October 10th, 1914

- The orders for the British II Corps is to advance to cover Béthune, placing it on the left flank of the French 10th Army.  By today, II Corps is in the area Diéval-Pernes between St. Pol and Béthune, with 2nd Cavalry Division to its north and 1st Cavalry Division, having just arrived today, to its south.  To the east, two French cavalry corps have prevented the German I and II Cavalry Corps from advancing beyond a line Béthune-Armentières.

The advance of British units in Flanders to October 15th, 1914

- In Germany the four reserve corps destined to form the core of the new 4th Army begin to entrain for the front.

- This morning German forces begin to occupy Antwerp.  They are surprised by how few prisoners they take - all that remained of the Belgian defenders were the Military Governor, his staff officer, and a few stragglers in the surviving forts.  To the end of the siege the Germans had expected to capture the entire Belgian army at Antwerp, and so the realization that it has escaped mars the German victory.

In Britain the fall of Antwerp leads to sharp criticism being directed at Winston Churchill by the press.  Not only is he, by virtue of his 'trip' to Antwerp, the most prominent minister associated with the defeat at Antwerp, and in particular the loss of several thousand men from the Naval Brigades, but his judgement is questioned regarding his presence at Antwerp at all, seen as an amateur interfering with army operations in the field and that he had cast aside his responsibilities as First Lord of the Admiralty to do so.  There is an undertone of distrust regarding Churchill, whether he can sufficiently restrain his famous enthusiasm for whatever catches his fancy at the moment.

- A conference is held today at Ostend between King Albert, General Pau, the representative of Joffre, and General Rawlinson.  The conclusion is that the present position around Ghent cannot be held for long, considering that the nearest significant Entente force is the BEF beginning to arrive west of Lille, and that retreat is necessary.  Given the battered state of the Belgian army, King Albert wonders if they should not withdraw behind the front lines to southwest of Calais, to allow for rest and recovery.

By nightfall most of the Belgian army has pulled back towards Ostend while the British and French remain at Ghent to cover the withdrawal.  The Germans to the east, however, do not immediately move on Ghent, instead turning eastward in the belief that there is still a substantial Belgian force at Antwerp that needs to be contained.

- In Poland the initial plan regarding the Russian offensive was that the armies committed to the operation - the 2nd, 5th, 4th, and 9th, arrayed north to south from Warsaw to Sandomir - would be prepared to advance today.  Mud and supply shortages, however, have delayed their redeployment, and some units have yet to arrive along the east bank of the Vistula River.  General Ivanov, in command of the offensive, is concerned by the German and Austro-Hungarian advance, and does not wish to engage the enemy until his armies are at full strength.  Grand Duke Nicholas, however, is eager to attack, wanting the armies to cross the Vistula immediately.  However, he has no direct line of communication with Ivanov today, so cannot influence the latter's operations.

- King Carol I of Romania dies today, and is succeeded by his nephew Ferdinand I, who is more favourably inclined to the Entente, and who also is willing to give greater leeway to Prime Minister Ion Bratianu, whose primary foreign policy aim is the acquisition of Austro-Hungarian Transylvania.

- In Austria-Hungary a decree is published today authorizing the Austrian Board of Trade to direct the flow of raw materials and organize industrial production in support of the war effort.  While the decree is a step forward in mobilizing the economy for war, it also reflects a key hindrance to the Austro-Hungarian war effort - the decree applies only to the Austrian portion of the empire, as the Hungarian portion insists on controlling its own wartime economy.  The lack of co-ordination between the two halves of Austria-Hungary is demonstrative of the extent to which the divisions of peacetime persist into the war itself.

October 9th, 1914

- General Falkenhayn issues orders today for a major new deployment of German forces on the Western Front.  The corps of the existing 4th Army are reassigned to the adjacent 3rd or 5th armies, and 4th Army headquarters, including is commander Duke Albrecht, are brought north to Flanders.  General Beseler's XIII Reserve Corps is assigned to this army, but the main fighting strength of the new 4th Army are XXII, XXII, XXVI, and XXVII Reserve Corps, each of which consist of two Reserve Divisions.  These four corps were among six whose formation was authorized on August 16th.  They consisted in part of older men who had never been conscripted in their youth (in peacetime Germany had only needed to conscripted 50% of each age cohort to fill the army), in part of older men who had completed prior military service, and volunteers.  It is the latter group who would come to dominant the popular perception of these corps - they are among the hundreds of thousands of young men, many coming straight from the classroom, who, fully imbued with patriotism and romantic notions of a quick and glorious war, had volunteered in the first weeks of the war.  They had had no prior military training, and have had barely any time to learn over the past two month.  It is hoped that what they lacked in martial ability would be compensated by enthusiasm, perhaps the ultimate expression of the pre-war belief that any enemy position could be taken, any task completed, if only the soldiers are sufficiently willing.  The older men were added to give leadership and experience, but many of them are unfit for duty and had been trained in prior decades, before the rise of the machine gun and the other accouterments of twentieth-century warfare.  They are also under-equipped, with fewer artillery batteries as compared to regular corps and lacking field telephones to direct the fire of those artillery pieces they do have.

Given the poor quality of these corps, why are they to be employed in battle two months after their formation?  Indeed, Britain was also mobilizing hundreds of thousands of volunteers, but Kitchener has insisted that it would take a year's training before they were fit for combat.  Their use speaks to the extent that, despite the dismissal of Moltke and the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, Falkenhayn and the General Staff remain enthralled by the vision of rapid victory in the west.  Of these six reserve corps, only one is sent to the Eastern Front, at a time when Hindenburg and Ludendorff are screaming for thirty divisions.  One is sent to help hold the line at Metz, while the remaining four all go to Flanders.  Falkenhayn believes that the Western Front continues to be the place where a decisive, war-winning victory can be achieved, though instead of Schlieffen's sweep around Paris, he perceives that the opportunity exists to outflank the Entente line from the north, advancing to the Somme River and occupying the Channel ports.  Such a success, Falkenhayn believed, would cripple France and ensure ultimate victory.  Further, the only way to achieve the vital margin of superiority to ensure success is to use these four reserve corps - a force of equivalent size cannot be redeployed from the rest of the Western Front, and it would take too much time to send the reserve corps to relieve four more experienced corps and redeploy the latter to Flanders.

Thus 4th Army is to be the hammer behind Falkenhayn's major offensive on the Western Front - with the French line holding south of Arras, they are to punch through between Arras and the Channel coast, an area that for much of the war has been held only by a small number of French territorial and cavalry divisions.  But even as Falkenhayn's orders go out, Entente forces are gathering, and in particular the British Expeditionary Force is redeploying into precisely the same stretch of the front that the Germany 4th Army is to storm through.  Indeed, today also marks the first arrival of BEF units in Flanders: II Corps completes its detraining at Abbeville, while 2nd Cavalry Division arrives between St. Pol and Hesdin.  Thus by coincidence, just as in August at Mons, the BEF is moving into the path of the most important German advance.

- To cover the retreat of the British brigades at Antwerp, Rawlinson dispatches part of 7th Division to Ghent, while the remainder, plus 3rd Cavalry Division, concentrates at Bruges.  The two divisions are also brought under Sir John French's direct command, integrating them into the BEF as IV Corps under General Rawlinson's command.  This illustrates that in future the corps will join up and co-operate with the BEF, as opposed to remaining effectively an independent command along the Schelde.

- As the Royal Marine Brigade, the 2nd Naval Brigade, and the Drake Battalion march westwards, word reaches the British at 230am that the nearest trains are at Gilles Waes, six miles to the northwest.  After an arduous overland journey undertaken in unfamiliar terrain in darkness, the first troops reach Gilles Waes at daybreak, and by 9am the last train leaves the village, with omnibuses picking up stragglers.  Thus were the bulk of the British forces at Antwerp evacuated through the corridor north of the Schelde.  The Belgian 2nd Division also manages to escape, reaching the rest of the Belgian army this evening after a thirty-mile march.

The last military train to leave Gilles Waes, October 9th, 1914.

However, the three battalions of the 1st Naval Brigade who had not received the original orders to retreat would have a much more difficult time evacuating the city.  By the early morning hours, finding that adjacent units had disappeared, realized that a retreat was under way.  After marching through the nearly-abandoned city, they arrived at the Schelde to find that most of the bridges has been destroyed to prevent their usage by the Germans.  Through the requisition of barges and steamers, the battalions are able to get across the Schelde by 4am and arrive at Zwyndrecht, the supposed rendezvous for British forces, to find it abandoned.  Finally learning that the others had gone to Gilles Waes, the three battalions join the refugee columns streaming west, and arrive at the village between 1130 and 345.  A train then arrived to take them west, but at 415 it was learned that the advancing Germans had cut the rail line at Moerbeke.  At this point, the three battalions were exhausted, lacked both food and ammunition, and were in no condition to attempt to fight their way out.  In consequence they took the only other option available to them - they marched north and crossed the Dutch frontier, where they were disarmed and interned for the remainder of the war.  Thus of the three thousand men of the 1st Naval Brigade that arrived at Antwerp, only one thousand escaped.

At Antwerp itself, the Germans discover this morning that the inner forts have been abandoned.  General Beseler thus sends a representative into the city under a white flag to demand its surrender.  Simultaneously, the Military Governor of Antwerp had concluded that further resistance was pointless.  This evening, the Governor signs the surrender of the city and its remaining fortifications.

- The retreat of the German 8th Army ends today as they reach Gumbinnen and the fortified positions along the Angerapp River.  The pursing Russians close up to the German lines, which stabilize along present lines.  The German success at the Battle of the Masurian Lakes has been overturned, and though the Russians do not pose an immediate threat of invasion, they have regained a toehold in East Prussia and claim to have inflicted sixty thousand casualties.  Meanwhile, General Schubert is replaced as 8th Army commander today by General François.

- In Galicia the advancing Austro-Hungarian armies have reached the San River, and though further progress is inhibited by stiffening Russian resistance, they have reached the fortress at Przemysl, lifting the Russian siege.  The Russians had lost forty thousand soldiers attempting to storm Przemysl before it could be relieved, and the Austro-Hungarian units that reached the city today have as their first responsibility the clearing of tens of thousands of Russian corpses from the fortress perimeter.

Further north, as the German 9th Army continues its advance, a detailed Russian order of battle is found on the body of a dead Russian officer.  This reveals that the Russians are massing three entire armies east of the Vistula River around Warsaw.  This intelligence coup comes as a complete surprise to Ludendorff - to this point he believed that most of the Russian armies were still in Galicia.  Instead, he realizes that 9th Army is advancing directly into the main enemy concentration.  The straightforward response would have been to simply call off the offensive; indeed, the ostensible aim of the operation - saving the Austro-Hungarian army - had already been achieved, though more from the Russian redeployment from Galicia to Poland than anything the Germans themselves had done.  However, Ludendorff was hardly one for the straightforward, commonplace solution.  Instead of retreating, he decides that the Germans will attempt to defeat the Russians south of Warsaw before the three Russian armies are fully assembled.  To this end, Ludendorff requests Conrad to extend his line northwards to Ivangorod, to free 9th Army from having to cover southern Poland, and allow it to maneouvre freely.

- In South Africa S. G. Maritz goes into open rebellion today, declaring South Africa independent and announcing war with Britain (and coincidentally, promoting himself to general).  Force B is personally loyal to him, and he threatens to attack Upington unless he is allowed to contact other Boer leaders from the abortive coup attempt of September 15th, including Christian De Wet, C. F. Beyers, and J. C. G. Kemp.

October 8th, 1914

- This morning the German I and II Cavalry Corps, under increasing pressure north of Lens, is rescued by the arrival of XIV Corps, which had entrained at Metz on October 4th and had marched from Mons.  As the German XIV Corps and French XXI Corps grapple to a standstill, the two cavalry corps are redeployed between La Bassée and Armentières.

- Further north, the German IV Cavalry Corps sweeps around Lille and passes through Ypres today, but as they advance down the roads towards Hazebrouck, they are pushed back by the newly-arrived French 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions.

- Field Marshal Sir John French meets with General Ferdinand Foch at the latter's headquarters north of Amiens to discuss the deployment of the British Expeditionary Force.  It is agreed that the BEF will come into the Entente line to the north of General Maud'huy's 10th Army, with the road between Béthune and Lille dividing the two commands.  The British II Corps, the first scheduled to arrive in Flanders, will take its position immediately to the north of the French 10th Army, and next in the line will be III Corps to the north of II Corps, followed by I Corps further north.  In each case, the 1st and 2nd Cavalry Divisions will cover the left flank of the most recently-arrived corps until the next arrives.  They also discuss future operations - the conclusion is that the enemy only has a few cavalry divisions in Flanders, and thus the opportunity exists for a general advance through Lille and for the German flank to be enveloped.

- The German bridgehead secured yesterday by 37th Landwehr Brigade over the Schelde River at Schoonaerde is reinforced today by two further brigades, and in spite of Belgian resistance is able to advance nearly to Lokeren, approximately halfway between the Schelde and the Dutch frontier.  The escape corridor for the soldiers at Antwerp is slowly closely.

- At Antwerp, the German heavy artillery is brought over the Nethe River today, and the bombardment intensifies, both of the city itself and the inner forts.  Fires rage uncontrolled in Antwerp, as the destruction of the waterworks means they cannot be contained.  At 5pm reports arrive at the headquarters of the Belgian commander of the garrison that Forts No. 1 and 2 have been abandoned under intensive German fire.  With the inner line of forts breached, all that remained was to withdraw to the city itself.  In such circumstances, only a portion of the Belgian fortress troops would be required, and thus at 530pm orders were issued for the Belgian 2nd Division and the Royal Marine Division to retreat from Antwerp and move westward to the line of the Terneuzen Canal.  By 1130pm the Belgians were across the Schelde and marching west.

The conveyance of the orders for the retreat of the Royal Naval Division, however, were botched.  Officers were sent to the headquarters of the Royal Marine Brigade and the 1st and 2nd Naval Brigades, and in the case of the Royal Marine Brigade and the 2nd Naval Brigade the orders arrived between 630pm and 7pm.  However, the officer dispatched to 1st Naval Brigade headquarters delivered his order to the Drake Battalion, one of the battalions belonging to the Brigade.  Thus while the Drake Battalion marched out of the line as ordered, the remaining three battalions of the 1st Naval Brigade remained in absolute ignorance of the decision to retreat.  The Royal Marine Brigade (less a rearguard battalion), 1st Naval Brigade, and the Drake Battalion have crossed the Schelde by 10pm, and are marching to Beveren Waes where they are told to expect trains waiting to convey them to Ostend.

- The British 3rd Cavalry Division, commanded by Major-General Sir Julian Byng, disembarks at Ostend over the course of the day.  To cover the landing, the British 7th Division has marched from Bruges to form an arc around Ostend.  Further east, the bulk of the Belgian army has reached the line of the Terneuzen Canal between Ghent and the Dutch frontier, while the French marine brigade is at Ghent itself.  At 5pm General Rawlinson receives instructions from Lord Kitchener ordering his force to cover the anticipated retreat of the British brigades at Antwerp.

The fall of Antwerp, October 8th to 10th, 1914.

- Admiral Craddock is at Port Stanley in the Falklands today, pondering an Admiralty signal he had received yesterday.  It had informed him of the wireless intercept of the 4th indicated that the German East Asiatic Squadron is likely en route to the South American coast, and that he must prepare to 'meet' them with Glasgow, Canopus, Otranto, and either Good Hope or Monmouth, the other to remain in the South Atlantic to protect trade.  He sends a reply to the Admiralty today, questioning the assumption that Scharnhorst and Gneisenau are accompanied only by a single light cruiser, and inquiring about the deployment of the armoured cruiser Defence.  The Admiralty's message of the 7th had made no mention of Defence, implying (though not outright saying) that they feel the existing ships under Craddock's command are sufficient to engage the German squadron.

October 7th, 1914

- The advance of the German I and II Cavalry Corps between Lens and Lille is brought to a halt by the French XXI Corps, which has detrained at Béthune.

The German cavalry sweep north of Arras and Lens, October 1914.

- Early this morning, two German battalions of the 37th Landwehr Brigade succeed in crossing the Schelde River at Schoonaerde, nine miles west of Termonde.  Despite counterattacks by the Belgian 6th Division during the day, the bridgehead hold, and during the evening the rest of the brigade crosses the Schelde.  The distance between Schoonaerde and the Dutch border is a mere twelve miles, through which any forces that wish to escape Antwerp must pass.  The Belgian army decides that it must now pass through the corridor before it closes, and plans on taking up position along the Terneuzen Canal, running from Ghent to the Dutch border.  The Belgian 1st and 5th divisions are sent westwards first, while 3rd and 6th divisions act as a flank guard along the Schelde.  King Albert also moves his headquarters today from Antwerp to Selzaete along the Terneuzen Canal.

The focus of the German effort against Antwerp today is bringing heavy artillery across the Nethe River.  Though the movement is delayed by difficulties with bridging equipment, just before midnight 6-inch howitzers begin the bombardment of the city itself.

Men of the British Naval Brigades in trenches at Antwerp, October 7th, 1914.

- Within Antwerp itself, proclamations are posted throughout the city announcing that German bombardment of the city is imminent, and advised those who wish to leave Antwerp must do so at once.  Appropriate to the mood of the civilian population, Antwerp is covered by a dense cloud of black smoke, emanating from oil-tanks to the west of the city which had been set on fire to prevent their capture by the Germans.  Thousands flock to the docks, attempting to crowd aboard every available ship in the hope of departing the city. Others flee to the nearby Dutch border at Bergen-op-Zoom.  This town of 16 000 inhabitants finds itself in a matter of a few days hosting 200 000 refugees from Antwerp.

Belgian civilians hoping to escape Antwerp at the city docks, October 1914.

- This morning the disembarkation of the British 7th Division is completed at Zeebrugge, and by 5pm, after travelling by train, has arrived in Bruges.  Despite the pleadings of the Belgians, however, the division does not immediately march to Antwerp - prior to departing Britain, the divisional commander was given specific instructions by Kitchener not to allow his force to be shut in and captured at Antwerp.  Further, reports reach 7th Division of large German cavalry concentrations north of Lille, which could potentially threaten the corridor to Antwerp.  Meanwhile, a brigade of French marines is dispatched from Paris by rail towards Antwerp, the one significant French contribution to the defence of the city.

- III Corps of the British Expeditionary Force, having handed over its trenches to the French last night, today begins its march to Compiègne where it will entrain for Flanders.

- Today Lieutenant-Colonel Maritz makes contact with Germans along the border between South Africa and German South-West Africa.  Such contacts may be vital if Maritz goes into rebellion.

- In German Kamerun, the British advance on Jabassi to the northeast of Duala.  Taking advantage of the heavy rains, they mount a 6-inch gun on a boat that could be floated up the river to support the attack.  However, the West African units became disorganized as they moved through the bush adjacent to the river, and when they reached open ground at Jabassi they were cut down by German machine-gun fire.  The attack defeated, the British are forced to retreat back in the direction of Duala.

October 6th, 1914

- Realizing that the enemy line at Arras will hold, Rupprecht turns his attention northwards, hoping to accomplish the desired envelopment through Flanders.  The French have held Arras, though at great cost - the Alpine Division, for instance, has suffered 75% casualties over the past week fighting to hold the city.

- Early this morning Belgian units attack the German bridgehead over the Nethe River.  After initial progress, the Germans counterattack, and the Belgians are pushed back.  At the same time, Fort Broechem is put out of action and is evacuated by its Belgian defenders.  With the Nethe River line breached, the Belgians and the British Marine Brigade withdraw to a second defensive position half-way between the Nethe and the inner ring of forts around Antwerp.  The new line to the south and southeast is only five to six miles outside of the city, which means that once the Germans bring their heavy artillery across the Nethe, they will be able to bombard the city itself.

Meanwhile, the two British Naval Brigades take up defensive positions between several of the inner forts protecting Antwerp.  The trenches in these positions were shallow and rudimentary - their proximity to the Schelde River prevents digging any deeper due to the risk of flooding.

To the west of Antwerp, two German brigades attempt to force the crossing of the Schelde River.  Termonde itself has been captured, but the Germans have failed to secure bridgeheads have been beaten back by the Belgian 4th Infantry Division, which has been reinforced by 6th Infantry Division sent from Antwerp itself.  Despite the successes, it is clear that German pressure against the Schelde line will only increase.

At noon today General Rawlinson arrives at Antwerp, and with Churchill surveys the new defensive position taken between the Nethe and the inner forts.  They conclude that the position cannot be held - the trenches were only partially prepared, and its flanks were open - and that it would be better to simply pull back further and defend at the line of the inner forts.  They bring this conclusion to a meeting of the Belgian Council of Defense, held at 4pm and presided over by King Albert.  The Council concurs with the British advice, and further Albert concludes both that the three-day period agreed to on the 3rd has passed without sufficient reinforcement, and that the defensive line along the inner forts does not require the full Belgian army to hold.  As such, it is agreed that most of the Belgian field army will withdraw across the Schelde, where they can co-ordinate with any potential relieving force, while the inner forts and the lines between them will be held by the Belgian garrison and fortress troops, the Belgian 2nd Infantry Division, and the three British brigades.  Both Rawlinson and Churchill depart Antwerp this evening, the former to meet with his 7th Infantry and 3rd Cavalry Divisions landing on the Belgian coast, and the latter en route to London.

Belgian civilians leaving Antwerp, October 6th, 1914.

- Japanese and British warships attempt the first bombardment of Tsingtao today, but achieve little due to the range from ship to shore being too great.

- In German Kamerun, though the British have seized the principal port of Duala, the proximity of German forces nearby leaves their hold on the town insecure.  As a result, British forces push out from Duala towards Edea to the southwest, Jabassi to the northeast, and Dschang to the north.  Today, Senegalese soldiers seize the bridge at Japoma along the railway to Edea, overcoming German resistance.

October 5th, 1914

- General Maud-huy this morning plans to order the 31st Infantry Division to cover a withdrawal from Arras.  At 930am, however, General Foch arrives at Maud-huy's headquarters at Aubigny, and orders that Arras be held at all cost.  On both flanks French resistance is stiffening.  To the north, heavy French artillery bombardment prevents the Bavarians from exploiting their seizure of Vimy Ridge, while to the south the Prussian Guards are held up short of Arras.  Disappointed, the Kaiser departs Rupprecht's headquarters.

- North of the fighting of Arras General Marwitz issues orders for an offensive by I, II, and IV Cavalry Corps.  They are to sweep through the open space around the northern flank of the French line at Arras-Lens, forcing their retreat.

- Early this morning two German battalions secure a crossing of the Nethe River a mile southwest of the village of Lierre.  They are supported by heavy artillery fire, and are reinforced by two further battalions by nightfall.  German forces also occupy Lierre itself up to the river line and begin the bombardment of Fort Broechem, but elsewhere the Belgian defensive line remains intact.  Meanwhile, the two British Naval Brigades land at Dunkirk during the night, and entrain for the journey to Antwerp.

October 4th, 1914

- The German advance at Arras continues today.  North of the city the Bavarians push through Lens and, at 10pm, occupy the heights of Vimy Ridge.  The French 70th Division, on the line north of the city, is pushed back almost to the Scarpe River northwest of Arras.  To the south, the Prussian Guards Division shatters the 81th Territorial Division, killing its commander, and a gap begins to open between the territorial divisions and X Corps.  The French at Arras are threatened with encirclement, and General Maud-huy declares that his detachment is facing another 'Sedan', referencing the disastrous envelopment and surrender of a French army in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War.  The Kaiser, meanwhile, arrives at Rupprecht's headquarters at St. Quentin to observe the anticipated victory.

When Castlenau asks Joffre which direction Maud-huy should retreat in, the latter's response is swift.  He has become convinced that Castlenau is plagued by excessive pessimism, and decides on a reorganization.  First, Maud-huy's detachment is formed into a separate command as 10th Army.  Second, Ferdinand Foch is appointed Joffre's 'deputy' with responsibility to co-ordinate the 2nd and 10th armies and the territorial divisions in northern France.  Castlenau thus finds himself under the command of a former subordinate, but on balance is likely pleased to have retained his command at all.  With Foch moving to northern France, his 9th Army along the Aisne is suppressed, its corps being absorbed by the neighbouring 4th and 5th armies.  Joffre also informs Castlenau that under no circumstances is he to retreat, as the reinforcements en route to the north will allow the Entente line to hold.

The German advance at Arras, October 1914.

- The British Royal Marine Brigade arrives in Antwerp at 1am, having landed at Dunkirk yesterday and traveled to the city by train, and later this morning takes up position along the front line to the southeast of Antwerp.  At the same time, the British Cabinet approves the dispatch of the two naval brigades to augment the British contribution to the defense of Antwerp.  The Cabinet also receives a remarkable request from Churchill.  He has remained in Antwerp, and for the past twenty-four hours has taken to directing the defense of the city, touring the trenches, repositioning units, etc..  He has displayed an almost boyish enthusiasm for war - sitting in the open watching the action as artillery shells fall around him.  He feels to be in his element, and at this moment wants nothing more than to continue to have a direct hand in the ongoing struggle for Antwerp.  His request to the Cabinet is that he resign his position as First Lord of the Admiralty and instead be appointed commander of the forces at Antwerp, with the full authority of a general in the field.  The reaction of the Cabinet can be best described as nervous laughter - Churchill has already gained a reputation as a figure whose enthusiasm often outruns his judgement, and the idea that the head of the most important military office in the country should race off to command forces in the field is incomprehensible.  Churchill’s request is politely denied, and he is informed that General Henry Rawlinson will be arriving shortly to assume command of the British contingent.  For now, though, Churchill remains at Antwerp, play-acting the role of general.

Meanwhile, the continuing bombardment of Fort Kessel finally forces the evacuation of its Belgian garrison today.  The Germans also begin to bombard the north bank of the Nethe River, in preparation for an attempt to force a crossing and pierce the line of defense established along the river after the first forts had fallen.

- West of Verdun, General Mudra's XVI Corps launches another offensive against the French lines in the Argonne.  The German attackers make widespread use of Minenwerfers, or trench mortars, for the first time.  Such small mortars, firing a small projectile in a high arc, are well-suited for use against trenches, as the trajectory allows the shell to plunge into trenches before detonation.  The Germans have also prioritized Minenwerfers as they use less powder, an important consideration given the economic blockade of the country.  Despite the use of such weapons, the Germans make little progress, facing fierce French resistance.

- The past few days have seen desperate fighting near Augustow just east of the German-Russian frontier as the Russians attempt to push into the rear of the German 8th Army retreating from the Niemen River.  While the Germans opposing the Russian advance suffer grievous losses, they succeed in slowing the Russians sufficiently to allow the remainder of 8th Army to evacuate Suwalki and withdraw to the border.

- As the German 9th Army continues its movement northeastwards from Krakow, the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army takes up position on the southern flank of 9th Army and joins the advance, with the Austro-Hungarian 4th and 3rd armies to the south moving westward towards the San River.  Despite bad weather and roads being reduced to mud, the Germans are able to maintain a marching rate of thirty miles a day, making using of requisitioned Polish carts better able to cope with the deep mud.  With the withdrawal of three Russian armies from Galicia to Poland to participate in the proposed offensive against German Silesia, the remaining Russian armies in Galicia fall back to avoid being outflanked to the north by the advance of the German 9th Army.

- General Potiorek officially calls off the second invasion of Serbia today.  Though the effort has at least secured a small bridgehead in northwestern Serbia, it has overall been another dismal failure.  Desperate to deflect blame from himself, he argues that a lack of shells has been to blame.

- Under the guise of reinforcing Maritz, Smuts dispatches new units to Upington under the command of Coen Brits, whose loyalty is unquestionable - the latter is said to have told Botha, 'My men are ready; who do we fight - the English or the Germans?'  Brits' force is positioned to fight Maritz if the latter rebels.

- As the German East Asiatic Squadron crosses the Pacific, it hears the signals of the German light cruiser Dresden, which has passed through the Straits of Magellan from the Atlantic and is now off the Chilean coast.  Admiral Spee today signals Dresden to meet his squadron at Easter Island.  This message, however, is intercepted by a British wireless station at Suva in the Fiji Islands, and when relayed to London gives the Admiralty concrete evidence that the German squadron is bound for South America.

- An appeal 'To the Civilized World' is published today in Germany.  Written by Ulrich von Wilamowitz, it contains the signatures of a hundred of Germany's leading artists, scholars, and intellectuals, including such world-renowned figures as the scientists Max Planck and Wilhelm Röntgen.  The document justifies German conduct in the war and seeks to counter the growing international perception of German cruelty, especially with respect to the occupation of Belgium.  In line with the general tone of German propaganda, it seeks to blame the victim:

It is not true that the life and property of a single Belgian citizen have been infringed upon by our soldiers, unless the most desperate self-defense made it necessary . . . the Belgian population shot at our troops from ambush, mutilated the wounded, and murdered doctors while they were performing their healing work.  One can falsify matters no more basely than to remain silent about the crimes of these assassins, to turn the punishments that they have justly suffered into crimes committed by Germans.

It is not true that our troops have wreaked brutal havoc in Louvain.  They were compelled reluctantly to bring a sector of the city under fire, in order to retaliate against raging inhabitants who had treacherously attacked them here. . . .

They also appeal to the sense of European racial superiority to denigrate the enemies of Germany:

Those who have allied themselves with Russians and Serbs, and who present the world with [the] shameful spectacle of inciting Mongolians and Negroes against the white race, have the very least right to portray themselves as the defenders of European civilization.

Finally, they ground the 'Appeal' on self-defense - that the most heinous and cruel of acts are justified in the name of German victory:

Were it not for German militarism, German culture would long ago have been eradicated.  For the protection of German culture, militarism arose in a land that had for centuries been plagued like no other by predation.  The German army and the German people are one and the same.

As much as the 'Appeal' was published to counter Entente propaganda, it was also aimed at the German public, seeking to justify not only the war itself but German conduct of it.  It reflects the widespread and almost universal enthusiasm for the war among intellectuals, common to all of the major combatants.

October 3rd, 1914

- The German pressure around Arras is beginning to tell.  North of the city the French are being pushed back as Rupprecht sends reinforcements to I Bavarian Corps as they attack towards Vimy, and IV Cavalry Corps is sent northwards in the direction of Lille.  French lines south of Arras, manned by territorial divisions, are also buckling.

- This afternoon Churchill arrives in Antwerp, meets with King Albert and the Belgian Prime Minister, and at 635pm telegrams London that the Belgians have agreed to continue resistance at Antwerp for at least ten days, provided that within three days definitive assurances had been received from the British that substantial reinforcements were en route to support the Belgians.  With the Royal Marine Brigade already en route, Churchill suggests the deployment of two naval brigades, which together with the Marines made up the Royal Naval Division.  These two naval brigades were composed of those sailors of the Royal Fleet Reserve who were surplus to requirements when the Royal Navy was mobilized on the outbreak of war.  The men of these two brigades had no practical experience as soldiers, and none had had more than two days of training with rifles.  Among the officers were the poet Rupert Brooke and Arthur Asquith, son of the Prime Minister.  To say the two naval brigades were unprepared for combat would be a colossal understatement, but in the moment of crisis were the only immediately-available units in Britain.

Meanwhile, south of the city the Germans have turned their guns on Fort Kessel, but the Belgian defenders continue to hold out through the day.

- Along the Aisne River, II Corps and 1st and 2nd Cavalry Divisions of the British Expeditionary Force have left the front line and begin their redeployment northwards to Flanders, the first units of the BEF to do so.  II Corps is marching to Compiègne where it will board trains heading north, while the two cavalry divisions will move by road.

- In South Africa, Defense Minister J. C. Smuts has requested Lieutenant-Colonel Maritz of Force B to come to Pretoria for consultations.  Smuts is increasingly concerned about the loyalty of Maritz, while the latter, expecting arrest, refuses the summons of Smuts.  Instead, Maritz moves Force B from Upington to Kakamas, which not coincidentally is closer to the border with German South East Africa.

October 2nd, 1914

- General Castlenau of 2nd Army informs Joffre today that, under growing German pressure north of Arras, XXI Corps will not be able to detrain as close to Lille as had been planned, implying that the city cannot be held.  Joffre's response is that retreat is not acceptable and Lille must not be yielded.

- At Antwerp the forts of Waelhelm and Boschbeck fall to the Germans this afternoon.  With a substantial gap now having opened in the outer line of fortifications, the Belgian army to the south of the city withdraws to the north bank of the Nethe River, running between the outer and inner forts.  A meeting of Belgian ministers and military leaders decides that given the German advance, the King and government should depart Antwerp tomorrow.  While King Albert agrees, he states he will only leave after the population of the city have been warned.

At 10pm a telegram from the British Minister in Antwerp arrives in London, reporting the decision of the Belgian government to leave the city tomorrow, and also erroneously reporting that the Belgian army was also to abandon Antwerp.  With Prime Minister Asquith in Cardiff at a recruiting rally, it is Sir Edward Grey who receives the telegram, and rushes to Lord Kitchener's house in Carlton Gardens to discuss the note.  They also recall Churchill, who had just boarded a train at London for Dover and Dunkirk, and he races from Victoria Station to Carlton Gardens.  There the three agree that Antwerp must hold out as long as possible - if it falls immediately, the German forces besieging it could sweep through northern France before the Entente line is extended to the Channel.  Thus, even a week's delay in its surrender could be of vital importance.  Churchill recommends the immediate dispatch of the Marine Brigade, two thousand strong, to reinforce the defenses of the city.  He also volunteers to go to Antwerp himself, to encourage the Belgians to hold out as long as possible.  Grey and Kitchener agree, and at midnight Churchill departs London en route to Antwerp.

- In neutral Romania, King Carol I is sympathetic to Germany and Austria-Hungary, and indeed had signed a secret treaty to support the latter if war broke out.  His ministers, however, insisted on remaining out of the war in August, citing the plight of the Romanian population of Austro-Hungarian Transylvania, a territory which many in government covet.  During the first weeks of the war, Romania acquiesced to the German desire to ship supplies by rail to the Ottoman Empire via Austria-Hungary and Romania, though the shipments were limited to eight freight cars per day.  Now, with the King ailing, the government is able to enforce a stricter interpretation of neutrality today by halting all German shipments through its territory.  With the naval blockade in the Mediterranean, the Ottomans are now completely isolated from Germany and Austria-Hungary, and while options such as Zeppelin flights will be considered, ultimately the only way to allow large-scale shipments to reach the Ottomans is through the conquest of Serbia.

- The German East Asiatic Squadron departs Nuku Hiva today, sailing southeast towards Easter Island.  As they leave the tropics behind them, the days are cooler and the seas rougher.

October 1st, 1914

- Three German corps - from south to north the Guard, IV, and I Bavarian Reserve - arrive east of Arras today, and encounter Maud-huy's forces still preparing for their own offensive.  Rupprecht's objective is to fix Maud-huy's forces in front of Arras while outflanking them to the north.

- Though his artillery is progressing as expected in the destruction of the Belgian forts south of Antwerp, General Bessler believes that the fall of Antwerp needs to be hastened - he does not want the British or French to either reinforce the city or, of greater concern, push forces from the west against his eastern flank.  Thus at 4pm today assaults are ordered by German infantry on the southern forts, and by nightfall the ruins of Fort Wavre are in German hands, though resistance continues elsewhere.  At midnight the British military representative at Antwerp sends a telegram to his government emphasizing the seriousness of the situation and stating that the arrival of even a small detachment of British forces would raise Belgian morale.

- The German 8th Army is attacked heavily by the pursuing Russian armies as it pulls back to the German border.  Rennenkampf's strategy is to pin the Germans with his centre and right, while attempting to outflank with his left.  The latter, having advanced through difficult woods for several days, seizes the town of Augustow today, which threatens to turn the southern flank of the German 8th Army.  For a brief moment, victory beckons for the Russians.

- As Germany becomes increasingly isolated from the world market by the British naval blockade, perhaps the most important industrial shortage was fixed nitrogen, produced from saltpetre, vital not only for the production of explosives but also for agricultural fertilizers key to the maintenance of Germany's domestic food supply.  Pre-war, saltpetre had been imported from Chile, but this supply was interrupted by the war, and there was no available alternative.  Thus, if Germany wanted to be able to fight a war of any significant duration, it was essential to develop processes to produce artificial fixed nitrogen.  Today, Emil Fischer, Germany's leading chemist, discusses the issue at the War Ministry, where he explains two recently developed methods for producing nitrogen - lime nitrogen, a byproduct of gasworks and coking plants, and synthesized ammonia.  Both methods had evolved out of Germany's chemical industry, which was the most advanced in the world, and Fischer's meeting will jump-start the production of artifical nitrogen, illustrative of the vital links between the academic community, industry, and the military in the conduct of modern war.  As a result of this relationship, Germany will produce two and a half times as much nitrogen in wartime as it had produced in peacetime - the war will not be lost for a lack of explosives.

September 30th, 1914

- Elements of Maud-huy's detachment move through Arras today and push eastwards on the road to Douai.

- At Antwerp the forts of Waelhem and Lierre to the south of the city are the focus of German bombardment.  In addition, the main waterworks for Antwerp, located behind Fort Waelhem, are destroyed, inundating the Belgian trenches in the and greatly reducing water supply for those civilians remaining in the city.

Meanwhile, the Belgian Prime Minister issues a formal request for military assistance to the British and French.  While Joffre is willing to send a small force of territorials and marines, he is unwilling to part with any of his regular divisions, and views the Belgian request through the lens of the ongoing battle in France - his hope is that the Belgians will retreat to extend the Entente line north of Arras.  The British response is to offer to land the 7th Infantry Division and 3rd Cavalry Division on the Belgian coast to reinforce the western flank of the Belgian defenders along the Scheldt River.  These divisions are composed of Regular Army battalions that had been scattered around the Empire at the outbreak of war garrisoning points such as Gibraltar, Malta, and Egypt.  These units had been recalled in August and assembled in Britain in preparation for dispatch to the continent, and the two divisions together formed IV Corps, under the command of General Henry Rawlinson.

- Yesterday the ships under the command of Admiral Craddock descended on Orange Bay in the Magellan Straits after receiving word from the British consul at Punta Arenas that the German light cruiser Dresden had been coaling there.  Finding the bay empty, but with indications that Dresden had been there recently, Craddock orders his ships today to return to the Falklands Islands to coal.

September 29th, 1914

- As the number of corps assigned to the French 2nd Army increases, the northernmost are formed into a separate detachment under the command of General Louis de Maud-huy.  While Castlenau will continue to supervise the fighting in Picardy and along the Somme, Maud-huy's assignment is to execute an flanking manouevre, pivoting on Arras.  As of today Maud-huy's detachment consists of X Corps north of Albert, four cavalry divisions southeast of Arras, and reserve infantry divisions at Arras and Lens respectively.

To the east of Arras, the town of Douai is falls to a German attack this afternoon, the scratch force of English and French soldiers having to fight their way out.

- Field Marshal Sir John French informs Marshal Joffre of his intention to relocate the British Expeditionary Force to the far left of the Entente line in Flanders and Belgium.  The latter is cautiously accepting of the move - the logic of placing the British closer to their supplies and reinforcements is not lost on him.  Joffre remains concerned, however, about Sir John French's intentions - will placing him at the end of the line and so close to Britain reawaken his desire for self-preservation over co-operation?  Also, Joffre tells French that the redeployment must be undertaken one division at a time, as the bulk of the French railways are occupied with the transfer of French corps north to 2nd Army, and that on arrival the British must be prepared to go into battle at once, as opposed to waiting for the entire BEF to arrive before advancing.

- Just south of Antwerp, Fort Wavre has been so damaged by constant German bombardment that at 6pm its garrison is evacuated.  This, plus the destruction done at Fort Waelham, demonstrate unmistakably to the Belgian government that the survival of the fortifications protecting Antwerp can be measured in days.  As such, the Belgian army begins to make preparations to evacuate the city.  They intend to establish a new base at Ostend on the Channel coast, and withdraw through the corridor between the Dutch border and the Schelde River.  Two pontoon bridges at Antwerp itself allow some to cross to the north bank of the river, and though a railway bridge twelve miles west of Antwerp is within range of German artillery, trains are able to pass at night with their lights extinguished.  Today, the first to leave Antwerp are the wounded, untrained, and prisoners - the field army itself will remain as long as control of the city can be reasonably contested.  To cover the retreat corridor, the Belgian 4th Division is at Termonde on the Schelde, and Belgian cavalry patrol the river line.  These intentions are conveyed by the Belgian Prime Minister to the British and French governments, emphasizing that the decision to withdraw the government and field army from Antwerp will come when the Germans break completely through the first line of forts and are in position to attack the inner defenses of the city.

September 28th, 1914

- After initial setbacks, the French XXI and X corps have solidified a defensive line east of Albert along a line Maricourt-Fricourt-Thiepval.  Realizing that 6th Army has been checked before Amiens, Falkenhayn today orders Rupprecht to attack to the north towards Arras in another effort to get around the flank of the Entente line.

- The siege of Antwerp begins in earnest today with the first major bombardment of its forts by the Germans.  Falkenhayn has decided that Antwerp must be captured to ensure the security of the German right wing as it extends northwards into Flanders.  Commanding the besiegers is General Hans von Beseler, whose III Reserve Corps consists of second-rate divisions and brigades, and is deemed insufficient to cross the Scheldt River to the west of the city to invest it completely.  However, von Beseler also has at his disposal 173 heavy guns, and it is expected that the artillery will repeat its performances at Liège and Namur and crush the fortifications from long-range.  Specifically, the first to be targeted are the forts of Wavre and Waelham to the south of Antwerp, to breach the outer defense line and allow the infantry to advance.  The German bombardment is able to proceed entirely unmolested, as the Belgian artillery pieces lack the range to hit the German mortars.  The attack is thus little more than target practice.

- Having failed to cross the Niemen River, the German 8th Army begins a withdrawal back towards the German border, as maintaining their current position would leave them in an exposed salient while not diverting Russian forces from Poland and Galicia.  The Russian 1st and 10th armies begin a pursuit of the retreating Germans, and General Rennenkampf of the former shows energy that had been lacking in August.

- Having completed its assembly north of Krakow, the German 9th Army begins its advance northeast today in the direction of Ivangorod and Moscow.  As of yet Ludendorff has no idea that the Russians are redeploying four armies to precisely the same place.

The Eastern Front, September 28th to November 1st, 1914.

- In a speech today South African Prime Minister Louis Botha declares that if South African forces do not attack and occupy German South-West Africa, then the British will bring in other Imperial forces, such as the Australians or Indians, to undertake the operation.  The statement is aimed at Boers uneasy with the invasion, suggesting that since it is going to happen it might as well be done to the benefit of South Africa directly.

- As they approach Tsingtao, Japanese forces seize today the first defensive line.  They had been thinly held, however, and the Germans conduct an orderly retreat to the second defensive line in the Hai Po valley.

September 27th, 1914

- The German XIV Reserve Corps comes into the line north of II Bavarian Corps, and begins to advance on Albert.  Opposite them the French XXI and X Corps are arriving north of the Somme River.

- The Belgian army continues to hold the fortifications at Antwerp, the 'national redoubt', but there are growing concerns about the state of its defenses.  There are two rings of forts surrounding Antwerp on the southern bank of the Scheldt River - an outer line of eighteen forts between seven and nine miles from the city, and an inner line of older forts.  However, the forts have not been modernized, and are vulnerable to high-arcing plunging fire, precisely the type the Germans had used at Liège and Namur.  Thus the Belgians realize that to hold Antwerp for a prolonged period of time in the face of a German effort to capture the forts requires that the German siege mortars be kept out of range.  For the past two days, two divisions of the Belgian army have sortied south of the city to push the Germans back, but despite local successes the Belgians have been forced back to the first line of forts south of Antwerp.  Their sortie, at least, has helped convince the besieging Germans that the north bank of the Scheldt to the west of the city is too well-defended to attack, leaving an overland line of communication between Antwerp and Flanders.

The defenses of Antwerp, September 1914.

- After a day spent bombarding Russian positions, elements of the German 8th Army attempt to cross the Niemen River this morning.  However, the pontoon bridges are blasted by Russian artillery, and the crossings fail to secure bridgeheads at great cost.

- Realizing the enemy has abandoned Duala in German Kamerun, the British expedition offshore begin to land 2500 soldiers of the West African Frontier Force and seize the town.

This cover of the satirical magazine Kladderadatsch, published today, reflects the
continuing optimism on the home front.  The caption translates as 'The Traffic in
Foreigners is Picking Up!', and shows representative figures from all of Germany's
enemies touring Berlin as prisoners.  This reflects the suppression of knowledge about
the German defeat at the Marne earlier this month, the army stating publicly that it was
merely a redeployment of forces.  It is also worth noticing in the cartoon how each
figure utilizes stereotypes to represent its nation, including the usage of racial imagery.

September 12th, 1914

- The German 1st and 2nd armies today cross the Aisne River, which flows east to west before entering the Oise River and Compiègne.  To the north of the Aisne runs a long plateau several hundred feet above the river valley, and ending on average a mile north of the river.  The western portion of this ridge is known as the Chemin des Dames after an east-west road named for the daughters of Louis XV.  It is on the southern edge of this plateau that the Germans stop their retreat.  Four weeks of constant movement is now at an end - as an example, III Corps of 1st Army has marched 653 kilometres since August 17th.  Here the German soldiers begin to dig in, expecting the British and French armies following them will attack.  This is the first appearance of a phenomenon that will in time become synonymous with the Western Front.  At this time, the trenches are crude affairs - little more than glorified ditches.  It takes time to learn how to construct the most effective trenches, using shelters, support trenches, zig-zagging trenches, etc.  Of course, learning how to build trenches takes much less time than learning how to successfully attack them.

- As the Germans dig in north of the Aisne, the British and French are closing up to the river itself.  With most of the bridges blown, much of the day is spent in long-range artillery duels with German guns on the opposite banks.  With continuing rain and poor visibility, the Entente armies are not yet aware that the Germans have stopped their retreat and are digging in.  They are preparing to cross the Aisne tomorrow, and hope remains that the advance will continue - Joffre today dispatches two divisions to the French 6th Army on the far left of the line, hoping the additional strength will allow it to envelop the western flank of the German 1st Army.

- This afternoon retreating German units evacuate Rheims, withdrawing to higher ground just north of the city.

- The Belgian sortie from Antwerp, begun on the 9th, comes to an end today, as the Belgian army retreats back behind the city's fortifications.  Though they Belgians were unable to hold any ground, the sortie necessitated the redirection of several German divisions to contain it, a key aim of the move.

- Russian Foreign Secretary Sergei Sazonov issues today to Britain and France his 'Thirteen Points', which embody the war aims of the Russian government.  According to Sazonov, 'the principle objective . . . should be to strike at German power and its pretensions to military and political domination.'  To this end, Sazonov called for the formation of a Polish state under Russian overlordship and which would included eastern Posen from Germany and western Galicia from Austria-Hungary.  Russia itself would take the portion of East Prussia around the Niemen River from Germany and eastern Galicia from Austria-Hungary.  Russia also supported the war aims of its allies - France was to receive Alsace-Lorraine and any neighbouring portions of Germany it desired, and Serbia was to acquire Bosnia-Herzegovina and most of the Dalmatian coast.

September 9th, 1914

- At 5am, Hentsch has a meeting with two of Bülow's staff officers, the General himself still asleep.  The conversation confirms the conclusions of the previous day - 2nd Army can hold only if 1st Army immediately disengages and linked up with the former's western flank; if not, 2nd Army will retreat behind the Marne River.  At 6am he departs 2nd Army headquarters for 1st Army.

At 9am, Bülow receives the latest aerial reconnaissance report, which states that numerous columns of enemy forces are north of the Petit Morin moving towards the Marne.  For Bülow, the time has come.  At 902am he signals a general retreat of 2nd Army.  This is the crucial moment, and the crucial decision.  Once 2nd Army has begun to retreat, the position of 1st Army is entirely untenable - it will have to retreat to avoid complete encirclement.  Bülow's choice, made entirely without any communication with either Moltke at OHL or Kluck at 1st Army, is the effective end of the German offensive in the West.

- Along the Ourcq River the battle between the German 1st Army and the French 6th Army reaches its climax.  General Kluck knows that time is running out to defeat the French before the advance of the BEF to the east cuts behind him.  At 9am reports are received from German cavalry divisions that British and French units were across the Marne.  In response, at 930am Kluck orders II Corps to turn to face southeast to confront the threat from the enemy.  Kluck, however, remains convinced that the battle against 6th Army can be still won.  He orders IX Corps, his northern-most unit, to attack with all its strength to turn the enemy's flank and force their retreat.  As Kluck states to a staff officer: 'Every man must be convinced that the enveloping attack must bring the decision.'  The attack of IX Corps shatters the French 61st Reserve Division and is poised to envelop the northern flank of the French 6th Army.  To the commander of IX Corps, victory and Paris appear imminent.  At that moment a visitor arrives at 1st Army headquarters - Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hentsch.

Hentsch arrives at 1130am after a journey of over five hours on roads clogged by refugees, wrecked vehicles, wounded soldiers, and German cavalry fleeing the supposedly imminent advance of the British and French.  His personal experience of the gap between 1st and 2nd armies can hardly have improved the Lieutenant-Colonel's disposition.  Hentsch meets with General Hermann von Kuhl, Kluck's Chief of Staff.  The commanding general himself is not present, and though he is only a few hundred yards away at his command post neither Kuhl nor Hentsch summon him.  The fate of 1st Army is thus decided by two staff officers.

Kuhl begins the meeting with an overview of the current situation, as it appears from 1st Army headquarters.  Despite heavy fighting with the French 6th Army, the arrival of IV and IX Corps had stabilized the situation, and that the latter was about to turn the northern flank of the French.  Further, he was not concerned by the threat posed by the BEF - after several battles with the British and pursuing them for two weeks, Kuhl was convinced that they were largely shattered and operated too slowly to make a decisive move (the latter opinion, at least, was not without reason).

Kuhl's presentation makes no sense to Hentsch, who with his larger perspective on the battle sees nothing but imminent disaster.  He emphasizes the stalemate in Lorraine, and the inability of 5th Army to break through west of Verdun.  2nd Army, meanwhile, has been defeated and is retreating north of the Marne.  1st Army is to retreat in the direction of Soissons to link up with 2nd Army, and the redeployment of part of 7th Army to Saint-Quentin would allow for a resumption of the offensive.  When Hentsch draws out 1st Army's line of retreat on a map, Kuhl objects - cannot Hentsch see that they are on the brink of victory?  Hentsch's response is that 2nd Army has been reduced to 'cinders', a description that will become notorious in after-the-fact arguments in Germany over the appropriateness of the retreat from the Marne.  Finally, Hentsch states that he has the full authority of Moltke to issue orders in his name.  Kuhl, having no direct line of communication with OHL at Luxembourg, and confronted with the vision of a broken 2nd Army, has no option but to agree.  At 130pm, Kluck, informed by Kuhl of the decision, issues orders to break off the attack on the French and withdraw towards Soissons.

- To the soldiers at the front, the order to retreat comes like a bolt from the blue.  They have been on the march for almost month, every day advancing deeper and deeper into France.  Where they have met the French or British, they have been victorious.  Even in the past few days, most units have held the French counterattack.  The order to retreat, then, appears to be snatching defeat from the jaws of victory.  When General Oskar von Hutier, commander of the 1st Guards Division in 2nd Army, is informed of the retreat, his reply reflects the opinion of many: 'Have they all gone crazy?'

- At OHL, Moltke, remaining largely in the dark regarding the state of operations, is chronically pessimistic.  To his wife he writes: 'It goes badly.  The battles east of Paris will not end in our favour . . . . and we certainly will be made to pay for all that has been destroyed.'  When news comes in of Bülow's order to retreat, Moltke voices no opposition, though it means the end of the great German offensive into France.  Wilhelm II, present at OHL, is vehemently opposed to the retreat, and argues passionately with Moltke.  According to the staff officers present, Moltke's nerves have been shattered, just as they had been on August 1st.  Minister of War Falkenhayn notes in his diary today: 'Our General Staff has totally lost their heads.  Schlieffen's notes have come to an end and therewith Moltke's wit.'  The argument between the Kaiser and Moltke is immaterial anyway - even if they wanted to stop the retreat, they lack any means of communication to order Bülow and Kluck to stand and fight.

- By the middle of the afternoon, both the BEF and the French 5th Army have crossed the Marne, and by the evening it becomes clear to Joffre that the Germans on his left are in retreat.  He issues instructions for 5th and 6th armies, plus the BEF, to pursue the enemy and attempt an envelopment of the German 1st Army.  To the Minister of War in Bordeaux Joffre cables a reassuring note that, while unwilling to claim yet a decisive victory, assures the government that the situation is satisfactory and promising.

- The retreat of the German 1st and 2nd armies today brings an end to the Battle of the Marne, and indeed the first phase of the war on the Western Front.  Over two million soldiers have fought along the front line, and while estimates vary, it is believed that a quarter of a million Germans and a quarter of a million Frenchmen are casualties, a ratio of one in four combatants.  On a per-day basis, it is the bloodiest battle of the war on the Western Front.

The Battle of the Marne is one of the most decisive in human history, for two reasons.  First, the Germans had staked all on a rapid invasion and defeat of France before Russia could deploy its full weight against them.  For years the German army had been focused on this one mission - war games simulated various permutations of the advance, logistics officers poured over road maps of Belgium and northern France, the mobilization plan tweaked and retweaked down to the minute to ensure the Germans had every advantage of time.  By today, the 39th day since German mobilization, the French were to have been crushed.  Instead, it is the Germans who have been defeated.  The sense of shock and disbelief among the officers of the German army can hardly be understated - it had been taken as a fundamental article of faith that the German army was inherently superior to the French army, and many simply cannot conceive of a world in which that is not true.  Hence the almost immediate search for scapegoats, for an internal reason for their defeat.  Had Moltke botched the plan?  Had Hentsch exceeded his authority?  Was Bülow over-cautious?  Was Kluck's 'inward turn' the fundamental mistake?  What all these questions ignore is the basic truth that not only had the Germans lost, but the French had won.  In particular, Joseph Joffre had achieved a victory that almost looked impossible two weeks earlier in the aftermath of the disastrous Battle of the Frontiers.  His ability to recover from the failure of pre-war planning cannot be understated (and stands in sharp contrast to Moltke's reactions as his pre-war plans collapsed) - without his recognition of the changed circumstances after August 24th and his immediate redeployment of forces from his left to his right, France surely would have been lost.  Whatever else can be blamed on Joffre - and in the years to come there is much he can be blamed for - his service in the last week of August and the first week of September ensured the survival of the French republic.  Credit must also be given to the French soldier - undertaking a constant retreat under enemy fire for two weeks, and then to turn and defeat said enemy, is one of the great feats of modern arms.  Finally, there is the BEF.  For all that Sir John French can be justly criticized for his pessimism, and the British slowness in movement, and indeed simply the minuscule size of the BEF in comparison to the armies of France and Germany, at the crucial moment it found itself largely by coincidence at the most important point on the front, and in advancing played a role out of all proportion to its size.

The second reason the Battle of the Marne is decisive is precisely that it is not decisive.  The German army is defeated, but it is not destroyed.  1st and 2nd armies have suffered, but they are retreating in relatively good order, escaping the potential threat of encirclement.  All sides had expected the first couple of months to see one or two climactic battles, after which one army would be destroyed and that side compelled to surrender.  The climactic battles have occurred - the Battle of the Marne, as with the Battle of the Frontiers and indeed the battles in East Prussia and Galicia, have been among the largest in history - but the losing side has not been compelled to surrender.  Indeed, the German expectation at the end of September 9th is that a brief retreat will be followed by a resumption of the offensive.  The true legacy of the Marne is that it ensures that the war will not end in a quick victory by either side, but will continue.  The Marne was not the end, but rather the beginning, of the war, the likes of which had hardly been imagined before the great armies took the field a month ago.

- Elsewhere on the Western Front today, the German 4th Army, in an attempt to emulate the partial success of 3rd Army yesterday, launches a morning bayonet charge on French artillery positions belonging to the French 4th Army.  Its commander Duke Albrecht orders a lengthy artillery barrage to precede the attack, which gives the French ample warning.  When the Germans advanced, they encounter active and vigorous resistance, and fail to accomplish anything.  By 1030pm, the commander of the French 4th Army is able to inform Joffre that his position is secure.

- The Belgian army in the fortifications of Antwerp today sorties, in an effort to disrupt German lines of communication and force the Germans to keep additional forces in Belgium as opposed to on the front lines.

- Even as the great German offensive in the west is collapsing today, German Chancellor Theodor von Bethmann-Hollweg has drafted today a list of German aims.  Designed to indicate the lines on which German negotiators should proceed after a quick victory over France, the September Programme, as it comes to be known, is nothing if not ambitious.  Parts of Belgium, including Antwerp, were to be directly annexed to Germany, while the rest would become a client state.  France would cede the vital industrial region of Longwy-Briey, and possible some of its Channel ports, to Germany.  Luxembourg would also be annexed to Germany.  To the east Russia was to be weakened through granting self-determination to minorities like the Poles, who would in turn become client states of Germany (this was preferably than directly annexing Russian territory - the last thing the Germans wanted was more Poles in their country).  All of central Europe - Mitteleuropa - was to be united in a vast economic union, to operate for German benefit.  All of central Africa was to be acquired, taking colonies from Britain, France, Portugal, and Belgium to form Mittelafrika.  Coaling stations would also be acquired around the world to give the German navy a global reach.

These war aims are designed to secure permanent German hegemony in Europe and a secure place as a global power.  As such, they are entirely unacceptable to the Entente - British policy for centuries had been to keep the ports of the Low Countries out of hostile hands - and could only have been achieved through an absolute and crushing victory that would allow the Germans to impose its terms on its enemies.  The irony of the September Programme being drafted on the day the Germans begin their retreat from the Marne hardly needs stating.

- In East Prussia this morning General François' I Corps launches an attack on the far southern flank of the Russian 1st Army, where the latter is supported by elements of the newly-forming Russian 10th Army.  Once again, with the rest of 8th Army stymied by the Russians, it is I Corps that makes the decisive breakthrough - they shatter Russian units southeast of Lötzen and begin to drive against the flank of the Russian forces holding up Mackensen's XVII Corps at Lötzen.  As a result of the breakthrough I Corps takes thirty thousand prisoners and captures sixty artillery pieces.  The commander of the Russian 10th Army refuses to send reinforcements, as he does not want his army to be exhausted through piecemeal contributions to the front.  With the southern flank shattered, disaster now threatens to overtake the Russian 1st Army just as it had overtaken the Russian 2nd Army. However, General Rennenkampf of 1st Army, whatever his other faults, is not as foolish as to continue to advance in the centre while his flanks are turned - this evening he orders the Russian 1st Army to retreat.

- The right flank of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army is defeated today by the Russian 4th Army, while two corps belonging to the Russian 5th Army have advanced to threaten the Austro-Hungarian line of retreat.  Faced with the prospect of imminent encirclement and destruction, the commander of 1st Army orders a retreat behind the San River.

To the south, the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army has achieved some tactical successes against the Russian 8th Army.  Though the Russians are able to withdraw in good order and establish new defensive lines, the local victories convince Conrad that his grand scheme to envelop the two Russian armies in the south is still viable, despite the tide of news from elsewhere on the battlefield.

- The German East Asiatic Squadron departs Christmas Island today, sailing southwest for Samoa.

August 25th, 1914

- Joffre issues General Instruction No. 2 today, which outlines the French strategy in light of the defeat in the Battle of the Frontiers.  The forces on the French left, including the BEF, are to retreat to the line Amiens-Rheims-Verdun, a retreat of over one hundred kilometres.  The massive fortress complex around Verdun is to serve as a hinge, anchoring the centre of the French line, while the left moves counterclockwise like a door.  This means the BEF and the French 5th Army, as the units furthest on the French left, will have the farthest to retreat.  During the retreat, French forces are to fight a delaying action, using quick counterattacks with artillery to keep the Germans off-balance.  As this retreat is underway, additional French forces will be concentrated at Amiens, drawn from the existing French armies between Verdun and the Swiss border.  Once this force is assembled, it would attack the exposed German flank as it passes south and, in conjunction with the BEF and other French armies on the left, envelop and destroy the invading German armies.

- The German 4th Army penetrates Sedan today, and is counterattacked by the French 4th Army to prevent the Germans from crossing the Meuse Rivier.  After bitter fighting and bayonet assaults, the French withdraw at nightfall, and blow the bridges over the river.

- The French launch a major counterattack in Lorraine today, directed towards the German forces advancing between Toul and Epinal.  From the north, 2nd Army's attack is led by Foch's XX Corps, which has already covered itself in glory in earlier fighting, and today retakes three towns and advances ten miles.  From the south, 1st Army achieves similar gains.  Despite earlier victories, the German 6th and 7th armies have sustained heavy losses, and they are thrown back across the Mortagne River and away from the gap at Charmes.  The Germans have no intention of giving up the fight - a breakthrough here might allow the envelopment and destruction of the entire French army - but the wooded and hilly terrain is ideal for the defensive, and the French also benefit from extensive pre-war fortifications.  In essence, the advantages that lay with the Germans when the French invaded Lorraine are reversed now that it is the Germans invading French Lorraine.

- General Joseph-Simon Gallieni is appointed today Military Governor of Paris.  The French government has become suddenly aware that the German advance may threaten the capital itself, and discover that its defenses have been woefully neglected.  Gallieni promises to bring energy and action to the fortification of Paris, and also insists that Joffre assigned several corps to ensure the city can be held.  Joffre demures; he needs all the corps he can to execute his retreat and counter-attack operation, and can hardly afford to have any tied down defending the capital.

- The Belgian army makes a sudden sortie today, fighting the German corps detached from the German 1st Army to cover the city.  Elements of the German corps are thrown back in confusion to Louvain before the sortie is contained and the Belgians retreat to Antwerp.  The sortie, however, would indirectly have an even larger impact on Louvain itself.  This small university town, known as the 'Oxford of Belgium,' had been occupied peacefully by the Germans for almost a week, but in the confusion tonight after the Belgian sortie German soldiers moving through the city believe they have been fired upon by Belgian civilians.  More plausible is that panicked Germans fired on each other in the darkness.  Regardless, German soldiers begin the destruction of Louvain, burning buildings and shooting civilians, which continue for several days.

- General Samsonov of the Russian 2nd Army is informed today that two corps of the German 8th Army have retreated to the fortress of Königsberg, far to the north, convincing him that the only substantial enemy forces before him is the German corps since yesterday.  Samsonov is thus encouraged to continue to advance with his centre, and when the German XX Corps comes under pressure on its flank, withdraws to the north.  Samsonov interprets this as part of an ongoing German general retreat, and continues to orders his forces to pursue.

Unintentionally, Samsonov's advance exposes the flanks of 2nd Army to the Germans.  Most of the German I Corps arrive today on the western flank of XX Corps, though General François ignores an order by Ludendorff to attack, arguing that his artillery has not arrived and an advance would be suicidal.  Meanwhile, XVII and I Reserve Corps continue to march towards their position on the eastern flank of XX Corps.

- Since the Battle of Gumbinnen on the 20th, Moltke has remained concerned about the Russian invasion of Prussia.  Despite the replacement of Prittwitz with Hindenburg and Ludendorrf, it is not yet clear if their plans for operations against the Russian 2nd Army will be successful.  Under pressure from Junkers whose East Prussian estates lay in the path of the Russians, Moltke decides that reinforcements must be sent.  His initial impulse is to take corps from 6th and 7th Armies, engaged in Lorraine.  However, the continued fighting between Toul and Epinal suggests that the armies cannot spare any corps, and moreover the Bavarian corps of 6th Army may not fight with sufficient ardour to save East Prussia.  Instead, Moltke looks to the right wing.  The fall of Namur has freed the two corps that had been beseiging the city.  Instead of rejoining the advance of the right wing, orders are issued for their redeployment to East Prussia.

- Fighting since the 23rd, the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army has turned both flanks of the Russian 4th Army, and the latter, having lost 6000 prisoners and twenty-eight guns, retreats northwards to the Kraśnik positions south of Lublin.  Victory in the Battle of Kraśnik encourages Conrad in his belief that a decisive victory can be won through his invasion of Russian Poland, and he urges the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, to the east of 1st Army, onwards.  The Russian 4th Army, meanwhile, urges 5th Army on its east to attack southwest to disrupt the enemy 1st Army.

- In the early hours of this morning, the German commander at Kamina in Togoland destroys the nine masts and switchboard of the Kamina wireless station, and at daylight surrenders to the British and Imperial forces.  The Germans are hopelessly outnumbered, but nevertheless surrender before absolutely necessary - for example, they still have over 300 000 rifle rounds.  Moreover, German resistance has not been as stiff as it could have been - most of the colony had been abandoned without a fight, and much of the infrastructure had not been destroyed to impede the speed of the British advance.  The approach of the German commander, instead, had been to concentrate on Kamina, the only vital point in the colony, and otherwise preserve the rest of the colony.  There was only ever one possible outcome to the invasion of Togoland, and instead of destroying the colony in what would have been an obviously futile effort to hold it, a token resistance is instead offered, to preserve the 'benefits' (i.e. infrastructure, etc.) that have accrued to the African population of Togoland under German rule.

- Following its declaration of war on Germany, Japan today declares war on Austria-Hungary.

August 20th, 1914

- The German 1st Army occupies Brussels today, while the Belgian army completes its retirement into the fortified camp of Antwerp.

Belgian soldiers during the retreat to Antwerp, Aug. 20th, 1914.
And yes, those are dogs pulling machine guns.

- The concentration of the British Expeditionary Force at Maubeuge is completed today, and the two British corps begin to advance northeast.  Meanwhile, in London, the British Cabinet has authorized the deployment of the fifth British infantry division to the Continent.

- The French 5th Army completes its advance to the Sambre and Meuse Rivers.  Its defensive position resembles an inverted 'V', with the Belgian forts at Namur at the point.  Just to the north, cavalry units belonging to 5th Army engage in small skirmishes with German cavalry.

- At 830pm Joffre issues orders for 3rd and 4th Army to attack tomorrow.  The latter will advance northeast towards Neufchâteau while the former will move against Arlon.  To protect the advance against a German counterattack from Metz, Joffre has formed a portion of 3rd Army into a separate Army of Lorraine to cover the southern flank of the attack.  This is to be the main assault of Plan XVII - a strike north of Metz-Thionville which will crush the centre of the German line.  While Joffre is aware that the Germans are advancing through Belgium, he still does not see it as the focal point of the German campaign.  Indeed, he believes that the Germans have reduced their forces opposite 3rd and 4th Armies to strengthen the German right, which will increase the odds of French success tomorrow.  He has also instructed the commanders of 3rd and 4th Armies to make no preparatory movements, so as to not tip off the Germans to the advance and cause them to stop moving forces into Belgium.

- Even as Joffre is ordering the main French attack, the offensive in Lorraine is disintegrating.  There is a renewed attack today by the French 1st and 2nd Armies, the former in particular attempting to seize Morhange.  Advancing into prepared German defences, the French suffer horrendous losses.  Simultaneously, Prince Rupprecht's 6th Army launches the counterattack 'authorized' by OHL on the 18th.  This attack falls primarily against the two corps of 2nd Army to the south of XX Corps, whose successful advance had uncovered their flank.  Unlike the French attack, the German advance is successful - both French corps retire in disarray, and by nightfall 2nd Army is retreating back across the French border to the Meurhe River and the fortifications of Nancy.  2nd Army has also lost contact with 1st Army to the south, and in order to re-establish the line 1st Army, which has also suffered heavily, and the Army of Alsace are ordered to fall back.

- In the early morning hours, the German I Corps under General François attacks the northern flank of the Russian 1st Army, and is a shattering success - one Russian division suffers 60% casualties.  The rest of the attack by 8th Army, however, has a very different outcome.  XVII Corps, under General August von Mackensen, and I Reserve Corps, under General Otto von Below, arrive on the battlefield only in the late morning, and the Russians facing them have been forewarned by I Corps' attack.  Devastating artillery fire is poured onto XVII Corps, which suffers eight thousand casualties in two hours.  An entire division breaks and retreats in disarray.  I Reserve Corps, attacking to the south of XVII Corps, is similarly repulsed, and with XVII Corps in retreat, has no choice but to retreat as well.  At 6pm 8th Army commander General Prittwitz calls François and informs him that despite his local success, I Corps must retreat.  Though it is not an overwhelming one, the Russians have won the Battle of Gumbinnen.

The defeat provokes a crisis of confidence in Prittwitz.  He sees his strategy - attacking each Russian army separately - in tatters.  8th Army is already in retreat, and the Russian 2nd Army will be able to advance northwards unmolested.  Indeed, the Russian 2nd Army is already to the west of the German 8th Army, and Prittwitz concludes that a hasty withdrawal behind the Vistula River is required.  This would abandon the entirety of East Prussia to the Russians, and his subordinates, François included, are appalled.  When Prittwitz informs Moltke this evening of his decision, the latter is aghast - such a precipitate retreat might allow the Russians to threaten Berlin.  Moltke instructs his staff to contact 8th Army's corps commanders directly, to learn their impressions of the situation.

There is one saving grave to come out of the Battle of Gumbinnen for the Germans - General Rennenkampf does not order his 1st Army to pursue.  Though victorious, his army is exhausted and supplies are dangerously low.  Instead, 1st Army is to rest and recover from the battle.  In this are the seeds of the German revival.

- Conrad orders IV Corps to abandon the Sabac bridgehead as a preliminary to its transfer to Galicia.  The order is countermanded by Potiorek, who believes the bridgehead is necessary to the preservation of 5th Army.  Meanwhile, other elements of 2nd Army only today begin the transfer by rail to the Russian front, while 6th Army is finally in position to begin its offensive across the Drina River.

- Lord Kitchener persuades the British Cabinet to reject an alliance offer from Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, fearing that such a move would increase the probability of the Ottoman Empire joining the war on the side of Germany.  Kitchener views this issue primarily through the lens of the Empire - his concern is avoiding an Ottoman offensive against Egypt.