October 14th, 1915

- Overnight five German Zeppelins undertake a bombing raid on London.  While L11 turned back near the English coast after coming under fire, dropping his bombload on several small villages, and L16 strikes the town of Hertford, twenty miles north of London, the three others all manage to hit the British capital.  Most notably, L15, watched by members of Parliament who had been debating an emergency taxation measure, drops its bombs from Charing Cross to the Bank of England, with the second bomb exploding in Wellington Street and killing seventeen, the greatest number of deaths caused by a single bomb in a raid to date.  L13, meanwhile, targets pumping and power stations at Hampton as well as Woolwich Arsenal, and L14, after a lengthy diversion to Hythe on the Kent coast where it dropped nine bombs on an army encampment and killed fifteen soldiers, struck the suburb of Croydon where a number of homes were damaged or destroyed.  Though the Zeppelins had trouble with fog on the return voyage, all return safely (though L15 landed three miles short of Nordholz, necessitating repairs).  This raid is one of the deadliest of the war, with 71 killed and 128 injured, including 38 killed and 87 injured in London itself.

- The Kossava continues unabated in Serbia today, and the only craft able to cross the swollen Save and Danube Rivers are boats with motors or steam engines, of which only two are available to transport supply for the entire German III and X Reserve Corps.  For the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the south banks of the rivers, supply problems continue.

South of Belgrade further attacks by the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps succeed in pushing the Serbians back from their forward positions, and elements of the German 43rd and 44th Reserve Divisions advance on either side of the railway running towards Ripanj.  On the front of the German 11th Army, after reconnaissance patrols yesterday established that the Serbs had evacuated Požarevac, the German 3rd Bavarian Regiment occupies the town today.

Meanwhile the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies begin their advance today.  Given that the former is clearly aimed directly at Niš, the Serbs have deployed strong forces, totalling five infantry divisions and one cavalry division, to contain the Bulgarian advance in the mountain passes east of the city.  Given the strong resistance, coupled with the continuing bad weather, the Bulgarian 1st Army makes no progress today.  However, given the continued pressure the Serbs are under on all fronts, they are incapable of being strong everywhere, and only small forces can be spared to hold back the Bulgarian 2nd Army.

The deployment of the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies and the Serbian forces assigned to
contain them, Oct. 14th, 1915.

- French forces begin to arrive at Strumica Station today, where they join seven Serbian battalions.  Given their proximity to the Bulgarian frontier here, however, they quickly come under Bulgarian artillery fire.

September 18th, 1915

- Captain Heinrich Mathy, who had commanded the Zeppelin L13 in its raid on London on September 9th, is summoned to Berlin today to report directly to the chief of the Kaiser's Naval Cabinet.  The success has been widely celebrated in Germany as a great blow against the British, hitherto beyond reach, but it is entirely in character for the Kaiser to be primarily concerned with whether any damage had been done to Buckingham Place.  In his interview Mathy provides assurances that all bombs were aimed accurately and that no royal target was struck.

- In Artois, artillery of the French III Corps, facing stronger defences than the other corps of 10th Army, begins its preliminary bombardment today for the offensive to be launched in one week.

- The German 10th Army occupies Vilna today, the city having been vacated by the Russians.  Ludendorff still hopes to win a great victory by turning the Russian flank to the east, despite the arrival of Russian reinforcements putting the German cavalry under increasing pressure.  He thus objects to the orders from Falkenhayn yesterday to divert part of the Army of the Bug southeast to rescue the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army.  The German chief of staff, however, ignores Ludendorff's objection, remaining firm in his belief that Ludendorff's grander plans for an envelopment of the Russian 10th Army are impractical, and that a further Austro-Hungarian collapse could undermine the entire southern half of the Eastern Front.

September 12th, 1915

- As naval Zeppelins continue their bombing campaign of British targets, Falkenhayn cautions the navy to avoid hitting residential areas in London and other cities, lest the British and French launched reprisal raids on German cities.

- To prepare for the artillery bombardment that is to precede the French fall offensive, gunners in Artois have been firing what are known as ranging shots, firing single rounds and observing where they land, afterwards adjusting their aim to ensure that when the bombardment begins, their shells land precisely on target.  Such ranging of the artillery is standard practice before major operations, but the landing of single enemy shells also serves as an unmistakable sign that a major artillery bombardment is imminent.  Thus today the German VI and I Bavarian Reserve Corps, which cover the front at Arras and Vimy Ridge, report to 6th Army headquarters that the French have been firing ranging shots on them, signalling an enemy attack is likely imminent.  As a response, 6th Army headquarters orders elements of a Saxon brigade in reserve to reinforce the left flank of 5th Bavarian Reserve Division, deemed the weakest point on the army's front.

- Despite Conrad's orders of the 10th for an immediate attack by 4th and 1st Armies, the exhaustion of their infantry prevented the advance occurring until today, when infantry from multiple divisions advances against Russian positions along the Stubiel River and south towards Dubno.  The advancing infantry encounter heavy artillery fire, however, and suffer greatly, and by this evening the attacks have clearly failed to gain any significant advantage.  Today's defeat dashes the last hopes for Conrad's grand offensive - both Südarmee and 7th Army are in full retreat, which has already forced 2nd Army onto the defensive, and it was clear that only prolonged operations at great cost could accomplish anything of note on the northern end of the line.  Moreover, intelligence has reached Conrad that the Russian XXX Corps will arrive within the next couple of days to reinforce 8th Army, rendering the prospects of success even more unlikely.  With utmost reluctance, Conrad signals his army commanders to abandon the offensive, with both 4th and 1st Armies sending reinforcements southwards.

Unfortunately for Conrad, the Russians, having gained the upper hand, have every intention of pressing their advantage to the fullest.  At the southern end of the line, the Russian XXXIII Corps attacks the scratch Austro-Hungarian corps under General Henriquez.  Having lost seven thousand infantry already in September, Henriquez's corps collapses under the weight of the Russian advance, and falls back in disorder to the Dniester River.

The Russian advance vs. Südarmee and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, Sept. 12th to 15th, 1915.

Further, after several weeks of falling back before the Austro-Hungarian advance, General Brusilov of 8th Army intends to go over to the counterattack, which will begin tomorrow with a thrust by XXXIX Corps across the Stubiel River at Klewan northwest of Rovno.  Meanwhile, XXX Corps, detraining at Rovno today, is to march north behind the front and descend on the north wing of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army.  Brusilov's objective is to turn the enemy flank and recover Lutsk.

September 9th, 1915

- After the success of the German army Zeppelins in attacking London on the night of September 7th-8th, the German navy sends four of its Zeppelins against Britain overnight.  L11 and L14 are forced to turn back due to engine trouble, while L9 narrowly misses the benzol works at Skinningrove on the Yorkshire coast.  L13 makes landfall on the Norfolk coast, and by the time it approaches Cambridge the lights of London are already visible on the horizon, guiding the Zeppelin to its target.  The captain of L13 remains patient as his Zeppelin crosses over London, and waits until it reaches the heart of the British capital where it does considerable damage - most notably, several bombs strikes the textile warehouses north of St. Paul's Cathedral, leaving Wood Street, Silver Street, Addle Street, and Aldermanbury ablaze and destroying many valuable buildings.  Four bombs are also dropped on Liverpool Street Station, and though only a few feet of track are destroyed, two of them score direct hits on nearby motor-buses, which raises the night's deathtoll to twenty-two.  It is a great success for L13, and indeed, by monetary loss, it will be the single most destructive raid of the war against the British capital.

Bomb damage outside Liverpool Street Station in London, Sept. 9th, 1915.

- Having concentrated twenty-eight infantry and five cavalry divisions along the 110 kilometres of the front opposite Vilna held by General Max Eichorn's 10th Army, Ludendorff launches his offensive today, consisting of an attack against Vilna itself and an attempt to outflank the city from the north.  The former runs into strong Russian defensive positions and gets nowhere, but the latter, undertaken by three infantry and three cavalry divisions, is far more successful, as the Russian line is weakest north of Vilna.  The Russian 10th Army, formerly responsible for the defence of Grodno, has been drawn into the fighting at and south of Vilna.  Its northern neighbour - 5th Army - has been focused on holding Riga and the lower Dvina River, leaving its southern flank weakened.  The German attack north of Vilna is directed right into the gap between the two Russian armies, which is only covered by a scratch force of six hundred Latvian cavalry under the oldest cavalry commander in the Russian army (considering the average age of a Russian general, this is no small accomplishment).  This force is scattered, and the Germans push forward.  The initial reaction on the Russian side is that the frontal attack on Vilna is the main German advance, and that the action to the north is of no great importance: reports of the German force as dismissed as exaggerations and that any German success here is only the result of incompetence by officers on the ground - true enough, but it is a significant underestimation of the threat of the German advance.

The advance of the German 10th Army against Vilna, in what will become known as the Sventsiany Offensive.

- Though the northern wing of the Russian 8th Army repulsed the Austro-Hungarian attack along the Putilowka River yesterday, its southern wing had been pulled back in response to the enemy advance at Podkamien on the 6th.  As a result, to maintain a cohesive defensive line the northern wing pulls back from the Putilowka a short distance to the Stubien, the next river on the way to Rovno.  To the south, the Russian withdrawal allows the Austro-Hungarians to occupy Dubno today as they pull up to the new Russian line along the Ilka River.  The Russian 8th Army, however, remains intact and capable of offering stiff resistance to further Austro-Hungarian advances.

The withdrawal of the Russian 8th Army to the Subiel River, Sept. 9th, 1915

To the south, where it is the Russians who are now attacking, the same cannot be said for the Austro-Hungarians.  The latter's 2nd Army attempts a counterattack north of the breakthrough in the direction of Zbaraz north of Tarnopol, in an attempt to turn the flank of the advancing Russians.  Poor weather, however, hindered the Austro-Hungarian attack, and it is repulsed.  Instead, the Russians continue to advance, with XI Corps of 9th Army advancing southwest from the line Laskowce-Ziniacz on the southern face of the breakthrough.  The Austro-Hungarian  36th and 15th Divisions of XIII Corps are forced back through Kossow this morning, and by noon have lost touch with 131st Brigade to the northwest.  After further attacks this afternoon the battered XIII Corps, which has lost 17 000 men (more than half its strength) already this month, is ordered by the commander of 7th Army to fall back further, to Buczacz on the Strypa River and the line Joazlowiec-Koszylowce to the southeast, which expands the length of the Russian breakthrough.

The expansion of the Russian breakthrough at Trembowla, Sept. 9th to 12th, 1915.

September 8th, 1915

- Overnight the German army Zeppelins LZ74 and SL2 undertake a bombing raid on London.  The latter drops its bombload over the docks east of the City, while the former manages to reach the City itself, and though it has only a single incendiary left, LZ74 becomes the first German Zeppelin to strike the heart of London.

- As the British 1st Army continues planning for the attack scheduled for later this month to coincide with the great French fall offensive, the command staff of the corps and divisions work long hours to prepare the necessary orders and instructions.  As the BEF rapidly expands, officers find themselves in positions far above their prior experience, and not all prove up to the task: today Major General H. J. S. Landon breaks down and has to be invalided back to Britain sick, and is replaced as commander of 9th Division by Major General G. H. Thesiger.

- After several days of preparation, the Austro-Hungarian X and XIV Corps launch furious attacks against the Russian XXXIX Corps along the Putilowka River covering Rovno.  Fog, however, reduces the effectiveness of the preliminary bombardment, and heavy rain has turned the low ground along the river into a swamp.  Thus when the Austro-Hungarian infantry advances, they find themselves bogged down in mud and under intense Russian defensive fire, and the attack soon collapses.  Conrad had expected this attack to be the decisive moment of the offensive, which would lead to the much-desired envelopment of the Russian 8th Army from the north.  On its failure, Conrad vents his anger at the commander of 4th Army, noting that he has a superiority of almost 3-to-1 on the northern end of the front and that the rest of the line had been thinned to provide this advantage.

- Despite Joffre's opposition, he has been ordered by the minister of war to identify four divisions for deployment to the Near East, forcing the French commander-in-chief to shift to stalling; he writes today that ongoing preparations for the fall offensive in Champagne and Artois prevent him from pinpointing the required divisions.

- After receiving instructions from London to fully cooperate with the military, Kenyan Governor Sir Charles Belfield formed a War Council to direct the colony's war effort.  Its membership consists of four civil officials, two military representatives, and six representatives of the settler community.  The latter thus hold the balance of power on the council, and use their position not only to aid the army but also protect their own interests.  Their priorities are reflected in the Native Followers Recruitment Ordinance, which is proclaimed today.  To operate in the interior of Africa requires vast numbers of porters to carry all of the required supplies and food, and the ordinance provides for the enlistment of three thousand Africans per month into the Carrier Corps.  In addition, it lowers the pay of porters from the ten to fifteen rupees per month now prevalent to five to six, and exempts Africans working on the farms of European settlers.  The ordinance ensures not only the adequate provision of porters for the army, but also that manpower on European farms will remain plentiful: lower pay for porters ensures that Africans already employed on plantations will not be tempted to join the Carrier Corps for higher pay, while Africans who wish to avoid the Carrier Corps can do so by working on European-owned land.  The settler community in Kenya has thus used the pretext of military requirements to ensure the continued supply of cheap African labour for their farms.

September 3rd, 1915

- Overnight the German army airship SL11 undertook a bombing raid of London, and though it did not reach the centre of the city, it dropped a series of bombs on Edmonton, Ponders End, and Enfield after midnight.  As it turned for home it was illuminated by a searchlight over the village of Cuffley in Hertfordshire shortly after 2am, which drew the attention of 2nd Lieutenant Leefe Robinson of 39 (Home Defence Squadron), flying a night patrol in a BE2c.  His aircraft was equipped with new incendiary bullets, and he emptied two drums making passes at the airship.  This having no effect, he closes to within fifty feet and matches speed with SL11, and concentrates the fire of a third drum underneath aft.  As he finishes the drum the rear of the airship bursts into flame, and dives out of the way to avoid the stricken dirigible, which crashes near Cuffley, killing all aboard.

It is the first time that a German airship has been brought down over Britain, and demonstrates the ability of incendiary bullets to ignite an airship's hydrogen gas.  Robinson's victory is a sensation, and tens of thousands of Londoners descent on Cuffley after daylight to see the ruins of SL11, including the charred bodies of its crew.  When Robinson himself motors over from his airfield to inspect his kill, he is mobbed by well-wishers, and given several 'prizes' from the airship, including an Iron Cross found among the debris and a gold watch believed to have belonged to SL11's captain.  For his accomplishment he is also awarded the Victoria Cross.

The wreck of the German airship SL11, shot down near Cuffley, Hertfordshire early this morning by 2nd Lieutenant Leefe Robinson.

- Under pressure from Germany and Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman government agrees today to cede to Bulgaria northern Thrace and the Maritsa valley should the Bulgarians enter the war.  The Bulgarian desire to acquire part of Ottoman Thrace was their only territorial claim against the Central Powers, and with the concession the Bulgarians will now achieve all of their expansionist aims by joining the Central Powers and attacking Serbia.

August 18th, 1915

- Overnight four German Zeppelin undertake a bombing raid on London.  Two turn back due to engine trouble, and the captain of L11 manages to confuse the village of Ashford with the British capital, dropping his forty-one bombs in farmers' fields.  L10, however, guided by the lights of towns and villages after making landfall on the Suffolk coast, is able to find London.  Even its navigation is imperfect, though, and drops its bombs on what its captain believes is the City but is actually the north-east suburbs of Leyton and Wanstead Flats.  Nevertheless, it is the first time a Zeppelin of the German navy bombs London, and the strike kills ten and damages the Leyton railway station.

- Wilhelm II and Falkenhayn meet with Archduke Friedrich and Conrad at the latter's headquarters at Teschen today, ostensibly to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph, but also to decide further operations on the Eastern Front.  Despite his continuing lack of faith in the fighting ability of the Austro-Hungarian army, Falkenhayn approves Conrad's suggestion of the latter's army conducting an offensive through Kowel.  It is also agreed that the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will be transferred from the left flank of the German 11th Army in Poland to the southeast, to join the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army in Conrad's offensive.  This will leave 11th Army directly adjacent to the forces under General Worysch, and will help facilitate a clearer division of the Eastern Front between German and Austro-Hungarian sectors.

In central Poland Prince Leopold's army group push forward in pursuit of retreating Russian forces, while 12th Army on its northern flank aims for the railway between Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok.  To the south, Mackensen's army group opens its offensive against Brest-Litovsk itself.  The Army of the Bug has been assigned additional responsibility for the line from the Krzna River west of the fortress southeast to the Bug River, and its 119th Division, alongside XXII Reserve Corps of 11th Army to the north, is to confront the western face of Brest-Litovsk.  This adjustment of responsibility has allowed 11th Army to reinforce its left wing for a drive across the Bug River downstream from Brest-Litovsk to enable the fortress to be enveloped from the northeast.  Here the advance is to be led by X Reserve Corps, followed by the Guard Corps, 103rd Division, and the Guard Cavalry Division.  Today XXII Reserve Corps and 47th Reserve Division of X Reserve Corps, after hard fighting, push forward to the line Kijowiec-Lipnica-Tielesnica to the west of Brest-Litovsk, while elements of 105th Division of X Reserve Corps secures a bridgehead across the Bug River downstream from the Russian fortress.

The German advance towards Brest-Litovsk, August 18th to 26th, 1915.

- After the successful Austro-Hungarian bombardment of Pelagosa yesterday, the Italian navy orders the evacuation today of the island, believing that it cannot be held in the face of active enemy opposition.  Covered by a strong cruiser and destroyer force from Brindisi, the Italian withdrawal is accomplished without difficulty.  The evacuation, however, does nothing for the reputation of the Italian navy in the eyes of their allies, as Captain Richmond, the British liasion officer, writes in his diary today:

They have by this admitted that the Austrians have command of the sea in the Adriatic in spite of inferior naval force & without fighting an action!  They have surrendered to them.  They had better sell their Fleet & take up their organs & monkeys again, for, by Heaven, that seems more their profession than sea-fighting.

- Immediately after assuming command of the French Army of the Near East, General Sarrail sent the government a memorandum which outlined a wide range of possible operations, from landings at Salonika in the Balkans to operations along the Anatolian and Syrian coast.  The government forwarded the note to Joffre, who today offers his comments to the minister of war.  Not surprisingly, Joffre is scathing, arguing that Sarrail's operations are 'incomplete, unrealizable, and disastrous,' and that one of the landings in the Near East could only be supplied by 'Arabs and mules.'  Behind the harsh criticism is Joffre's continued opposition to any diversion of French strength from the Western Front.

- A revolution in 1906 had transformed the Persian government into a constitutional monarchy, and an effort by the shah to reverse the reforms ended in his deposition and exile in 1909.  His son, Ahmad, came to the throne as a minor, and was only crowned ruler in his own right in 1914 at the age of 17.  While the unrest weakened the control of the central government over the country, the elected assembly (the Majlis) has become a hotbed of liberal and nationalist sentiment, who see Britain and Russia (quite rightly) as the primary threats to Persian independence, and thus after the outbreak of war Persian liberals and nationalists have seen an alliance with Germany as the means by which the British and Russians can be ejected from the country.  Government instability is endemic, however, with cabinets constantly collapsing, and the Maljis is just one of the interests in the country to be taken into account in the formation of new cabinets.  The past month has seen yet another cabinet crisis, which is resolved today with the formation of a government by Mustaufi ul-Mamalik, whose reliance on support in the Majlis necessitates an approach to Germany.  He informs the German ambassador, Prince Heinrich XXXI Reuss, that his government desires an alliance, a guarantee of independence, gold to pay the police force, and munitions with which to fight.  Though Reuss recognizes the limited ability of the German government to provide material aid to the Persian government, he knows that if such an approach is rejected, a similar opportunity is not likely to arise again, and thus opens negotiations.

August 10th, 1915

- With the new moon overnight, five Zeppelins attempt the first bombing raid on Britain since the restrictions on striking the City were lifted last month.  While L9 dropped bombs on the town of Goole in Yorkshire, mistaking it for the city of Hull, killing sixteen, the four others had intended on striking London.  All, however, lose their way - L13 turns back due to engine trouble, L10 bombs the island of Sheppey, mistaking it for the docks of east London, and L11 drops his payload in the waters off Lowestoft, its captain thinking they were over Harwich.  The captain of L12 is similarly confused, dropping his bombs on Dover thinking he too was over Harwich.  Only three incendiaries fall on land, injuring three, while L12 is struck by antiaircraft fire from a British 3-inch gun.  Two cells of the Zeppelin are ruptured and vent their gas, and the resulting loss of buoyancy causes Z12 to fall into the Channel at 340am.  The crew is rescued by a German torpedo-boat, which drags the wreck to Zeebrugge, arriving at noon.  In the spirit of the night's debacle, three British aircraft attempt to bomb the wreckage of L12 to prevent its salvage, but all miss while one of their number is shot down.

The Zeppelins L10, L11, and L13, as seen from L12, en route to bomb London.

The Zeppelin L12 after crash-landing in the Channel early on the morning of Aug. 10th, 1915.  The collapsed cells at the rear of the
Zeppelin were those struck by antiaircraft fire over Dover.

- Field Marshal Sir John French informs Joffre today of his decision that while the BEF will attack south of La Bassée Canal as the latter desires, it is to take the form of an artillery bombardment as opposed to an infantry assault.  To Joffre such an operation would still be insufficient to provide any significant assistance to the French offensive in Artois, and he asks the minister of war to apply pressure to Kitchener in an effort to convince the latter to overrule the commander of the BEF.

- As part of the redeployment of forces for the French autumn offensive, the stretch of the front held by 2nd Army in Artois has been taken over in part by the BEF and in part by 6th Army, and it has been transferred to Champagne, where it will comprise the right wing of the assault.  General Pétain is also to command 2nd Army, but to mask the French concentration in Champagne he was initially named the assistant to General Castlenau of the Army Group of the Centre, and today is appointed to command what is to be referred to as Pétain Group.

- On the Eastern Front, General Alexeiev orders a further withdrawal of the armies under his command, instructing 12th, 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 3rd Armies to pull back to a line running from Ossoviets in the north to Ciechanowiec on the Bug River, and henceforth southwards along the Bug.  Once the Russian armies have reached this line, the salient in central Poland will have almost ceased to exist.  For the time being, however, 3rd Army is to hold its current line in southern Poland to cover the flank of the retreating armies.

Meanwhile, the Russian evacuation of central Poland continues to open opportunities for the rapid advance of German and Austro-Hungarian forces, and the army group under Prince Leopold and the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army make rapid progress today against minimal opposition.  Along the southern face of the salient, Mackensen had expected his 11th Army to launch its assault on the Russian line here today, but unexpected difficulties force him to postpone the advance until tomorrow; the Russians have flooded the valley of the Tysmienica River, necessitating the redeployment of divisions to pass on either side, and great difficulties have been encountered in bringing up sufficient artillery shells.  To the east, the Army of the Bug has ground its way forward, advancing several miles, but is unable to secure a breakthrough.

- Bulgarian Lieutenant-Colonel Petur Ganchev returns to Sofia today where he relays his discussions with Falkenhayn to Minister President Radoslavov.  It is clear to the latter that the Germany are prepared to meet Bulgaria's terms for entry to the war.  Moreover, the events of the past week - the fall of Warsaw and the failure of the British landing at Sulva Bay - provide further evidence that the Germans are winning the war, which appears to minimize the risk to Bulgaria of joining the war on the German side.  With Ferdinand's support, Radoslavov concludes that the time has come to move off the fence.

July 20th, 1915

- Vice-Admiral Gustav Bachmann appeals directly to the Kaiser today to lift the remaining restrictions on bombing the City of London left in place by Bethmann-Hollweg.  The Chief of the German Naval Staff argues that limiting raids to the weekend is impractical, given how dependent Zeppelins are on good weather, and raises the French bombing of Karlsruhe as showing prior Entente attacks on civilians.  Under pressure the Kaiser relents, asking only that royal palaces be spared.  German Zeppelins now have free reign to attack London and other British targets as they see fit.

- Today the German force under General Gallwitz arrives at the Narew River north and northwest of Warsaw, only to encounter a strong Russian counterattack between Pultusk and Rozan.  Though the German line holds, it delays the crossing of the Narew for several days.  Meanwhile, on Gallwitz's southern flank a force of Landwehr and Landsturm is assembled to beiege the major Russian fortress of Novogeorgievsk, and command is given to General Beseler, famous for the rapid capture of Antwerp in October 1914.

- On the southern face of the Polish salient, the German 11th and Austro-Hungarian 4th Armies have reached the new Russian defensive line just south of the vital Lublin-Cholm railway, and launch energetic today.  Though the Russians lose ground in some sectors, and 4th Army in particular takes six thousand prisoners, neither the Germans nor the Austro-Hungarians are able to break through.

- The Italian 3rd Army today concentrates its offensive power on Monte San Michelle on the northern shoulder of the Karst plateau.  An intensive artillery bombardment blankets not only the main enemy defensive positions but also area to the east of San Michelle, preventing the Austro-Hungarian 93rd Division from reinforcing 17th Honved and 20th Honved Divisions on the mountain itself.  After several hours of heavy fighting, elements of the Italian XI Corps capture the heights at 530pm.  The local Austro-Hungarian commander immediately prepares a counteroffensive to launched in the pre-dawn hours of tomorrow.

Monte San Michelle on the Italian Front.

- In the months leading up to the entry of Italy into the war, Austria-Hungary had feared that Romania would join the ranks of their enemies as well.  Such concern was not without foundation: Romania and Italy had held diplomatic discussions prior to May 1915, and Russia had also applied great pressure on the Romanian government to enter the war.  However, the dramatic victories won by the Germans on the Eastern Front over the past two months has greatly dampened the enthusiasim of the Romanian government for war, and today Prime Minister Bratianu decides that Romania will remain neutral, at least in the foreseeable future.

- After sinking the French steamer Carthage on the 4th, the German submarine U21 spent two weeks evading Entente countermeasures, and after striking a mine limped back to Constantinople on the 16th.  As U21 will be out of action for two weeks, the German admiralty decides today to dispatch two more ocean-going submarines to the Mediterranean, drawn by the opportunity not only to strike at Entente warships off the Dardanelles but also against merchant shipping.

July 9th, 1915

- Even though the Kaiser had given permission on May 5th for Zeppelin raids on London east of the Tower, this has been insufficient for those within the German navy who desire a more thorough and intensive bombing campaign against Britain, one which specifically targets the City of London, the financial heart of the British Empire and home to the Stock Exchange, the Bank of England, and the headquarters of numerous mercantile firms.  Desiring to have the restriction lifted, Vice-Admiral Gustav Bachmann uses the recent French bombing of Karlsruhe in approaching Bethmann-Holweg today to argue for free reign for the navy's Zeppelins.  The Chancellor agrees to permit bombing raids on the City, provided that they be undertaken only on weekends (to prevent significant civilian casualties) and that historic buildings such as St. Paul's Cathedral and the Tower be spared.  While such limits may sound good in theory, they are hopelessly impractical for Zeppelin crews struggling to identify targets in darkness and while under fire.  Bachmann is thus not satisfied with Bethmann-Hollweg's concession.

- The Russian 3rd Army attacks all along the front in southern Poland today, and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army is able to hold its positions only by the slenderest of margins after bitter hand-to-hand fighting and several counterattacks to recover lost ground.  Reports from the Austro-Hungarian corps commanders, however, emphasize the exhaustion of the infantry, especially in light of the oppressive heat and lack of water.  Fearing that the Russians may be able to break through by tomorrow afternoon, 4th Army commander requests additional reinforcements; in response Conrad reassigns 4th Division, formerly of 1st Army and en route to the Bug River, to 4th Army.

- In March 1915 the Austro-Hungarian navy, realizing that the war would be lengthy, decided to order the construction of four submarines based on the design of the Havmanden-class, three of which had been built for Denmark before the war by the Whiteyard in Fiume.  This being Austria-Hungary, of course, internal politics naturally had their role to play: the Hungarian government demanded a significant share of production be allocated to Hungarian firms.  To achieve this, the contract signed today provides for the submarines to be partially built in Linz and Pola, after which the parts will be transferred to Pola or Fiume for completion.  Such unnecessary duplication of effort has been endemic to the Dual Monarchy both before and during the war, and is one of the key impediments to an adequate mobilization of the economy to support the war effort.

- Prime Minister Botha of South Africa accepts the surrender of the German colony of South West Africa today, the latter becoming the second of Germany's four colonies (the first being Togoland) to submit to the Entente since the outbreak of the war.  In the course of this campaign the South Africans suffered a mere 113 dead through enemy action and 153 through disease or accident; a further 263 had been wounded; indeed, the South Africans had suffered greater losses suppressing the Boer Rebellion than in the fight for German South West Africa.  Central both to the low casualty total and indeed the campaign itself has been mobility; repeatedly as the main South African column advanced inland from the coast, it used mobility to outflank German positions and force the latter to fall back.  More than half of the soldiers under Botha's command were mounted, a ratio not only in complete contrast to the fighting in Europe but largely unseen since the sixteenth century.  Coupled with the timeless use of horses and mules, however, was a modern innovation: the internal combustion engine, as the rapid advances were only sustainable because trucks carried water over deserts.

German casualties were also light; only 103 were killed and 195 wounded, while 890 were made prisoner.  The preponderance of POWs among the German total reflected the unwillingness of the defenders to fight to the bitter end.  Further, the remaining German force in the field upon surrender numbered 4730 men, and included thirty-seven field guns, eight thousand rifles, and two million rounds of ammunition.  The Germans had the manpower and material to continue resistance through a guerilla campaign, but lacked the willingness.  Of crucial import was that the white officers and soldiers were also colonists.  Not only would a guerilla campaign destroy the economy and infrastructure of the colony they had created, but the social dislocation that would have ensued would have undermined the racial hierarchy that was the very basis of the colonial project.  For many Germans in the colony, the maintenance of white rule was a greater priority than the maintenance of German rule.

Further, this concern was shared by the South Africans:  the terms of the armistice allowed Germans reservists to return to their homes, German schools to function, and the German civilian administration to remain in place.  What Botha and the South Africans aspired to was to rule German South West Africa as a colony, and in this endeavour white rule would be as crucial as it was in South Africa itself.  Thus, once military resistance had ceased, it was in the interests of South Africa to cooperate with the white German colonial population to maintain minority rule over the majority indigenous population.  Though the campaign in German South West Africa had been triggered by the outbreak of war in Europe, how the campaign was fought and the settlement which followed were of a piece with the nature of European imperialism and colonial rule in Africa.

June 7th, 1915

- After the formation of the coalition government in Britain, the existing War Council was renamed the Dardanelles Committee, but otherwise retained the same functions and membership; indeed, for now Churchill even remains a members.  Today it meets for the first time in three weeks, and given the name change it is not surprising that the ongoing campaign on Gallipoli is the focus of discussion.  The early enthusiasm of February and March for the operation has dissipated, replaced by bewilderment at the lack of success and uncertainty as to the best course of action.  Should Gallipoli be reinforced, which by definition means taking units from elsewhere, or should it be evacuated, thus giving the Ottomans a great morale victory and damaging British prestige throughout the Balkans and the Muslim world.  After discussion today, including a memo from Churchill, it is agreed to send out a further three divisions to Gallipoli, constituting the reinforcements General Hamilton had requested after the failure of the Second Battle of Krithia.  No one as of yet is willing to countenance the embarrassment of defeat by advocating evacuation.

- Overnight three Zeppelins attempted bombing raids on England, with varying degrees of success.  The naval Zeppelin L9 drops ten explosive and fifty incendiary bombs on Hull, causing the most extensive damage inflicted on England by a Zeppelin to date.  Indeed, during the day there are anti-German riots in Hull, mobs attacking businesses supposedly owned by Germans.  The two army Zeppelins sent against England - LZ38 and LZ39 - suffer a much different fate.  The former develops engine trouble and returns to its base near Brussels, only to have its shed bombed by two British aircraft based at Dunkirk after daybreak.  LZ39, meanwhile, earns the dubious distinction of being the first Zeppelin shot down by enemy fire.  Near Ghent it was attacked by several British aircraft, and Flight Sub-Lieutenant Warneford manages to drop a bomb that detonates on the airship, causing it to burst into flames and plummet to the earth.  The victory earns Warneford acclaim and the Victoria Cross, while the German army concludes the Zeppelins under its direction would be more profitably used in reconnaissance and bombing roles on the Eastern Front.

June 1st, 1915

- Earlier this month the leadership of the German armed forces prevailed on the Kaiser to loosen his restrictions regarding the bombing of London; henceforth, it is permissible to target the city east of the Tower of London.  Overnight the first bombing raid on the British capital is undertaken by the zeppelin LZ-38, which drops several bombs and killing thirteen people.  No targets of any real strategic significance are hit, but the experience of being under fire is new to the city's inhabitants, and the raid also highlights the current inability of the Royal Flying Corps to stop such attacks.  Of fifteen aircraft scrambled to intercept the zeppelin, only one so much as makes a visual sighting, while anti-aircraft fire is negligible; LZ-38 is never in any real danger.

- In Artois elements of the German XIV Corps retakes the trenches north of the sugar factory west of Souchez, but the trenches on the factory's other flank remain in French hands.  To the south, the French 5th Division of III Corps attacks between Neuville and a confused network of trenches to the north of Roclincourt known as the Labyrinth.  In bitter fighting they are repulsed near Neuville, but are able to seize and hold the first trench line of the Labyrinth.

- Overnight the Russians launch counterattacks all along the front of the German 11th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Armies in Galicia.  Those that fall on the Germans, and in particular X and Guard Corps, are particularly heavy, but fail to make any headway whatsoever.  To the north, however, the Russians have more success.  Attacking at 2am, elements of the Russian XIV Corps break through the southern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 8th Division, capturing the town of Rudnik and establishing a bridgehead three kilometres wide on the west bank of the San River.  In response the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army pulls five battalions from VIII Corps to the northwest and sends them to south in an effort to hold the line.

The advance of the Russian XIV Corps at Rudnik, June 1st, 1915.

- In the context of the ongoing disaster in Galicia the Russian government is increasingly sensitive to criticism of its management of the war effort, and one perceived shortfall of the government has been the supply (or lack thereof) of munitions.  To head off this line of attack, the government today appoints a special commission to supervise the supply of the army, implicitly diminishing the role of army headquarters in dictating the production of munitions.

- North of Qurna on the Tigris River elements of 6th Indian Division hit the main Ottoman defensive line at Bahran, only to encounter token resistance; most of the defenders have already broken and fled to the north.  General Nixon, arriving from Qurna, convinces a reluctant General Townshend to order a pursuit to take advantage of the success.  By necessity the advance will be led by the naval flotilla assembled for the operation, and several gunboats lead the way up the river.

- In Washington today President Wilson meets with his cabinet to discuss the reply of the German government, received on May 28th, to the first American note regarding Lusitania.  The German communication had avoided dealing with the American request to halt unrestricted submarine warfare; instead, it had stated that Lusitania was an armed merchant cruiser with guns on its deck, and had often flown the American flag illegally to avoid German attacks.  The Americans should investigate this situation, and until this was done Germany would postpone any decision on unrestricted submarine warfare.  Wilson sees the German statement as a diversion from the central issue of the impossibility of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare without risking the lives of neutral, especially American, lives, and he has come to the meeting with a draft for a second American note:

Whatever may be the facts regarding the Lusitania, the principal fact is that a great steamer, primarily and chiefly a conveyance for passengers and carrying more than a thousand souls who had no part or lot in the conduct of the war, was torpedoed and sunk without so much as a challenge or a warning and that men, women, and children were sent to their death in circumstances unparalleled in modern warfare. . . . The United States cannot admit that the proclamation of a war zone . . . may be made to operate as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights . . . of American citizens bound on lawful errands as passengers on ships of belligerent neutrality.'

Wilson is thus staking his position on the right of American citizens to travel as they see fit, without risk of death due to a war in which they are not involved.  As the cabinet discusses the note, the Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, is increasingly restless.  He feels that the American government is not being equally critical of the British, given that their blockade manifestly interferes with the ability of American citizens to trade as they saw fit.  Moreover, he felt that if American citizens chose to sail on the liners of belligerents, they assumed responsibility for the consequences.  Bryan's core argument is that the United States must treat Germany and Britain equally, and fears Wilson's note deviates from that position.  As the discussion continues, Bryan snaps and interjects: 'You people are not neutral.  You are taking sides.'  President Wilson responds coldly to the accusation: 'Mr. Bryan, you are not warranted in making such an assertion.  We all doubtless have our opinions in this matter but there are none of us who can justly be accused of being unfair.' His resolve unshaken, Wilson ensures the meeting endorses his note, even as the gulf between himself and his secretary of state grows.

May 20th, 1915

- In Britain the events of the past few months - the use of gas at Ypres, the sinking of Lusitania, and the bombing raids of Zeppelins - have nurtured an anti-German hysteria that needed little encouragement in the first place.  Today the magazine Flight argues that Germans in Britain must be rounded up and interned, as otherwise they may light fires to direct Zeppelin bombing raids at night.

- After a three day delay caused by poor weather, the first of the new methodical attacks, as ordered by General Foch, are launched today in Artois by the French 10th Army.  Preceded by a heavy artillery bombardment, French infantry advance several hundred yards, and the newly-won ground is to serve as a jumping off point for further attacks.

Meanwhile Joffre, for his part, issues instructions to his subordinates instructing them that it is vital to place reserves as close to the front lines as possible.  He hopes in future to avoid a repetition of the fighting on May 9th, when infantry of Pétain's XXXIII Corps managed to reach Vimy Ridge but were pushed back due to reserves being deployed too far behind the front line, allowing the Germans to push the successful infantry back off the high ground.

- The German threat to the inner flanks of the Russian XXIV and III Caucasian Corps diminishes today when 56th Division, acting in accordance with Mackensen's orders to consolidate control of the bridgehead over the San River, pulls back behind the Lubaczowka River.

On the Russian side, General Dimitriev of 3rd Army, who has had to watch his command crumble under two and a half weeks of near-constant German pressure, is dismissed today, replaced by the commander of XII Corps.

- Owing to exhaustion, the fighting between the western wings of the Russian 9th and Austro-Hungarian 7th Armies in the eastern Carpathians dies out today.  Neither side has accomplished its objectives, though in the larger picture this favours the Austro-Hungarians, in that the Russian attacks here have not forced them to pull additional forces away from the San River fighting to hold on to the Bukovina.

- As scheduled, at 2pm this afternoon the Italian Chamber of Deputies is called to order.  Prime Minister Salandra introduces the bill by which parliament will cede full financial powers to the government in the event of war; in practical terms, parliament is being asked to give the government the authority to go to war.  Salandra also gives a brief address, emphasizing the perceived violations of the Triple Alliance by Austria-Hungary, both by going to war without consultation in July 1914 and by failing to provide territorial compensation for aggrandizement in the Balkans.  Foreign Minister Sonnino then presents diplomatic telegrams outlining the course of negotiations with Austria-Hungary up to the denunciation of the alliance on May 4th; to Sonnino's credit, the telegrams are only heavily edited, as opposed to being outright forgeries.  After brief discussion, the bill is passed by a margin of 407 to 74; most of the opposition comes from the Revolutionary Socialists and deputies from the rural south, where neutralist opinion is strongest.  At 7pm Salandra adjourns Chamber, and the deputies depart singing the Garibaldi hymn.  This outburst of enthusiasm for war is the last echo of the 'Radiant Days of May'.

- For the past four weeks, the Ottoman city of Van has been the scene of bitter fighting between Armenian insurgents and the Ottoman garrison.  The Armenian population has been besieged, but have been able to hold off efforts of the Ottomans to crush the rising.  In response, the local governor pushed tens of thousands of Armenian refugees into the city in the hopes of causing starvation, while thousands of Armenian prisoners have been murdered.  This takes place, of course, while wholesale massacres have been taking place in the countryside.

As the desperate clash at Van has been ongoing, however, the Russian army has been approaching from the east.  Three days ago, the Ottoman forces lifted their siege of Van, and today elements of the Russian army arrive at the city.  The Armenian population is jubilant at the arrival of their saviours, and the Armenian elders of Van offer the Russian commanding general the keys to the city, and in return the Russians appoint the leader of the Armenian defence committee, Aram Manoukian, governor of the region.  Freed from the yoke of Ottoman oppression and the threat of massacre, the Armenians take violent revenge.  Now that they have the upper hand, it is the turn of Ottoman prisoners to be murdered.  Armenians also torch many of the important buildings of Van, seen as symbols of Ottoman tyranny.

The fall of Van, moreover, serves to reinforce the paranoia of the leadership of the Ottoman Empire regarding the Armenian population.  It is all the easier now to see the Armenians as a mortal internal threat to the survival of the empire, given their apparent cooperation with the Russians.  It accelerates efforts to deport and exterminate the Armenian population throughout eastern Anatolia.

- At the height of the Battle of Sarikamish in December, Russian forces had evacuated Persian Azerbaijan, but after the crushing victory achieved in the battle had returned, reoccupying Tabriz at the end of January.  According to the terms of the Anglo-Russian Convention, northern Persia was within the Russian sphere of influence, and considering its proximity to the Ottoman Empire it is seen as a southern extension of the Caucasus front and the Russian government is eager to secure effective control of the region.  Two days ago, a Russian banker was murdered in Isfahan, in the centre of Persia, and the Russian government uses the episode to justify the dispatch of additional troops to protect Persian interests in northern Persia, the detachment landing at Enzeli today.  However, the proximity of Enzeli to Teheran - just over a hundred and fifty miles separates the two - raises fears among German diplomats that the Russians may attempt to seize control of the government and the country as a whole.

May 17th, 1915

- This morning a letter reaches Andrew Bonar Law, the Canadian-born leader of the British Conservative Party, from Admiral Fisher, in which the latter announces his resignation as First Sea Lord.  In his typical manner, Fisher holds nothing back: 'W.C. MUST god at all costs!  AT ONCE . . . because a very great disaster is very near us in the Dardanelles . . . W.C. is a bigger danger than the Germans by a long way.'

Even without the hyperbole, Bonar Law recognizes the significance of this information.  For the past three days he has been struggling to maintain control of his backbenchers, the latter enraged over the report of the 14th in The Times regarding a shortage of shells during the Battle of Aubers Ridge.  Bonar Law wants to maintain the electoral truce, but he may not be able to control his own party.  With this morning's letter he realizes that the resignation of Fisher will be the final straw for many Conservative MPs, who have long despised Churchill for abandoning the party in 1904 over Tariff Reform.  Further, in their eyes Churchill's a administration of the Admiralty in wartime has been a failure: not only has there not been a decisive victory over the High Seas Fleet, but the Antwerp diversion was a debacle and the Dardanelles operation appears to be going nowhere.

After receiving Fisher's letter Bonar Law calls on Lloyd George and asks for confirmation of Fisher's resignation.  When Lloyd George provides this, Bonar Law replies that 'the situation is impossible.'  Lloyd George agrees, and the pair visit 10 Downing Street where they inform Asquith of the situation.  The Prime Minister recoils at the prospect of heated parliamentary debates and denunciations of the management of the war.  Further, the Liberal government is a minority, and the possibility exists that it might not survive under effective Conservative criticism.  Lloyd George recommends the formation of a coalition government between the parties, in order to head off opposition in the House of Commons.  Asquith does not hesitate in accepting this, his willingness to fight for his government perhaps fatally undermined by the news of the 14th regarding Venetia Stanley.  It is certainly the case that Asquith never seriously appears to have contemplated fighting the Conservatives, and is perfectly willing to jettison Liberal colleagues to find cabinet places for Conservatives.  Most prominent of Bonar Law's conditions for a coalition government is that Churchill must be removed as First Lord of the Admiralty.  Neither Asquith nor Lloyd George flinch at the prospect of dismissing their colleague, perhaps realizing it may be the price of keeping their own positions.

Churchill, for his part, has no idea what has transpired when he arrives at 10 Downing Street later this morning to report that he has a new First Sea Lord and is ready to defend his record in the House of Commons.  Asquith instead replies that there will be no debate in the House; instead, a coalition government will be formed and, turning to Churchill, asks 'what are we to do with you?'  It is at this moment that Churchill realizes that his time at the Admiralty may be at an end.  Later this evening, after digesting the news, Churchill writes to Asquith that he would only accept office in the new government if it is directly related to the war effort; otherwise, he would prefer to take up a command in France.

- Overnight the German zeppelin LZ39 was intercepted by several aircraft of the Royal Naval Air Service.  They attack the airship by dropping bombs on it, and though it remains in the air LZ39 is sufficiently damaged to force a return to base.

- The first of the new attacks by the French 10th Army in Artois was scheduled to be launched today, but is postponed due to poor weather.  Meanwhile the Germans have been attempting to retake the ground lost to the French on Lorette Spur.  These attacks, however, have failed, and have worn out the regiments of 117th Division.

- After an intensive bombardment the British launch another attack near Festubert today, and succeed in pushing back the German lines.  Indeed, there are indications of a crisis of morale in German ranks, as a number of prisoners are taken before the British infantry had even begun their advance.  To reinforce the line 6th Army brings in several battalions of Bavarians and Saxons, as well as 38th Landwehr Brigade.  Crucially, they are drawn not from 6th Army's reserve, but rather from the north; the brigade is taken from 4th Army.  Thus even though the British have achieved some tactical success at Festubert, they have failed in drawing away German forces from the French offensive to the south, which was the primary reason for the operation.

- The German 11th Army secures a third crossing of the San River today at Nielepkowice north of Jaroslau.  Meanwhile Mackensen orders those forces already across the river to consolidate their bridgeheads.

- Just after midnight elements of the Russian 9th Army attempt to storm the town of Delatyn in Bukovina, in the centre of the line held by the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army.  In bitter fighting the latter are forced back from the outer defences, but the Russians are unable to break into the town itself.  Just as with the Austro-Hungarian attacks to the west, initial advances quickly degenerate into static fighting.

- The reappointed cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra meets today to discuss Italian entry into the war, and agrees to submit a bill to parliament when it reconvenes on the 20th to vest full financial powers in the government in case of war.  Also, ex-premier Giovanni Giolitti departs Rome for Piedmont today, knowing full well that attempting to fight for peace when parliament meets in three days would be a lost cause.

March 20th, 1915

- After giving his approval on the 11th for army Zeppelins to bombard London, the Kaiser has been typically plagued by second thoughts, and rescinded his order.  Deprived of their primary target, three Zeppelins instead bombard Paris today.

- The French 4th Army calls a halt today to major offensive operations, bringing an end to the 1st Battle of Champagne.  Over the past two months of fighting, 4th Army has suffered over 93 000 casualties, while advancing an average of one kilometre over a three kilometre stretch of the front.  On the other side, German casualties were only half those of the French.  Among the lessons the French take from the campaign, which Joffre deems to have been a success, is the vital importance of heavy artillery to smash the way through enemy defenses and the need for better offensive tactics.

- After painstaking preparations, today the Bavarian 8th Reserve Division recaptures the summit of Reichsackerkopf, west of Munster in the Vosges.

The front line in the Vosges, March 1915.

- With the last breakout attempt defeated and food stocks exhausted, the fate of the Przemsyl garrison has been sealed, and today Emperor Franz Joseph sends a validictory message to the fortress commander:

It saddens me greatly that the bold breakout attempt by the Przemysl garrison was shattered yesterday by the enemy's larger force.  Yet I gaze with a sad pride upon the incomparable self-sacrifice of the brave men whose efforts weren't crowned with success.  I wholeheartedly thank everyone who fought for their heroic deed.  I make the sign of the cross over every one of them who gave their lives on the field of honor.  Even in the distant future, history will record what Austria-Hungary's warriors achieved during the stubborn defense of Przemysl.  They were unflinching and brave until the end.

March 17th, 1915

- German Army Zeppelins attempt today to bombard London, but not only are they unable to find their target in a heavy fog, they cannot even find England itself.  Instead, Z XII drops bombs on Calais, only to damage itself during landing.

- In Champagne there is heavy fighting for the heights north of Le Mesnil, where a German attack by 16th Reserve Division at 445am is turned back after an inadequate preliminary bombardment.  This evening the commander of 3rd Army orders more through preparations for an assault to retake Hill 196, taken yesterday by the French.

- Joffre today writes to the Minister of War, informing him of the situation on the Western Front.  He states that the fighting in Champagne since January has demonstrated that the commitment of considerable reserves and significant amounts of material were necessary to achieve decisive success in a major operation.  It would take time for such reserves to be formed, but in the interim Joffre intends to conduct offensives of a smaller scale, aiming to maintain morale about the soldiers and keep pressure on the Germans.

- The attack planned for today by the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army between the Vistula River and the western Carpathians, but poor weather has forced its postponement for twenty-four hours.

- With Admiral Robeck having resigned yesterday due to illness, he is replaced as commander of the Dardanelles expedition by Rear Admiral John de Robeck, formerly the second-in-command.  Churchill immediately encourages de Robeck to energetically attack the straits, and the later, accepting Carden's plan, states that with good weather the operation will begin tomorrow.

- As the naval campaign at the Dardanelles reaches its climax, a bizarre sideshow has been ongoing at the nearby Bulgarian port of Degeagatch on the Aegean coast.  For several days two Britons - Griffin Eady, a civil engineer, and Edwin Whittall, a businessman - who had been longtime residents of the Ottoman Empire have been in secret negotiations with a representative of the Ottoman government.  The negotiations had been initiated by Rear-Admiral William R. 'Blinker' Hall, the shadowy Director of Naval Intelligence and head of Room 40, and he had authorized Eady and Whittall to offer a £4 million bribe in exchange for the Ottomans withdrawing from the war.  Whether the Ottoman representative had any actual authority to negotiate, given Enver Pasha's grip on the government, is unknown, and moreover Hall has authorized the negotiations and the bribe entirely on his own initiative, without reference to the Admiralty, Cabinet, or the Foreign Office.  When the First Lord uncovered Hall's plot, he ordered the negotiations terminated, given the apparently imminent victory at the Dardanelles, and Eady and Whittall depart Degeagatch today.

- For the past three days Emden's landing party has been aboard two zambuks, sailing north along the east coast of the Red Sea.  Each of the two ships carries thirty-five men in a space measuring only fourteen metres by four.  Even beyond overcrowding the past few days have been uncomfortable for the Germans: both zambuks are infested with cockroaches, bedbugs, lice, and other insects.  In the words of First Officer Mücke, all clothing not in use had to be tied down, lest it run away, and in the daily 'louse hunts' the record for one shirt was seventy-four lice.

To keep Entente blockade ships at bay, the zambuks have been sailing within the coral reefs of the Farsan Bank.  While the reefs are dangerous for large ships, smaller ones such as the zambuks are still at risk.  Just after 6pm this evening the lead zambuk strikes a coral reef, and only after several efforts is able to reach deeper waters.  The second zambuk, following two hundred yards behind, is not so lucky - in trying to avoid one reef, it strikes another and sinks.  The able-bodied sailors from the stricken zambuk are able to swim to the other, while two dugouts from the surviving zambuk are able to bring back the sick.  In order to fit all aboard without floundering, however, most of the provisions had to be thrown overboard, leaving the Germans with food and water for only three days, in addition to their weapons and ammunition.

March 11th, 1915

- In direct response to the German declaration of a war zone around Britain and the commencement of unrestricted submarine warfare, the British declare a total blockade of Germany today.  Henceforth, Entente navies would prevent all cargoes, not just contraband, from reaching German ports.

- The Zeppelins belonging to the German army are today authorized to conduct aerial bombardments of London.

- In Canada, recruiting for a second contingent began even while the first was still training on Salisbury Plain.  Today, Lord Kitchener informs the Canadian government that the transportation of the first elements of the second contingent across the Atlantic will commence in late April.

- Overnight, German forces have constructed a new defensive line across the breach open yesterday at Neuve Chapelle, while also deploying additional artillery batteries.  In the morning mist the new positions go unseen, such that when a British attack is launched at 7am, it runs into a hail of machine gun and artillery fire from elements of the German 14th Division.  A second attack in the evening is similarly dispatched as further German reinforcements, this time from 6th Bavarian Division, arrive on the battlefield.

- In Champagne the major assault of the French XVI Corps is scheduled to begin tomorrow, and this evening its commander issues his final orders to his subordinates.  He instructs that every soldier is to participate in the advance, with none left to occupy trenches, and that every piece of ground seized is to be immediately consolidated and used as a launching pad for further attacks.

- The results of the reorganization of the German army, to incorporate the newest cohort of recruits while creating a large reserve of experienced divisions, are not as promising as Falkenhayn had originally hoped.  Instead of the anticipated twenty-four new divisions, it is now apparent that, due to losses and other requirements, only fourteen new divisions can be created.  This is less than the force envisioned in 6th Army's proposed operation for an offensive north of the Somme.  Despite this setback, Falkenhayn remains committed to undertaking an attack in the West - writing today to Colonel Seeckt, 11th Army's Chief of Staff, he emphasizes that he still plans to force a return to a war of movement on the Western Front through a major breakthrough that culminates in victory over the Entente.

- Since the beginning of March, the German 10th Army has been gradually falling back towards the line it held prior to the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, as the position it had won in the battle had been rendered untenable due to Russian pressure on the flanks.  It has been cautiously followed by the Russian 10th Army, but two days ago the Germans turned the tables on their pursuers, and after several furious days of fighting the Russians have been halted.  The Germans are thus able to assume defensive positions and stalemate returns to the front.  Despite the victory last month at Masurian Lakes, in terms of territory the Germans find themselves right back where they started.

- After four days of fighting the offensive of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army has stalled, unable to maintain the early momentum towards Gorlize and Staszkowka, at a cost of six thousand casualties.

Meanwhile, the garrison of the besieged fortress of Przemysl reports today that after the slaughter of all horses and a thorough search for all available food it will be able to hold out until March 24th, at which point surrender will be necessary to avoid starvation.  The winter battles in the Carpathians are approaching their climax; the Austro-Hungarians must break through immediately if Przemysl is to be relieved before it falls.

The Russians, however, have other ideas.  General Brusilov has been concerned that the advance of the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, particularly near Lupkow, threatens the flank of the Russian forces facing 3rd Army to the west.  To negate this possibility, Russian forces attack today near Lupkow, and the Austro-Hungarian 29th Division is forced to yield the ground it had conquered over the past few days.

- At the Dardanelles the minesweepers are sent into the straits unescorted tonight, hoping to catch the Ottomans by surprise.  The result was about what one would expect, as Keyes related:

The less said about that night the better.  To put it briefly, the sweepers turned tail and fled as soon as they were fired upon.  I was furious and told the officers . . . that it did not matter if we lost all seven sweepers, there were twenty-eight more, and the mines had got to be swept up.  How could they talk about being stopped by heavy fire if they were not hit?

- At the Admiralty, Churchill has received reports of Ottoman ammunition shortages at the Dardanelles, and sends orders to Carden to abandon his methodical attempts to bombardment the forts and sweep the minefields, and instead press forward with maximum force.  In Churchill's views, any losses that may occur would be amply compensated by the strategic consequences of victory at the Dardanelles.

- The landing party of the German light cruiser Emden arrives today back at Hodeida, from which it had departed a month earlier.  Intending to continue their journey by sea, they must secure new vessels, as Choising, the merchant ship upon which they had crossed the Indian Ocean, had been sent away upon their arrival at Hodeida.  As there are no steamships to be had, First Officer Mücke acquires two zambuks, small sailboats fourteen meters long and four meters wide, used along the Arabian coast.  The party intends to sail from Yabana, a small bay north of Hodeida, on the fourteenth, while to deflect unwanted attention Mücke spreads the rumour that they will instead sail from Isa Bay on the thirteenth.

March 4th, 1915

- Today the commander of the German 6th Army submits to Falkenhayn a plan for a major offensive operation in northern France, drawn up by the army's chief of staff.  It called for a breakthrough on both sides of Arras, followed by an advance to the northwest towards the Channel coast between Calais and Boulogne.  To the north, a secondary attack around Mount Kemmel would pin the Entente forces north of the breakthrough, while the southern flank would be protected by forces taking up defensive positions along the line Albert-Doullens-Authis.

Particular focus in the plan is placed on the initial breakthrough, working out in detail how such a success could be achieved given the stalemate on the Western Front.  It argued that the initial attack should be undertaken by six corps along a twenty-six kilometre front, supported by 160 heavy and 374 field batteries.  A further seven corps, plus two cavalry corps, would then follow to exploit the breakthrough.  Special emphasis is placed on the plentiful provisin of artillery ammunition - 6th Army's operations around Ypres in October and November of last year had been hindered by shortages, which could not be repeated if the proposed operation were to be launched.

- This evening the Zeppelin L 8 is ordered to depart the airship base at Gontrode, near Ghent, and return to Düsseldorf.  The commander of L 8 decides to interpret his orders liberally, and departs Gontrode with seventy incendiary bombs, intending to take a circuitous route to Düsseldorf and dropping his payload on the Essex coast.  L 8 flies westward through thick clouds, occasionally descending below the cloud cover to ensure it is following the Channel coast.  At 9pm, it descends to under a thousand feet at Nieuport, firing off recognition signals.  Unfortunately for the Zeppelin, the Belgian trenches extend right to the Channel's edge, and they respond to the sudden appearance of the German airship by riddling it with rifle and machine-gun fire.  L 8 dropped all of its bombs, ballast, and water to rise above the intense fire, and limps back eastward, hydrogen leaking from its air cells.  Just after midnight, it will come down eighty-five miles short of Düsseldorf.

- In the Dover Straits, the British have erected nets with 'indicator' nets in an effort to prevent the movement of German submarines through the English Channel.  Today these nets claim their first victim, U-9, when it becomes entangled and is sunk by gunfire from the destroyer Gurkha.

- Today the growing number of Ottoman soldiers on the Gallipoli peninsula leads to the withdrawal of the last of the Royal Marine landing parties set ashore on the 26th.  Nevertheless, they have accomplished their objective of destroying the remainder of the Ottoman guns at the entrance to the Dardanelles.

Back in London, doubts over the Dardanelles operation continue to gnaw at Admiral Fisher, as he writes to Churchill today: 'The more I consider the Dardanelles the less I like it.'

February 12th, 1915

- In Champagne the major offensive by the French 4th Army was scheduled to be launched today, but the region is in the midst of a major snowstorm, and given that the weather conditions prevent accurate targeting of artillery, General de Langle postpones the attack until the 16th.

- The Kaiser issues an Imperial Order today clarifying his instructions regarding the bombardment of England by Zeppelins.  Emphasizing his desire to see the air war prosecuted 'with the greatest energy,' he authorized the targeting of military bases, barracks, oil tanks, and the London docks.  On the other hand, attacks on the residential areas of London and royal palaces remained forbidden.  Both the army and the navy begin planning for their respective Zeppelins to raid on England.

January 20th, 1915

- As the Zeppelins L 3 and L 4 return to their airbase of Fuhlsbüttel at 940am and 947am, the news of the first bombs dropped on Britain by airships is published in the German press to widespread acclaim.  The reaction in government circles is somewhat more guarded; Wilhelm II praises the conduct of the raid, but is disturbed by the apparent bombing of the royal palace at Sandringham, raising fears among the military leadership that the temperamental Kaiser may yet rescind permission to bomb Britain.  Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, meanwhile, is concerned at the impact on opinion in the neutral states, especially in the United States, over the apparent bombing of undefended cities for no great military gain.  In Britain, meanwhile, satisfaction with the negligible damage is mixed with concern at the inability to prevent such raids - while anti-aircraft guns have been deployed around London and a small number of military targets, the two German Zeppelins had attacked elsewhere and thus flew with relative impunity.

- On the Eastern Front General Ivanov of South-West Front believes the decision by Grand Duke Nicholas to focus on an invasion of East Prussia, as prompted by General Ruszkii, fails to take account of the apparent Russian superiority in Galicia.  Instead, as he informs his subordinates today, Ivanov intends to push into and through the Carpathian Mountains into the Hungary plain, possibly knocking Austria-Hungary out of the war entirely.  Regardless of the merit in Ivanov's plan, it means that once again North-West and South-West Front are working at cross-purposes, pursuing their own plans instead of coordinating their efforts.

- Over the past two days the Mecklenburg 14th Jäger Battalion and the 11th and 15th Ulan Regiments have attacked in the Vosges, working their way around the southern flank of Hartmannswillerkopf, isolating the French defenders on the summit.  In preparation for a final assault on the mountain, it is targeted by a heavy artillery bombardment.