with the French 6th Army, the arrival of IV and IX Corps had stabilized the situation, and that the latter was about to turn the northern flank of the French.  Further, he was not concerned by the threat posed by the BEF - after several battles with the British and pursuing them for two weeks, Kuhl was convinced that they were largely shattered and operated too slowly to make a decisive move (the latter opinion, at least, was not without reason).

Kuhl's presentation makes no sense to Hentsch, who with his larger perspective on the battle sees nothing but imminent disaster.  He emphasizes the stalemate in Lorraine, and the inability of 5th Army to break through west of Verdun.  2nd Army, meanwhile, has been defeated and is retreating north of the Marne.  1st Army is to retreat in the direction of Soissons to link up with 2nd Army, and the redeployment of part of 7th Army to Saint-Quentin would allow for a resumption of the offensive.  When Hentsch draws out 1st Army's line of retreat on a map, Kuhl objects - cannot Hentsch see that they are on the brink of victory?  Hentsch's response is that 2nd Army has been reduced to 'cinders', a description that will become notorious in after-the-fact arguments in Germany over the appropriateness of the retreat from the Marne.  Finally, Hentsch states that he has the full authority of Moltke to issue orders in his name.  Kuhl, having no direct line of communication with OHL at Luxembourg, and confronted with the vision of a broken 2nd Army, has no option but to agree.  At 130pm, Kluck, informed by Kuhl of the decision, issues orders to break off the attack on the French and withdraw towards Soissons.

- To the soldiers at the front, the order to retreat comes like a bolt from the blue.  They have been on the march for almost month, every day advancing deeper and deeper into France.  Where they have met the French or British, they have been victorious.  Even in the past few days, most units have held the French counterattack.  The order to retreat, then, appears to be snatching defeat from the jaws of victory.  When General Oskar von Hutier, commander of the 1st Guards Division in 2nd Army, is informed of the retreat, his reply reflects the opinion of many: 'Have they all gone crazy?'

- At OHL, Moltke, remaining largely in the dark regarding the state of operations, is chronically pessimistic.  To his wife he writes: 'It goes badly.  The battles east of Paris will not end in our favour . . . . and we certainly will be made to pay for all that has been destroyed.'  When news comes in of Bülow's order to retreat, Moltke voices no opposition, though it means the end of the great German offensive into France.  Wilhelm II, present at OHL, is vehemently opposed to the retreat, and argues passionately with Moltke.  According to the staff officers present, Moltke's nerves have been shattered, just as they had been on August 1st.  Minister of War Falkenhayn notes in his diary today: 'Our General Staff has totally lost their heads.  Schlieffen's notes have come to an end and therewith Moltke's wit.'  The argument between the Kaiser and Moltke is immaterial anyway - even if they wanted to stop the retreat, they lack any means of communication to order Bülow and Kluck to stand and fight.

- By the middle of the afternoon, both the BEF and the French 5th Army have crossed the Marne, and by the evening it becomes clear to Joffre that the Germans on his left are in retreat.  He issues instructions for 5th and 6th armies, plus the BEF, to pursue the enemy and attempt an envelopment of the German 1st Army.  To the Minister of War in Bordeaux Joffre cables a reassuring note that, while unwilling to claim yet a decisive victory, assures the government that the situation is satisfactory and promising.

- The retreat of the German 1st and 2nd armies today brings an end to the Battle of the Marne, and indeed the first phase of the war on the Western Front.  Over two million soldiers have fought along the front line, and while estimates vary, it is believed that a quarter of a million Germans and a quarter of a million Frenchmen are casualties, a ratio of one in four combatants.  On a per-day basis, it is the bloodiest battle of the war on the Western Front.

The Battle of the Marne is one of the most decisive in human history, for two reasons.  First, the Germans had staked all on a rapid invasion and defeat of France before Russia could deploy its full weight against them.  For years the German army had been focused on this one mission - war games simulated various permutations of the advance, logistics officers poured over road maps of Belgium and northern France, the mobilization plan tweaked and retweaked down to the minute to ensure the Germans had every advantage of time.  By today, the 39th day since German mobilization, the French were to have been crushed.  Instead, it is the Germans who have been defeated.  The sense of shock and disbelief among the officers of the German army can hardly be understated - it had been taken as a fundamental article of faith that the German army was inherently superior to the French army, and many simply cannot conceive of a world in which that is not true.  Hence the almost immediate search for scapegoats, for an internal reason for their defeat.  Had Moltke botched the plan?  Had Hentsch exceeded his authority?  Was Bülow over-cautious?  Was Kluck's 'inward turn' the fundamental mistake?  What all these questions ignore is the basic truth that not only had the Germans lost, but the French had won.  In particular, Joseph Joffre had achieved a victory that almost looked impossible two weeks earlier in the aftermath of the disastrous Battle of the Frontiers.  His ability to recover from the failure of pre-war planning cannot be understated (and stands in sharp contrast to Moltke's reactions as his pre-war plans collapsed) - without his recognition of the changed circumstances after August 24th and his immediate redeployment of forces from his left to his right, France surely would have been lost.  Whatever else can be blamed on Joffre - and in the years to come there is much he can be blamed for - his service in the last week of August and the first week of September ensured the survival of the French republic.  Credit must also be given to the French soldier - undertaking a constant retreat under enemy fire for two weeks, and then to turn and defeat said enemy, is one of the great feats of modern arms.  Finally, there is the BEF.  For all that Sir John French can be justly criticized for his pessimism, and the British slowness in movement, and indeed simply the minuscule size of the BEF in comparison to the armies of France and Germany, at the crucial moment it found itself largely by coincidence at the most important point on the front, and in advancing played a role out of all proportion to its size.

The second reason the Battle of the Marne is decisive is precisely that it is not decisive.  The German army is defeated, but it is not destroyed.  1st and 2nd armies have suffered, but they are retreating in relatively good order, escaping the potential threat of encirclement.  All sides had expected the first couple of months to see one or two climactic battles, after which one army would be destroyed and that side compelled to surrender.  The climactic battles have occurred - the Battle of the Marne, as with the Battle of the Frontiers and indeed the battles in East Prussia and Galicia, have been among the largest in history - but the losing side has not been compelled to surrender.  Indeed, the German expectation at the end of September 9th is that a brief retreat will be followed by a resumption of the offensive.  The true legacy of the Marne is that it ensures that the war will not end in a quick victory by either side, but will continue.  The Marne was not the end, but rather the beginning, of the war, the likes of which had hardly been imagined before the great armies took the field a month ago.

- Elsewhere on the Western Front today, the German 4th Army, in an attempt to emulate the partial success of 3rd Army yesterday, launches a morning bayonet charge on French artillery positions belonging to the French 4th Army.  Its commander Duke Albrecht orders a lengthy artillery barrage to precede the attack, which gives the French ample warning.  When the Germans advanced, they encounter active and vigorous resistance, and fail to accomplish anything.  By 1030pm, the commander of the French 4th Army is able to inform Joffre that his position is secure.

- The Belgian army in the fortifications of Antwerp today sorties, in an effort to disrupt German lines of communication and force the Germans to keep additional forces in Belgium as opposed to on the front lines.

- Even as the great German offensive in the west is collapsing today, German Chancellor Theodor von Bethmann-Hollweg has drafted today a list of German aims.  Designed to indicate the lines on which German negotiators should proceed after a quick victory over France, the September Programme, as it comes to be known, is nothing if not ambitious.  Parts of Belgium, including Antwerp, were to be directly annexed to Germany, while the rest would become a client state.  France would cede the vital industrial region of Longwy-Briey, and possible some of its Channel ports, to Germany.  Luxembourg would also be annexed to Germany.  To the east Russia was to be weakened through granting self-determination to minorities like the Poles, who would in turn become client states of Germany (this was preferably than directly annexing Russian territory - the last thing the Germans wanted was more Poles in their country).  All of central Europe - Mitteleuropa - was to be united in a vast economic union, to operate for German benefit.  All of central Africa was to be acquired, taking colonies from Britain, France, Portugal, and Belgium to form Mittelafrika.  Coaling stations would also be acquired around the world to give the German navy a global reach.

These war aims are designed to secure permanent German hegemony in Europe and a secure place as a global power.  As such, they are entirely unacceptable to the Entente - British policy for centuries had been to keep the ports of the Low Countries out of hostile hands - and could only have been achieved through an absolute and crushing victory that would allow the Germans to impose its terms on its enemies.  The irony of the September Programme being drafted on the day the Germans begin their retreat from the Marne hardly needs stating.

- In East Prussia this morning General François' I Corps launches an attack on the far southern flank of the Russian 1st Army, where the latter is supported by elements of the newly-forming Russian 10th Army.  Once again, with the rest of 8th Army stymied by the Russians, it is I Corps that makes the decisive breakthrough - they shatter Russian units southeast of Lötzen and begin to drive against the flank of the Russian forces holding up Mackensen's XVII Corps at Lötzen.  As a result of the breakthrough I Corps takes thirty thousand prisoners and captures sixty artillery pieces.  The commander of the Russian 10th Army refuses to send reinforcements, as he does not want his army to be exhausted through piecemeal contributions to the front.  With the southern flank shattered, disaster now threatens to overtake the Russian 1st Army just as it had overtaken the Russian 2nd Army. However, General Rennenkampf of 1st Army, whatever his other faults, is not as foolish as to continue to advance in the centre while his flanks are turned - this evening he orders the Russian 1st Army to retreat.

- The right flank of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army is defeated today by the Russian 4th Army, while two corps belonging to the Russian 5th Army have advanced to threaten the Austro-Hungarian line of retreat.  Faced with the prospect of imminent encirclement and destruction, the commander of 1st Army orders a retreat behind the San River.

To the south, the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army has achieved some tactical successes against the Russian 8th Army.  Though the Russians are able to withdraw in good order and establish new defensive lines, the local victories convince Conrad that his grand scheme to envelop the two Russian armies in the south is still viable, despite the tide of news from elsewhere on the battlefield.

- The German East Asiatic Squadron departs Christmas Island today, sailing southwest for Samoa.

September 8th, 1914

- Along the Ourcq the French 6th and German 1st armies continued to grapple.  Both sides are exhausted after four days of near-constant combat, but with all of the German 1st Army now in the battle line, the breakthrough desired by General Manourey that his 6th Army is increasingly unlikely.  Tonight two infantry divisions are forced back, and Manourey begins to plan a second line of defense should his entire army have to retire from its present positions.  Far from turning the German flank, 6th Army is now just barely holding on, and it is increasingly a matter of whether the BEF can make its presence felt in the gap between the German armies before 6th Army is defeated.

- The BEF continues its advance into the gap between the German 1st and 2nd armies, and by noon has reached the Petit Morin River.  There is a brief fight with General Georg von der Marwitz's II Cavalry Corps before the latter withdraws northwards - the German cavalry corps in the gap, exhausted by weeks of constant movement and with horses dropping dead from a lack of fodder, is able to do little more than observe the British advance.  Later today a violent thunderstorm slows the already lethargic march of the BEF.  After trying positive encouragement yesterday, Joffre is more direct today in trying to hurry the British along - at 8pm, Joffre telegrams Sir John French that it is 'essential' for the BEF to cross the Marne and exploit the gap between the German armies.

Men of the 1st Battalion, Middlesex Regiment, 19th Brigade, BEF, come under
shrapnel fire from German artillery on the Signy-Signets road during the
Battle of the Marne, September 8th, 1914.

- The nighttime bayonet attack of the German 3rd Army begins this morning at 245 am.  The soldiers advance with bayonets fixed and rifles unload.  Despite clear skies and a pale moon, the Germans achieve complete surprise, and descend on the French positions without warning.  The crews of the dreaded French 75s are put to flight, and within three hours four entire French divisions were in headlong retreat.  At 615am the commander of XI Corps, the rightmost corps of Foch's 9th Army, orders his force to fall back ten kilometres, which then dragged 9th Army's centre backwards.  The German 3rd Army has effectively outflanked the Marshes of St. Gond, and control the western exits.  By any measure, the bayonet charge has been a success, and 9th Army has been decisively defeated.

Unfortunately for the Germans, General Foch refused to accept that he had been defeated, as embodied in a draft signal to Joffre: 'My centre is giving way, my right is in retreat, situation excellent.  I attack.'  It was most likely never sent, but the words enhance Foch's reputation and become part of the legend of the Marne.  Counterattacks are ordered along the line to keep the advancing Germans off-balance.  At 9pm, in response to a desperate appeal from Foch, Franchet d'Espèrey of 5th Army sends two divisions to reinforcement the left wing of 9th Army, allowing Foch to redeploy a division from his left to reinforce the right.  Joffre also dispatches a cavalry division to help stop the German breakthrough.

The initial attack of the Germans had been a stunning success - three German divisions had forced back the French between ten to thirteen kilometres over a twenty kilometre section of the front line. It is a success that the Germans will not repeat on the Western Front until 1918.  However, the initial momentum is quickly lost.  French counterattacks and reinforcements slow the German advance to a crawl.  Moreover, the Germans had advanced beyond the reach of their own artillery, were short on food and water, and have suffered 20% casualties.  There were no additional units available to continue the advance, and an evening rain turned the ground into mud.  By nightfall, despite the substantial advance, the Germans had been halted.  In one of the decisive moments of the Battle of the Marne, Foch's 9th Army has held - if the Germans had been able to sustain their advance, the entire French line might have shattered.  Instead, the reasons behind the German failure to exploit their breakthrough would become a common refrain in the years ahead on the Western Front.

- The retreat has carried the French 3rd Army past Verdun, and by today its front line was overstretched between Verdun to the northeast and 4th Army to the west.  The German 5th Army has applied heavy pressure, and today pushes 3rd Army south of Revigny, raising the possibility that the Germans may break through the Revigny Gap.  Late this evening, Joffre orders General Sarrail to withdraw his right wing and break off contact with Verdun.  It was a reasonable order - the Germans were in no shape to take on the massive fortifications ringing the town of Verdun - but Sarrail refuses, which causes Joffre anxiety lest the Germans break through the weak link between 3rd Army and 4th Army on its left.

- The mood at OHL remains one of panic this morning, which is not alleviated when wireless intercepts indicate the advance of the BEF between 1st and 2nd armies.  Moltke desperately desires clarity about the situation at the front, but wireless communications have not yet been established with 1st or 2nd Army, and he feels that he himself cannot absent himself from OHL at this moment of crisis.  Meeting with his staff, Moltke decides to send Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hentsch, as he had visited Kluck and Bülow three days earlier and was thus more acquainted with the situation of the two German armies.  Sending a junior officer on such an important mission was not unusual, and such officers had been sent as emissaries to other headquarters during the war, and the instructions they gave were seen as emanating from Moltke himself.  Hentsch has private conversations with Moltke and the Kaiser, and though no direct records exist of what was discussed, it appears Hentsch was given the authority to order a withdrawal of 1st Army if the situation necessitated it.  Certainly Hentsch believed he had the authority necessary to make such monumental decisions, though no orders were given in writing.

At 10am Hentsch departs OHL in Luxembourg City by automobile in what has been described as 'undoubtedly . . . the most important staff ride in military history.'  He has decided to visit each German army as he proceeds west, so his first stop at 1pm is 5th Army headquarters.  Here he learns that the Crown Prince plans further attacks for tomorrow, so Hentsch is satisfied with their position. He encounters a similar situation at 4th Army headquarters - while there he uses their telephone connection with OHL to report that both 4th and 5th armies are in good shape.  At 3rd Army headquarters General Hausen expresses concern about his right wing, but otherwise reports the situation satisfactory.  Hentsch then sets out for 2nd Army headquarters, which he reaches at 745pm.  In a lengthy meeting with Bülow and his staff, the 2nd Army headquarters gives vent to his concerns about the gap between 2nd and 1st armies.  For Bülow all of the blame rests on Kluck for his disobedience of Moltke's orders, which resulted in 1st Army advancing ahead of 2nd Army, and his repeated ignorance of the necessity of protecting the flank of 2nd Army.  He insists that 1st Army must immediately break off the battle with the French 6th Army and march eastwards to close the gap and cover the western flank of 2nd Army.  Bülow here is concerned solely with the plight of his army, not of the larger German offensive.  The French 5th Army is applying increasing pressure on his right wing, and there are no signs yet that the French 9th Army on his left is broken.  The insistence on 1st Army marching east immediately reflects a lack of regard for what 1st Army might accomplish by a victory over the French 6th Army.  For him, the menace of envelopment is very realy, with the French 5th Army pushing on his right and the BEF marching through the gap beyond, potentially to attack his army from behind.

At this point Hentsch states that he has full authority to issue orders to Kluck, which takes Bülow by surprise.  He reiterates that at this point the best option is for 1st Army to move east, but Hentsch doubts that Kluck's force can successfully disengage from its fight with the French 6th Army.  At this point, a report comes in to 2nd Army headquarters that the French have broken through the German VII Corps and was advancing on Montmirail.  Bülow becomes concerned that his front is about to be pierced, and orders X Reserve Corps to fall back even further on his right.  For the first time the word 'retreat' is uttered, as Bülow comments that the French may soon be in a position to compel a German retirement.  They decide that the last possible moment to order a retreat that can still succeed would be when the British and French reach the Marne.  For reasons that Hentsch takes to his grave, he decides to stay the night at 2nd Army headquarters instead of immediately driving to 1st Army.  At 930pm, just before going to bed, he sends the following signal to OHL: 'Situation at 2. Army serious, but not desperate.'  With that Hentsch ends his mission for the day, leaving for tomorrow the climax of the Battle of the Marne.

- The battle continues to rage near Nancy.  In deference to Joffre's orders, Castlenau and 2nd Army continue to hold on.  The attacks of the Bavarians nearly break through.  They seize the vital village of Saint-Geneviève, nicknamed the 'Hole of Death', but a desperate counterattack by the French XX Corps retakes the village today.  The Germans have suffered horrendous losses - one German corps alone has suffered ten thousand casualties - and despite minor progress have failed to break though.

- Today the entirety of the German 8th Army is engaged in attacking the Russian 1st Army in East Prussia.  Four corps attempt a frontal attack on Russian lines north of Lake Mauer, but are repulsed.  XVII Corps, aimed at the Lötzen gap just south of Lake Mauer, finds the terrain too constricting and in three attacks is unable to break through.  I Corps, meanwhile, is still approaching the battle, marching 123 kilometres in four days.

The German offensives on September 8th and 9th, 1914, at the Battle of the Masurian Lakes.

- In Galicia, a German Landwehr Corps from Silesia, the only German unit available to assist the Austro-Hungarians and stationed to the west of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army, is crushed by the Russian 9th Army, suffering eight thousand casualties today.  Its retreat behind the Vistula River uncovers the left flank of the already-hardpressed 1st Army.

To the south, Conrad orders 4th Army to join with 3rd and 2nd armies in attacking Russian forces around Lemberg.  However, the reorientation of the Russian 3rd Army to the northwest results in the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army attacking it not on its flank, but frontally around Rawa-Ruska.  Exhausted from several weeks of constant battle and movement, 4th Army is unable to make any significant progress.

In the fighting near Rawa-Ruska, Conrad's third son Herbert, a Lieutenant in the 15th Dragoons, is killed today in a failed attack on a Russian position.

- In the Balkans, the second attempt to invade Serbia is launched by Austria-Hungary, with General Potiorek once again in command.  With the departure of 2nd Army to Galicia, he has two armies remaining - 5th and 6th - both located to the west of Serbia along the Drina River, with 5th to the north in the same position as August (just south of the Drina) and 6th Army immediately next to it.  The commander of 5th Army is reluctant to launch another attack in the same place as before - his army has suffered more than 25% losses already - but with a direct order from Potiorek sends his two corps across the Drina, accompanied by XVI Corps on the southern flank of 6th Army (XV Corps, on 6th Army's northern flank adjacent to 5th Army, is not prepared to attack).  The attack by 5th Army is another disaster - most of their boats are grounded on sandbars in the river, leaving them under accurate Serbian fire.  To the south, however, XVI Corps manages to cross the Drina with only light losses, and hits the Serbian 3rd Army in the flank.  XVI Corps is thus able to secure a bridgehead in Serbian territory.  Meanwhile, a scratch force of two divisions under General Alfred Krauss is assigned to contain the invasion of the Serbian 1st Army.

September 7th, 1914

- Shortly after midnight, General Bülow orders X Reserve Corps on the western flank of his 2nd Army to retreat fifteen to twenty kilometres to take position behind the Petit Morin River.  He also gives the same orders to III and IX corps, located to the west of X Reserve Corps.  Though part of 1st Army, these two corps have been temporarily placed under his authority (as Kluck's attention is on the Ourcq and the French 6th Army).  This maneouvre is designed to protect the flank of 2nd Army after the heavy attack by the French 5th Army yesterday - Bülow's focus is on a pending offensive by his eastern corps, and wants to avoid a disruptive attack on his right.  In doing so, however, he has opened up a gap of thirty kilometres between the western flank of 2nd Army and the eastern flank of 1st Army.  Crucially, he does not bother to inform Kluck at 1st Army of his redeployment.

- The gap that Bülow has created between his 2nd Army and 1st Army to the west is now the vital pivot of the battle.  If Entente forces can occupy the gap, they can at minimum force the two German armies to retreat by threatening them with encirclement.  By another of war's coincidences, just as in late August the initial deployment of the BEF happened to place them directly in the line of advance of the strongest German army, now the advance of the BEF that began yesterday just so happens to be aimed directly at this gap.  The British march northeastwards thus is crucial to the entire success of the Entente forces in the Battle of the Marne.  As Joffre realizes the importance of the BEF advance, his focal point for the battle becomes ensuring the French armies hold off the Germans until the British can penetrate the gap.  This reliance on the speed of the British advance, of course, places Joffre in an awkward position.  He cannot issue orders to the BEF, and so can only encourage them to move faster.  On the other hand, given Sir John French's repeated pessimism, he is concerned that too strong words might cause him to overreact and try to take the BEF out of the battle entirely.  Today Joffre attempts positive encouragement - in a note to Kitchener his offers, with tongue undoubtedly in cheek, his 'warmest thanks' for French's 'energetic' advance, while he chides Gallieni to not badger the British commander too often with requests to move faster.  After another slow march today, advance guards of the BEF have crossed the Grand Morin.

- At 10am, 1st Army headquarters receives a reconnaissance report from an aviator that two columns of British soldiers have been spotted moving north from the Forest of Crécy towards the joint between 1st and 2nd armies.  Kluck understands that this has the potential for disaster, and makes a crucial decision - he will concentrate his entire army on defeating the attack of the French 6th Army before the British are in position to turn his flank.  He believes that 6th Army is the key piece of the French counteroffensive, while the BEF has been battered and is barely capable of effective action - better to destroy 6th Army first, in his mind, as the BEF is in no shape to do any immediate damage anyway.  Further, there are two German cavalry corps watching the line east of his battle with 6th Army.  To this end, he orders III and IX Corps to march immediately to the Ourcq to engage the French to join his other three corps.  Kluck's orders, meanwhile, widen the gap between 1st and 2nd armies to fifty kilometres - the two cavalry corps are weakened by constant movement and battle losses, and utterly lack the ability to stop any serious enemy advance.  The absence of communication between 1st and 2nd armies, and the inability of Moltke at OHL to co-ordinate their actions, has opened a major hole in the German line.

- Units continue to arrive in Paris from Lorraine, and General Gallieni moves them as quickly as possible to 6th Army fighting to the east.  Early this morning, soldiers of the 103rd and 104th regiments arrive at the front having taken a unique means of transportation: taxis.  Using his powers as Military Governor of Paris, Gallieni requisitioned 1200 taxis yesterday evening, and ordered them to take French soldiers to 6th Army.  Each taxi could carry five soldiers, including one in the trunk, and enter history as one of the most famous aspects of the Battle of the Marne.  Notwithstanding their patriotism, the taxi drivers still calculate the fare for each passenger, and send the bill to the French army, which will pay out 70 102 francs to the drivers.

The taxis of Paris conveying troops to the front, Sept. 7th, 1914.

- Just before the Ourcq River the French 6th Army and the German 1st Army continue to engage in a desperate struggle.  The arrival of the German IV Corps before dawn stabilizes the German line, and in fierce fighting several villages pass back and forth between the two sides.  One German attack at the village of Puisieux is repulsed only when Colonel Robert Nivelle, commander of the 5th Artillery Regiment, brings up five batteries and fires over open sights into the ranks of the advancing Germans from near-point blank range.  The episode wins Nivelle acclaim, which will be unfortunate for thousands of French soldiers later in the war.

- After yesterday's victory over the west flank of the German 2nd Army, the leftmost corps of the French 5th Army find the Germans have abandoned the field in front of them as they retreated to the Petit Morin.  Unlike yesterday, however, Franchet d'Espèrey does not drive his army forward, content instead with a methodical advance.

- On the east flank of the German 2nd Army, Bülow continues to push his corps against Foch's 9th Army, without success.  The German 3rd Army to the east also makes no progress - indeed, it spends most of the day being torn apart by fire from French 75 mm field guns, artillery pieces able to fire up to a thousand rounds a day.  Hausen is increasingly frustrated at his subordinate role to his neighbouring army commanders and inability to come to grips with the enemy.  Tonight, he decides to seize the initiative.  He believes the French cannot be strong everywhere, and given the pressure 1st and 2nd armies are under, concludes that the French opposite him must be weak.  In order to silence the dreaded French 75s, he orders a bayonet charge for the pre-dawn hours tomorrow.  No preliminary bombardment will be undertaken - the German soldiers are to approach the French lines in complete silence for maximum surprise.  He telegrams his plan to OHL, and receives Moltke's approval at midnight.

- The battle for Nancy reaches a climax today - three times the Bavarians of Rupprecht's 6th Army advance against the north front of the Grand Couronné, while murderous bayonet charges by the Germans continue into the night.  General Castlenau of the French 2nd Army is increasingly concerned at his position.  Furthermore, he is informed today that his son died in combat several days earlier.  In the shadow of personal loss Castlenau again telegrams Joffre that a withdrawal may be necessary.  This time, with the Battle of the Marne still in the balance, Joffre replies asking Castlenau to hang on for another twenty-four hours and suggesting that the Germans are likely no better off than his force.  2nd Army continues to cling to the Grand Couronné by its fingernails.

- At OHL Moltke has heard nothing from Kluck or Bülow since the French counteroffensive began early yesterday.  In the absence of information, Moltke's pessimism comes to the fore - has 1st Army already been encircled?  2nd Army forced back?  Writing to his wife today, he reflects on the death and destruction that has ensued from the invasion he is leading, and 'I often shudder when I think of this and feel as though I need to accept responsibility for this dreadfulness . . .'  Not exactly the desired mindset in the Chief of the General Staff at the supreme moment of crisis on the Western Front.

- In East Prussia, the first skirmishes occur in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes, as advance elements of the German 8th Army attack the defensive line of the Russian 1st Army.

The Battle of the Masurian Lakes, September 5th to 9th, 1914.

- On the home fronts of each of the major combatants, academics are among the most strident supporters of the war.  They take advantage of the public's belief in their intelligence and authority to defend the conduct of their own country and condemn that of their enemies.  In Germany today, a 'Declaration by German University Teachers' is published, in which hundreds of German academic renounce degrees they had received from British universities, on the basis that it was Britain that had started the war.

- In the Pacific, the German East Asiatic Squadron arrives today at Christmas Island.  Located on the equator, the island is a unoccupied British possession.  As Admiral Spee's ships arrive, they are rejoined by the light cruiser Nürnberg - as the squadron crossed the Pacific, Spee had ordered it to sail to Honolulu, in order to telegram Berlin as to his intentions to sail to the South American coast and learn the latest war news.  Nürnberg reports the capture of Samoa on August 30th by New Zealand troops, and Spee decides to launch a surprise attack on the island, hoping to catch British ships anchored in its port.

September 4th, 1914

- This morning, as 1st Army crosses the Marne River in strength, Kluck dispatches a lengthy telegram to OHL, informing Moltke for the first time that 1st Army, instead of following his General Directive of the 2nd and redeployed in echelon behind 2nd Army, has continued to advance, and is ahead of 2nd Army.  Kluck justifies his action by stating that obedience to Moltke's orders would eliminate any opportunity to envelop the flank of the French 5th Army.  Moreover, he believes that the BEF is out of the fight, posing no great danger, and that only second-rate French formations are at Paris, which can be held off by IV Reserve Corps, left behind for this reason.  Moltke does not reply to this admission of insubordination.

For its part 1st Army is no longer the force it was at the outbreak of the war.  In addition to suffering over twenty thousand casualties to this point, its supply position is precarious.  By today, its supply railhead at Chauny is 140 kilometres behind the army, and more than 60% of the trucks assigned to supply 1st Army have broken down.

- At 630am, XII Reserve Corps of 3rd Army comes under artillery fire in Rheims.  The source of the bombardment, however, is not the French, but rather artillery belonging to the 2nd Guard Division of 2nd Army.  About 170 shells are fired into the city before 2nd Guard Division realizes its error.  The episode is emblematic of the extent to which communications between the German armies on the right wing have completely broken down.

- Further aerial reconnaissance by flyers of the Paris garrison confirm that the German 1st Army continues to move southeast past the French capital.  At 910am Gallieni thus orders 6th Army, now reinforced to approximately 150 000 soldiers, to prepare to advance eastward, lead elements to begin moving this afternoon with the rest of the army following in the morning.

Meanwhile, Joffre has independently come to the same conclusion as Gallieni - the march of the Germans past Paris to the east creates the desired opportunity to counterattack the Germans and hit their flank.  Joffre agrees with Gallieni's order to 6th Army, but is still uncertain as to the timing of the attack.  The critical variable is when 5th Army will be able to halt its retreat, turn about, and attack.  Given its battered state and lengthy retreat, it is not immediately clear how early this can be done, so Joffre telegrams Franchet d'Espèrey asking if his army would be able to counterattack within the next several days.

As he waits for a reply, he takes the opinions of his staff, some of whom still prefer to retreat behind the Seine before counterattacking.  Taking leave of his staff, Joffre then steps outside and finds shade beneath a weeping ash tree in the playground of the school currently serving as his headquarters.  For most of the afternoon he sits here alone, weighing the choice before him.  He knows he has but one chance at a counteroffensive - if it fails, the French army would be broken and the war lost.  Is this the best opportunity?  Would patience and further retreat allow for an even greater chance of success?  His inclination is to attack, but the significance of the choice does not lend itself to a rapid decision.

Shortly after 630pm the reply from Franchet d'Espèrey arrives.  Despite only having been commander of 5th Army for less than 24 hours, he informs Joffre that his army will be able to attack as of the 6th.  He also states that he has met with General Wilson, Deputy Chief of Staff of the BEF, and the latter has agreed to BEF participation in the attack, provided its flanks are covered by 5th and 6th armies.  This is the information Joffre needed.  The decision made, Joffre instructs his staff to draft instructions for ending the retreat and going back over to the attack.  He originally selected September 7th as the day for the counteroffensive to begin, but compelling arguments delivered over the telephone by Gallieni convinced Joffre that 6th Army was best positioned to attack on the 6th, and thus the date for the general attack was moved up a day.  At 10pm Joffre issues General Instructions No. 6.  It orders the retreat of 3rd, 4th, and 5th armies, as well as Foch's army detachment (now renamed 9th Army), to halt and attack the Germans on September 6th.  Simultaneously, 6th Army would hit the German flank east of Paris, while the British were expected to co-operate by taking their position between 5th and 6th armies.

Meanwhile, this evening General Wilson returns to BEF headquarters to find that Chief of Staff General Archibald Murray has ordered a further night retreat of ten to fifteen miles, putting the BEF twenty-five miles from where Joffre believes it will be when the French counteroffensive is to begin.  When Sir John French arrived at BEF headquarters after a day reviewing the frontline commands, he decides that 'further study' is needed before committing the BEF to any particular action.  Wilson, a long-time advocate of Anglo-French co-operation, is heartbroken, and Captain Huguet, the French liaison officer attached to BEF headquarters, sends off an urgent telegram informing Joffre of the situation.  Just before midnight, the telegram arrives, and its news comes as a great shock.  Participation of the BEF is essential, and the orders sent out for the counteroffensive cannot now be adjusted.  Sir John French must be convinced of the necessity of joining in the attack, or all may yet be lost.

- After a week of preparation, Prince Rupprecht's 6th Army launches a major offensive against Nancy.  Though there is major fighting near Épinal and south of Nancy by divisions of 7th Army, the major objective of the attack is the Grand Couronné, a ridge northeast of Nancy, the capture of which would allow 6th Army to attack nearby French forts from the rear and unbalance the French defense of Nancy.  Opposing the Germans is the French 2nd Army under General Castelnau.  Beginning in the early hours of the morning, German forces advance under murderous French artillery fire raining down from the heights of the Grand Couronné.

The front at Nancy, September 4th to 7th, 1914.  Note the Grand Couronné north of Nancy.

- Late this evening Moltke issues another General Directive to the armies on the Western Front, ordering it delivered by automobile to ensure that each commanding general receives it.  It acknowledges that the French have transferred units from Lorraine to near Paris, and as such the original objective of driving the French armies to the Swiss frontier, as embodied in the Schlieffen Plan, was no longer practical.  Instead, 1st and 2nd armies are to hold their positions east of Paris, prepared to parry any French attacks from that direction.  On the other end of the front, 6th and 7th armies are to continue the offensive in Lorraine, to tie down as many French units as possible, while 4th and 5th armies west of Verdun are to push the French armies opposite southeast through the Argonne Forest.  Finally, 3rd Army would be available either to assist 4th and 5th armies to the east or 1st and 2nd armies to the west.  In concept this General Directive abandons all pretense of implementing the Schlieffen Plan.  Especially with respect to the new roles for 1st and 2nd armies, it is an admission that the German army lacks sufficient strength on the Western Front to achieve the decisive victory embodied in the Schlieffen Plan.

- In the aftermath of the annihilation of the Russian 2nd Army, 1st Army has formed a strong defensive line in East Prussia running north from the Masurian Lakes.  In addition, 10th Army is assembling to the southeast just inside the Russian border, to provide cover for 1st Army's southern flank.  Indeed, General Zhilinskii of North-West Front believes that his forces are capable of launching a further offensive, as he interprets continued actions by German reserve troops south of the Tannenberg battlefield as an indication that the German 8th Army will invade Poland.  As such, he hopes that a move westwards by 1st Army will be able to cut in behind the Germans.  General Rennenkampf, for his part, is more negative - he feels his army is in a dangerously exposed position, and in particular fears a sortie of strong German forces from the fortress of Königsberg to the northwest.

Hindenburg and Ludendorff, however, are not content to rest on the laurels earned at Tannenberg.  Instead, they are in the process of redeploying 8th Army, augmented by the arrival of II and Guard Reserve Corps from the Western Front, eastward to attack the Russian 1st Army.  Ludendorff's plan is to send his best units - François' I Corps and Mackensen's XVII Corps - to move south against the Russian left while the rest of 8th Army attacked the main defensive line of the Russian 1st Army.  The objective was to break through on the left and encircle the Russians, and thus repeating the decisive victory of Tannenberg.

- South of Lublin in Russian Poland, the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army is finding itself under increasing pressure from the Russian 4th and 9th armies to its north, and is gradually being forced backwards.  Meanwhile, to the east, the Russian 5th Army, which Conrad had assumed had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Zamość-Komarów, has halted its retreat and gone back over onto the attack, advancing to the southwest into a gap that has emerged between the Austro-Hungarian 1st and 4th armies after the latter turned southeast as part of Conrad's plan to envelop the Russian 3rd and 8th armies.  The balance of numbers is increasingly tilting against the Austro-Hungarians as more divisions of the slower-mobilizing Russian army arrive on the front, and Conrad is encountering the inherent difficulties of attempting to surround a numerically-superior enemy with exhausted soldiers.