October 22nd, 1915

- Joffre sends a memorandum to his army group commanders today, assessing the strategic situation on the Western Front in the aftermath of the fall offensives in Champagne and Artois.  The French commander-in-chief casts the most favourable light on the recent operations, arguing that the French and British have achieved 'important tactical results', inflicted heavy losses on the Germans, and gained an 'undeniable moral superiority' over the enemy.  Only a lack of artillery had prevented the much-desired breakthrough and decisive victory.  In a more realistic appraisal, he recognizes the exhaustion of the French army, and states that the primary focus in the month ahead will be on resting the infantry and reconstituting units whose ranks have been decimated in the recent fighting.  However, local operations will be necessary to keep the Germans believing major offensives may be imminent, and thus keep them from redeploying units on the Western Front to other theatres.  Other than troops necessary for these minor attacks, the number of soldiers in the front line is to be reduced as low as possible, perhaps for the entire winter.  For the first time since the aftermath of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914, Joffre is not planning an imminent major offensive designed to break the deadlock on the Western Front.

- Mackensen and Seeckt issue orders today for the next phase of the invasion of Serbia.  The German 11th Army is to advance south on both sides of the Morava River towards Kragujevać, establishing contact with the Bulgarian 1st Army.  The Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army would also push south towards Kraljevo, with the ultimate aim of preventing Serbian forces from retreating to the west.  To the south, elements of the Bulgarian 2nd Army seize Skopje today.

The advance of the German 11th and Austro-Hungarian 3rd Armies, Oct. 22nd to 29th, 1915.

Civilians gather around a Serbian soldier to hear news prior to the evacuation of Skopje, Oct. 22nd, 1915.

- North of Görz the Italian II Corps of 2nd Army launches heavy assaults near Plava, the third of which breaks into the Austro-Hungarian trenches at Zagora.  However, 4th Battalion of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Regiment counterattacks before the Italians can consolidate their gains, and retake the lost ground.  The rest of the day here consists of artillery duels, the Italians striking the enemy trenches and the Austro-Hungarians hitting the assembly areas for Italian infantry.

To the south of Görz the Italian 3rd Army continues its attacks, succeeding only in capturing and holding the first enemy trench line west of St. Martino just before noon.  Everywhere else the Austro-Hungarian VII and III Corps hold, and indeed an attack this morning retakes the ground lost yesterday at Heights #121 by 10am.  However, given the heavy enemy pressure most of the available Austro-Hungarian reserves are committed to the fight during the course of the day.

October 13th, 1915

- At noon today British artillery commence a preliminary bombardment of a six-thousand-yard stretch of the German line north of Loos, the target of today's attack.  Most of the fire is concentrated on German trenches, machine-gun posts, and barbed wire, though 114 guns concentrate on German artillery positions identified by aerial reconnaissance over the past several days.  The lengthy preparation has also allowed the British to move up and deploy gas cylinders, which are opened at 150pm.  The wind carries the gas in the desired direction along the entire line except at the north, where the wind direction would have pushed the gas down the British trenches instead of across No Man's Land.  Ten minutes later at 2pm, whistles sound and four divisions of the British 1st Army go on to the attack.  To the north, 2nd Division of I Corps advances north of the Hohenzollern Redoubt against a trench known as Little Willie, while 46th Division of XI Corps, fresh after being redeployed from the Ypres salient, assaults the German redoubt itself.  IV Corp's other division - 12th - is to seize The Quarries to the south of the redoubt, while 1st Division of IV Corps moves against a stretch of the German line on the Lens-La Bassée road.

The British attack north of Loos, October 13th, 1915.

The gas, however, did not have a noticeable effect on the German defenders other than to warn them that an attack was imminent.  Moreover, the preliminary bombardment had not succeeded in knocking out the German artillery, which open fire on the British infantry in the open as they cross No Man's Land.  As a result, the British suffer heavy casualties before they even reach the German line.  On the northern flank, only one officer, a Lieutenant Abercrombie, and one soldier actually make it into the Little Willie trench, and when Abercrombie sends the other soldier back to ask for support, the latter is wounded and the message never arrives.  On his own, Abercrombie wages what amounts to his own private war against the Germans, putting a machine-gun post out of action with his grenades.  With no bombs remaining, Abercrombie manages to return to British lines unscathed, his success notable for its audacity but otherwise without significance on the larger battle.  To the south, 138th Brigade of 46th Division advances over ground partially sheltered from German view, and are able to break into the Hohenzollern Redoubt.  Efforts to secure Fosse Trench beyond, however, fail as the division's other brigade - 137th - fails to get into the Big Willie trench, leaving the forward elements of 138th Brigade exposed to flanking fire.  Further south, 35th Brigade of 12th Division gains a foothold in the southeast corner of The Quarries while elements of 37th Brigade seize 250 yards of Gun Trench, and both brigades are able to hold off German counterattacks.  On the other hand, the attack of 1st Division is an abysmal failure - artillery fire fails to break the German wire, and the attacking infantry, trying to work their way through the few gaps in the wire, come under withering fire and take heavy losses.

British artillery bombards the Hohenzollern  Redoubt as gas drifts towards the German lines, October 13th, 1915.

Overall the British attack has achieved certain tactical successes, capturing and holding toeholds in the German line from the Hohenzollern Redoubt to Gun Trench.  However, these positions remain precarious and further attacks will be needed simply to consolidate the British gain, to say nothing of driving beyond the German lines attacked today.  The four British divisions, meanwhile, have taken significant losses, and the commander of XI Corps decides that 46th Division suffered sufficient casualties as to necessitate its withdrawal from the line, and this evening he orders the Guard Division back to the front in its place.

- To the south near Vimy Ridge, the German Guard Corps, after a series of counterattacks, manages to retake the trenches at the Five Crossroads west of Givenchy today.  Meanwhile, meeting with Joffre today, Foch argues for a resumption of the attack, given that 'only a bound' can gain the crest of Vimy Ridge.  He argues that the attack of the 11th had broken down due to insufficient artillery support - the heavy artillery of 10th Army had fired 73 000 shells prior to the September 25th assault as compared to only 21 600 shells prior to the 11th.  Joffre, however, replies that he does not have the ammunition to give, and moreover that the most recent failure has shown that 10th Army does not have the ability to make another big push.  Joffre thus instructs Foch to halt further major assaults, only attacking to consolidate the gains won west of Vimy of Ridge over the past three weeks.

- Joffre's order to Foch effectively brings the French fall offensive to a close, given that the French commander-in-chief had halted operations in Champagne on the 7th.  The French have gained ground in both Champagne and Artois - up to four kilometres in the former and up to two kilometres in the latter.  However, the ground seized confers no great strategic advantage, and is a far cry from both Joffre's objectives and the possibilities that appeared to exist in the first days of the attack.  Especially in Champagne, the initial French attack broke through the main German defensive position, driving several kilometres in a matter of hours while inflicting heavy losses on the defenders.  The failure to follow up this success and push through the reserve German line after the 25th highlights once again that the true tactical difficulty on the Western Front is not the initial attack but the follow up; that poor communication, delays in reserve forces moving forward over broken ground, and difficulties in coordinating artillery fire in a fluid engagement all combine to impair subsequent assaults.  In both regions the French had fired almost 4.4 million light and over 800 000 thousand heavy artillery shells, but only on the first day, when they had been firing on German defences that were well-known and whose position had been precisely known, had the bombardment had a decisive effect.  In the following days, when the artillery was firing on unfamiliar, and in some cases unknown, German positions, the bombardment had been much less effective.  It points to the necessity of accurate knowledge of enemy defences and where artillery fire is needed during battle, but the delays in communicating by foot across the former No Man's Land renders this exceedingly difficult.  Overall, the small French gains in Champagne and Artois had come at the cost of just over 190 000 casualties, including 30 000 dead, 110 000 wounded, and 50 000 missing in action.

On the German side, 6th Army in Artois lost just over 50 000 while the casualties of 3rd and 5th Armies in Champagne numbered just over 80 000.  The battle had a notable impact on Falkenhayn; in the first days of the fighting, as the battle hung in the balance and French breakthrough appeared possible, he was acutely aware of how he had stripped the Western Front of reserves for his earlier campaign in Russia and the ongoing operation against Serbia.  When Lieutenant-Colonel Gerhard Tappen, OHL's operations officer, met Falkenhayn on the 27th, he found the German chief of staff 'very dejected'.  However, as the German armies have held on over the next three weeks, Falkenhayn draws different conclusions from the course of the fighting.  Despite Entente superiority in manpower and material, the achievement of operational surprise, and the reduction of German reserves, the British and French had been unable to break through the German lines.  It confirms Falkenhayn's emphasis on the importance of constructing multiple trench lines to contain enemy assaults.  More importantly, Falkenhayn concludes that if an attacking can not achieve a breakthough in such propitious circumstances, a breakthrough is not a realistic possibility given the conditions of the war on the Western Front.  This informs not only Falkenhayn's defensive outlook; instead of attempting to break through Entente lines in the future, another strategic objective will have to inform future German offensives.  Moreover, the failure of the French fall offensive serves to reinforce Falkenhayn's poor opinion of the French army, believing it to be approaching the end of its strength.  These two threads, comprising the key lessons Falkenhayn takes from the fall fighting in Champagne and Artois, will figure decisively in the course of the fighting in 1916.

- In Serbia the storm portented in yesterday's weather has engulfed the region.  It is a Kossava, an autumnal weather sytem that comes up from the southeast, bringing heavy rains and high winds.  Though the storm had been expected, its intensity takes the Germans by surprise.  On the Danube and Save Rivers waves reach six feet high and more, and parts of the islands on the rivers flood.  By the end of the day the raging torrents have destroyed or rendered unusable all of the bridges that German and Austro-Hungarian engineers built across the rivers since the offensive began.  This effectively cuts the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the southern banks off from their supplies and heavy artillery on the northern bank.  Further, the heavy rains turn the dirt roads of the region into impassible mud.  The conditions makes a pause in the offensive to resupply and await better conditions an obvious option, and General Gallwitz of the German 11th Army argues for precisely this course of action.  Mackensen and Seeckt, however, speed is of the utmost priority to prevent the Entente forces recently landed at Salonika from moving north and reinforcing the Serbian army before it can be defeated in battle.  Moreover, despite the successes to date the bridgeheads of the two armies are still almost twenty miles apart, and creating a continuous front will put more pressure on the Serbs.

On the ground, the next objective of the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army are the Avala Hills, but when they advance today they encounter well-developed defensive positions manned by the Serbian 1st Timok, 2nd Timok, and 1st Morava Divisions.  In the poor weather and advancing over difficult terrain, the attackers make minimal progress.  To the west, additional attacks by the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps failed to secure significant gains yesterday, and today Mackensen orders the corps to leave only enough soldiers to hold the bridgeheads and redeploy the rest east to cross the Save River at Big Zigeuner Island where it can take its intended position on the western wing of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army.  On the front of the German 3rd Army, despite Gallwitz's reservations, the German 107th Division attacks east of Požarevac, fighting its way through a Serbian defensive line at Kalidol, while X Reserve Corps seizes the high ground at Lipovac.

Meanwhile, the Bulgarian government formally severs diplomatic relations with Serbia today, a prelude to the planned invasion of the country tomorrow.  General Zhekov, chief of the Bulgarian general staff, has deployed two armies - 1st and 2nd - along the country's western frontier with Serbia.  To the north, 1st Army, consisting of 6th, 8th, 9th, and 1st Divisions, is deployed east of its ultimate objective, the de facto Serbian capital at Niš.  To the south, 2nd Army, with 3rd and 7th Divisions, is push westwards into the Vardar River valley and sever the railway linking Niš and Salonika, thus preventing the rapid movement of Entente forces at the latter into Serbia.

October 5th, 1915

- Overnight a reconstituted British XI Corps, with 12th and 46th Divisions (the former a New Army formation and the latter a Territorial unit; both had formerly been in the Ypres salient) replacing the shattered 21st and 24th alongside the Guards Division, has been reinserted into the frontline opposite the Hohenzollern Redoubt.  Haig believes that the ground lost here over the past week must be recaptured prior to any further advance eastward, and thus has ordered the Guards Division to recapture the Redoubt and 12th Division to seize The Quarries.  All of the artillery belonging to the British 1st Army will support this attack, which will also be accompanied by the release of chlorine gas from 480 cylinders.  Such a maximum effort, however, takes time to prepare for, especially with respect to the deployment of the drums of gas, and as such Haig has scheduled this assault to take place on October 9th, with the subsequent attack eastward scheduled for the following.  News of the delay, however, is disappointing to Joffre, who had hoped that the British attack at Loos would coincide with the renewed French assaults in Artois and Champagne, and despite a visit by Foch to Sir John French's headquarters the British refuse to be rushed.  Though terrible weather has postponed the attack in Artois, the preliminary bombardment in Champagne has already begun, and Joffre feels he has no choice but to abandon the concept of simultaneous assaults, ordering the French 2nd and 4th Armies to attack tomorrow as scheduled.

- With the growing French artillery bombardment, it has become clear to the German defenders in Champagne that the enemy is preparing to make another big push to break through their line.  General Einem of 3rd Army reports to Falkenhayn today that sufficient reserves are now available to halt any French assault in the coming days, though if the French attack for more than several days further reinforcements may be necessary.  Further, given that the reserve line German troops now inhabit was not as well-developed as the old first trench line, French artillery fire is having a particularly severe effect on soldiers who lack dugouts to shelter in.  Moreover, while the placement of much of the reserve line on the reverse side of various hills prevent the French from observing the fall of their shells, it also prevents the Germans from observing French preparations to attack.

- Joffre and Kitchener meet at Calais to discuss the expedition to Salonika and operations in the Balkans.  In addition to the infantry division and cavalry regiment already en route, Joffre has agreed to send an infantry brigade shortly and an infantry and two cavalry divisions once the fall offensive in Champagne is concluded.  The current French commitment to the operations thus stands at 64 000 men.  During today's meeting Kitchener promises to augment the British division on the way to Salonika with an infantry and cavalry division, while agreeing to send a further three infantry divisions when the Champagne battle is over.  Notably, these forces will come up about 20 000 short of the 150 000 requested by Venizelos, but when Joffre asks Kitchener to make up the difference, the latter states that this could only be accomplished by withdrawing further divisions from the British Expeditionary Force in France (from which the three infantry divisions mentioned above are to be taken).  Moreover, Kitchener remains unconvinced of the soundness of intervention in the Balkans.  The idea of sending forces into Serbia with winter imminent does not strike him as sound, and believes that even if the Entente force is augmented to 150 000 men it will not be sufficient to alter the balance of forces in the Balkans without Greek intervention.  Kitchener informs Joffre that the British contingent will not advance beyond Salonika unless the Greeks enter the war.  As a result, the two agree that the British will be responsible for defending Salonika itself while the French would undertake an advance northward to aid the Serbs.

- Though yesterday both the British and French governments had signaled their concurrence with the Russian ultimatum of the 1st, the Bulgarian government formally rejects the ultimatum today, unwilling to be dissuaded from entering the war.  The Entente interprets the rejection as the last straw, and instructions go out to the Entente ambassadors in Sofia to leave the country.

Meanwhile the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive against Serbia is about to begin - artillery today fires registration shots, aircraft tracking the fall of shells, so that when the main bombardment opens the Germans can be reasonably sure their shells are falling on the targets they intend to target.  On the other side the Serbian army has been preparing for the imminent attack, and General Radomir Putnik has deployed the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies to defend the line of the Save and Danube Rivers.  After repulsing three separate Austro-Hungarian attempts to conquer Serbia in 1914, both Putnik and the Serbian soldier have earned well-deserved reputations for toughness and tenacity.  However, the Serbian army of late 1915 is not the same as that of late 1914.  First, a series of epidemics had decimated Serbia earlier this year, striking down thousands and crippling many more.  The army was not immune, and disease has thinned its ranks.  Second, the mobilization of 1914 had drafted almost every able-bodied male into the army, and while this contributed to victory in 1914 it means that there are practically no replacements for the 120 000 casualties the Serbians have suffered in the war to date.  Quite literally, this is the last Serbian army - should it be defeated, it would be impossible to raise another.  Third, the supply situation has worsened.  Prewar ammunition stocks, already low from the two Balkan wars, had been largely depleted by the fighting in 1914, and while the minimal Serbian armaments industry has proved wholely inadequate to the demands of modern war, supplies from France, while vital, can hardly make up the shortfall.  The Serbians thus face a severe shortage of weaponry and munitions at the moment they are needed most.  Fourth, the obvious agreement of Bulgaria to enter the war means that the Serbs cannot deploy their entire army to face the Germans and Austro-Hungarians attacking from the north; instead, 2nd Army and smaller forces have to be deployed along the eastern frontier to prevent a Bulgarian offensive from cutting behind the Serbian forces to the north.  Finally, Putnik himself is ill, suffering from influenza, and his role in directing the Serbian army is necessarily reduced.  Thus the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive will face a Serbian army in significantly more dire straits than it had been in 1914, which should be kept in mind when comparing the results of the 1915 campaign with that of 1914.

- Despite the vote in parliament yesterday, significant domestic opposition in Greece remains to the policy of the government: the idea of foreign troops arriving unimpeded at Salonika is seen as a gross affront of Greek sovereignty by the opposition press, which over the past few days has been giving vent to its frustrations.  Further, the leadership of the Greek army is opposed to intervention in the war.  Most importantly, Venizelos has been entirely unable to assuage the concerns of King Constantine regarding Greek entry into the war.  Unwilling to accede any longer to Venizelo's pro-Entente policy, he dismisses Venizelos as Prime Minister, and appoints as his replacement Alexandros Zaimis, an adherent of Constantine's policy of strict neutrality.  In choosing this course of action, Constantine has set the course of Greek politics on a fateful path to what will become known as the 'Great Schism' - Venizelos has no intention of going quietly into retirement.

Regardless of the dismissal of the Greek government, the Entente landing at Salonika begins today as the first elements of two brigades and an artillery battalion from the French 156th Division start to disembark.

French infantry at Salonika, October 1915.

- After yesterday's order dispatching the Ottoman XVIII Corps to Baghdad, Enver Pasha orders the formation of a new 6th Army to take command of all Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia.  His hope is that a unified command for the region with new leadership will stabilize the front and keep the British away from Baghdad.  To command 6th Army Enver assigned German Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz, currently in command of 1st Army in Thrace.  Goltz's responsibilities, however, go beyond Mesopotamia: 6th Army includes Persia within its zone of operations.  His appointment meets the request of the Persian government for a senior German officer to be made responsible for Persia, and in addition to meeting the British advance in Mesopotamia Goltz is to win Persia to the side of the Germans, ideally to open the way to a land attack on India.

It will, however, take a number of weeks for the elderly Goltz to reach Baghdad, given the poor transportation system, and in the meantime command of 6th Army will reside in Colonel Nur-ud-din, who has led Ottoman forces in the region since mid-June.  Despite the record of defeat, Nur-ud-din is an experienced officer with lengthy service in the Ottoman army, and his defensive efforts have largely been let down by poor morale.  With reinforcements en route, however, Nur-ud-din hopes to be able to hold the British at Ctesiphon.

October 3rd, 1915

- Joffre writes a long memorandum to the war minister today in response to General Sarrail's dispatch on operations in the Balkans.  Not surprisingly, the French commander in chief strongly objects to the suggestion of transferring three or four corps to Salonika.  Britain. he suggests, should assume primary responsibility for aiding their allies in the Balkans, and while France should contribute to any such support, it should be kept to a bare minimum.  A larger commitment, he fears, would be a fruitless dispersal of strength and involve a weakening of the Western Front.  Joffre also acknowledges has failed to break through the second German defense line.  He prepares his civilian master for the suspension of the offensive in the near future, given the need for fresh infantry and additional ammunition before another operation of similar scope can be undertaken.  This does not preclude, however, the assault Joffre ordered yesterday, hoping to secure additional ground through one final effort.  Moreover, he insists that the initial success in Champagne 'gives us confidence in the final victory' and that 'all our efforts should seek to achieve a large strategic rupture that will have as its first consequence the liberation of national territory.'  A significant commitment to the Balkans, however, would constitute an unacceptable and unnecessary diversion from this effort.

- At Loos the French IX Corps has taken over the British line up to the ruins of the Puit 14 factory, including responsibility for the village of Loos itself.  This has allowed the entire Guards Division to be pulled out of the line for rest before the planned resumption of the offensive.  To the north, following the recapture of a stretch of Gun Trench on the 30th, German forces launched a series of attacks over the past few days against the northern side of the salient carved out by the initial British attack on the 25th.  After heavy fighting, early this morning German infantry manage to recapture the Hohenzollern Redoubt, a significant loss for the British as it exposes any future British attack towards Hulloch to flanking fire from the north.

- As the French prepare for one last push in Champagne, Falkenhayn asks Lieutenant-General Konstantin Schmidt von Knobelsdorf, chief of staff to Crown Prince Wilhelm, whether it would be possible to undertake a major offensive in Alsace, the plans for which Knobelsdorf had examined during the summer.  Though the conclusion is that, with significant forces committed to the Serbian offensive, such an operation is not practical at present, Falkenhayn's inquiry speaks to the extent to which the great crisis of September 25th, when it appeared that both the British and French had broken through at Loos and in Champagne respectively, has passed.

- The Greek government lodges a formal diplomatic complaint of the imminent violation of its neutrality by British and French forces landing at Salonika.  Having fulfilled the requirements of international law to preserve the facade of diplomacy, no interference is offered when British and French officers land at Salonika today to begin planning for the arrival of the lead French brigades on the 5th.

The Anglo-French landing at Salonika, Greece, October 1915.

September 30th, 1915

- To the north side of Loos, efforts by the British 28th Division to recover the slap heap known as the Dump, lost on the 27th, are called off today.  A German counterattack, meanwhile, manages to regain 250 yards of Gun Trench, located between the Quarries and the Hulloch-Vermelles road.  To the south of Loos, the delayed relief of the British 47th Division south of Loos by the French IX Corps is completed overnight, and in turn 47th Division has shifted north and relieved 3rd Guard Brigade, the latter going back into reserve.  Given the delay, when General Foch and Field Marshall French meet today they agree to postpone the Anglo-French offensive at Vimy Ridge and Loos to October 3rd.

British dead lay before a captured German trench near Loos, Sept. 30th, 1915.

Ruined buildings in the village of Loos, Sept. 30th, 1915.

On the German side, the first train carrying the German XI Corps from the Eastern Front passes through Liège this morning en route to 6th Army.  Further, the situation has sufficiently stabilized from Falkenhayn's perspective to permit further relief of the battered VI Corps, sending in elements of I Bavarian Corps into the line in its place.  Falkenhayn also receives reports that ample ammunition remains for defensive artillery in the event of further Entente assaults.  The German chief of staff concludes today that while fighting on the Western Front continues, the armies have weathered the worst of the enemy attacks, and though the margin of victory was at times narrow, this has been accomplished without having to divert significant forces from the Balkans and delay the impending invasion of Serbia.

- As a result of the debacle in Champagne that ensued after the false report of a breakthrough by the French 14th Division, Castlenau informs Joffre today that several days will be needed to reorganize and recover from the earlier fighting before the offensive can be resumed.  Though a decision about timing has yet to be made, Joffre tells Castlenau to proceed as if another attack will be undertaken.

- As German and Austro-Hungarian forces finalize preparations for their invasion of Serbia, German aircraft have been conducting aerial reconnaissance of Serbian positions and key crossings of the Save and Danube Rivers.  In addition, a series of bombing raids have been carried out, principally against Požarevac, the main Serbian airfield, and Kragujevać, home to munitions factories.  By the end of September, the Germans have dropped approximately 2400 kilograms of bombs.  At this stage of the war, however, aerial bombardment is still primitive, and it is estimated that half of the bombs fail to detonate.  Only minimal resistance is faced by the German aircraft, though today Serbian air defenses score their only success of the campaign when they shoot down a German Albatross today, part of six-plane raid on Kragujevać.

September 28th, 1915

- Near Loos the British 2nd Guards Brigade makes a second attempt to capture the ruined buildings at Puit 14 at 345pm today.  The brigade commander, Brigadier-General J. Ponsonby, had been extremely reluctant to undertake the attack, given that the first effort with greater artillery support had failed yesterday.  However, a message to Major General the Earl of Cavan, commander of the Guards Division, suggesting a postponement until tonight is not replied to by 345, and Ponsonby has no choice but to go through with the attack.  Predictably, the assault fails in the face of intense German machine-gun fire, and 2nd Guards Brigade suffers 250 casualties for no gain.  Elsewhere on the British front, 28th Division, which had formerly been the reserve of the British 2nd Army to the north, comes into the line today west of Haisnes, having been reassigned to 1st Army.  Its orders are to retake the Dump, a huge slag heap just west of Fosse 8 recaptured by the Germans yesterday.  When the attack goes in at 930am, the six battalions of 28th Division are repulsed, with two battalion commanders killed.

A German trench wrecked by British artillery fire near Loos, Sept. 28th, 1915.

Given the failure of the Guards Division yesterday and 28th Division this morning, Field Marshal French no longer has any reserves immediately available that he can commit to the battle, and he writes to Joffre requesting that the French 10th Army take over part of the British line south of Loos, to allow the British forces there to go into reserve.  If this cannot be done, Sir John French suggests that the British may have to abandon the offensive.  Though Joffre's focus is now on the ongoing battle in Champagne, he still believes that British attacks are important in forcing the Germans to keep some of their reserves in the north, and thus he instructs Foch to accede to the BEF commander's request.  Later today Foch meets with Sir John French and agrees that the French IX Corps of 10th Army will take over the stretch of the line currently held by the British 47th Division, southernmost of 1st Army's forces.

- Even before Foch and French meet, however, the French 10th Army achieves an unexpected success.  Whereas the attacks yesterday east of Souchez accomplished nothing, when the assault is renewed today by the right wing of XXXIII Corps and the left wing of III Corps, they are able to push through the first German trench line and advance towards Giesler Hill (also known as Hill 119) and Vimy Ridge.  In an attempt to follow up this success, General d'Urbal orders the three corps on the northern wing of his army to attack at 140pm.  The German 123rd Saxon Division and VI Corps are forced backwards, and elements of XXXIII Corps capture Giesler Hill while elements of III Corps reach Hill 140, the highest point on Vimy Ridge.  An immediate German counterattack by 123rd Saxon Division fails to recover most of the lost ground, and Rupprecht at 6th Army headquarters orders elements of 11th Division and 1st Guards Division to prepare for a counterattack.  Before this can occur, a report reaches 6th Army headquarters that the French had seized the village of Givenchy east of Giesler Hill and broken through the last German trench line.  When no further information reaches him tonight, Rupprecht has to assume the worst - his position north of Vimy Ridge has been broken.  At OHL Falkenhayn orders 2nd Army to send detachments equivalent to a division to 6th Army, and Rupprecht is also authorized to call on a brigade from 4th Army if necessary.  In reality, no such breakthrough at Givenchy has occurred; reports of the initial French capture of Giesler Hill have become misinterpreted and exaggerated as they passed up the chain of command.

- In Champagne, while the French 4th Army attacks again today, 2nd Army does not after the failed efforts of yesterday led Pétain to conclude that further assaults without adequate preparation would accomplish nothing.  This reticence, however reasonable, hardly endears Pétain to his superiors; later today Joffre himself arrives at Pétain's headquarters where he in no uncertain terms orders 2nd Army to resume the offensive.  Unable to disobey a direct order, Pétain afterwards issues a terse order to his corps' commanders to resume the attack tomorrow.

Meanwhile, drama of a different sort, echoing today's events in Artois, occurs to the west along the front of 4th Army.  During an attack today a brigade of 14th Division, VII Corps captures what is known as the Trench of Tantes, five hundred metres west of Ferme de Navarin.  However, beyond the Trench of Tantes is another German trench line, and when the French brigade attempts to advance further the infantry come under a hail of machine-gun and artillery fire, and are forced back.  However, the report to 14th Division headquarters is misinterpreted as indicating that the brigade has broken through the entire German second defensive line, and news of the 'breakthrough' races up the command structure.  At Castlenau's headquarters the report is received with joy, and the mood is further buoyed when subsequent messages report that the breach is seven hundred metres wide and that several brigades have passed through it.  The false report is another example of the chaos the modern battlefield can have on communications, but among Castlenau's staff there is no desire to critically evaluate news they have been desperately waiting for since the 25th.  Castlenau orders General de Langle of 4th Army to move all available forces forward to enlarge and pass through the breach, and the latter orders his cavalry to the front to exploit the apparent success.  Castlenau instructs Pétain, meanwhile, to do everything possible to support 4th Army's advance.  French forces are now surging towards a break in the German line that does not exist.

- Mackensen issues his formal orders for the Serbian campaign today.  He has two armies under his command: 11th German and 3rd Austro-Hungarian, with the former deployed east of Belgrade along the Danube and the latter opposite Belgrade itself and along the Save River to the west.  The commanders of both - General Max von Gallwitz of the former and General Hermann Kövess of the latter - have, like Mackensen, made their reputations on the Eastern Front; whereas Gallwitz commanded an army group and later 12th Army alongside Mackensen's advance, Kövess is one of the few Austro-Hungarian officers who has demonstrated any semblance of competence in the war, the capture of Ivangorod by forces under his command making him the man of the moment in Vienna.  Crucially, both Mackensen and his chief of staff, General Seeckt, view Kövess as competent, a rare enough German evaluation of any Austro-Hungarian commander.  Each army has three corps under its command, with the German III, IV Reserve, and X Reserve Corps assigned to the German 11th Army.  Because the debacle of the Herbstsau offensive forced Conrad to keep some of the Austro-Hungarian formations assigned to the Serbian campaign instead on the Eastern Front, the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army has only two Austro-Hungarian corps under its command - VIII and XIX - which number three divisions and several brigades.  To make up this shortfall, 3rd Army has also been assigned the German XXII Reserve Corps of three divisions under the command of General Eugen von Falkenhayn, older brother of the German chief of staff.  The mixed composition of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army is yet another reflection of the weakness of the Austro-Hungarian army and the necessity of the Germans to prop their ally up with German formations.

Mackensen's overall plan for the campaign is to take advantage of the specifics of the convention signed with Bulgaria on 6th, whereas the latter is to attack five days after the German and Austro-Hungarian attack.  The two armies under his direct command would execute a series of carefully staged crossings of the Danube and Save Rivers.  The Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army is to begin its artillery bombardment on October 5th and cross the Save just west of Belgrade on the 7th.  To the east, after artillery preparation on the 6th, the German X Reserve Corps is to cross on the 7th as well, with III and IV Reserve Corps crossing on the 8th.  The hope is that these assaults, in addition to securing the high ground south of the rivers, would draw the Serbian army north prior to the attack of the Bulgarian 1st Army from the east.  If the Bulgarians are able to successfully cut across the line of communications of the Serbian armies along the Save and Danube, the allied armies may be able to surround and destroy the Serbian army in the valley of the Morava River.

The deployment of the corps of the German 11th and Austro-Hungarian 3rd Armies for the Serbian Campaign.

- General Maurice Sarrail of the French Army of the Near East is informed today that his command will be deployed in the Balkans, not on the coast of Ottoman Anatolia, and he is requested to provide an assessment of operations in the region.

- At 2am this morning east of Kut-al-Amara, 16th and 17th Indian Brigades begin to cross from the south bank of the Tigris River to the north across a bridge of boats.  Before dawn the brigades reaches Suwada Marsh, where they divide into two columns: the first, commanded by Brigadier-General W. S. Delamain and consisting of one and a half battalions from 16th Indian Brigade, turns west to attack the three Ottoman redoubts north of Suwada Marsh, while the second, commanded by Brigadier-General F. A. Hoghton and comprising 17th Indian Brigade along with the remainder of 16th Indian Brigade, continues further north before it too turns west, its objective being to pass through the 300-yard-gap between the northernmost Ottoman redoubt and Ataba Marsh further north.  To the south, 18th Indian Brigade holds the line from Suwada Marsh to the Tigris opposite the primary Ottoman defences.  By redeploying 16th and 17th Indian Brigades overnight after demonstrating for the past two days on the south bank, General Townshend hopes to deceive the Ottoman defenders as to where the main attack will fall.  In this Townshend's plan has succeeded - as the two Indian brigades are moving north, Colonel Nur-ur-din, commander of the Ottoman defenders, is moving his reserves from the north bank to the south.

By 6am, however, the British plan has gone awry.  As the sun rises, Hoghton's column realizes that their march overnight has been misdirected - in the featureless terrain, inaccurate compass bearings, compiled from aerial reconnaissance, has led them astray.  Instead of passing between the northernmost Ottoman redoubt and the southern edge of Ataba Marsh, they are passing across the northern edge of Ataba Marsh.  Hoghton decides that it would take too much time to retrace the column's steps, and decides to keep going the long way around the Ottoman line.  This takes several hours longer than intended, during which Hoghton's column stumbles across a reserve Ottoman battalion, which is routed by a bayonet charge by 104th Wellington Rifles, which takes 112 prisoners.

It is 820am before Brigadier-General Delamain sees Hoghton's column on the horizon.  To this point Delamain has been postponing his attack, unaware of Hoghton's whereabouts, as the latter's detour has exhausted his column's telephone wire.  Though 6th Indian Division has two wireless sets, they are with Generals Townshend and Nixon, a less-than-ideal use since today both are actually in the same observation tower.  When Hoghton's column makes its belated appearance, it and Delamain's column attacks the three Ottoman redoubts, starting with the northernmost, and despite fierce Ottoman resistance and blowing sand hindering artillery fire, the three redoubts are cleared by 1245pm.

Having occupied the Ottoman positions between the Ataba and Suwada Marshes, the two British columns combine and move south towards the Tigris, aiming to envelope the main Ottoman defensive position between Suwada Marsh and the river.  The British soldiers, however, have been marching since 2am, and their water bottles have long since run dry.  Further, ammunition is running low and blowing dust makes for slow going.  At 330pm the two columns halt, but find themselves under fire from Ottoman guns near the Tigris.  A subsequent advance runs into another Ottoman battalion that had been rushed back across the Tigris, and though it is driven off the field via the bayonet, the exertion required exhausts the remaining strength of the two columns.

By nightfall, 6th Indian Division has been exhausted by the day's fighting, having decisively turned the northern flank of the Ottoman position.  However, the lines of communication of the Ottoman defenders remain open, and Colonel Nur-ur-din is able to order the 35th and 38th Divisions to retreat overnight.  The British have thus won an incomplete victory: though they have forced the Ottomans from the field, the Ottomans have escaped to fight another day.

The First Battle of Kut-al-Amara has cost the British 1233 casualties, including 94 dead, as compared to approximately 4000 Ottoman casualties, which count among their number just over a thousand prisoners.  Though the casualty ratio is very favourable to the British, geography negates much of this advantage: while the Ottomans can fall back towards Baghdad and reinforcements, British casualties have to travel all the way down the Tigris to the base hospital at Basra.

September 26th, 1915

- At 1am, the German counterattack around Loos is undertaken by the reserve forces of 6th Army, newly-arrived at the front.  Though 8th Infantry Division, attacking from the direction of Lens, is unable to gain any significant ground, 26th Brigade attacking from the northeast has more success; their advance happens to be directed at a weak point in the new British line where reinforcements are in the process of arriving, and they manage to push the British back five hundred yards and recapture the Quarries northwest of Hulluch.  The Germans also score a coup when they capture the commander of the British 27th Brigade.

Meanwhile, the British 21st and 24th Divisions continue to struggle across the broken terrain of the old No Man's Land towards the new front line.  Due to the communication delays endemic to the modern battlefield, Haig's order of 827pm for the two divisions to take up position between Hulluch and Hill 70 does not even arrive at the headquarters of the latter until 2am this morning, and the former receives the directive even later.  By the time they reach the new position and sort out the confusion caused by the march, it is already dawn.  Haig has assumed that the two divisions would reach the line Hulluch-Hill 70 much earlier overnight and would have had time to rest before they attack this morning.  In reality, the men are already exhausted without a shot having been fired in anger.

Haig's plan for the second day of the British offensive is to attack what is perceived to be the weakest point of the German line, that stretching from Hill 70 to just north of Hulluch, where the British had secured the greatest gains yesterday.  On the northern end, I Corps is instructed to capture the village of St Elie, while IV Corps is ordered to seize Hulluch as well as recapture the high ground of Hill 70.  In between these two points, 21st and 24th Divisions of XI Corps are to drive over the second German trench line, advancing three miles to the Haute Deule Canal.  The most important advance is thus of the 'fresh' 21st and 24th Divisions.  Both formations are part of Kitchener's 'New Armies', composed of men who volunteered for military service in the first months of the war.  This is not the first time divisions of the 'New Armies' will enter combat - two of the six divisions that had attacked yesterday were from the 'New Armies'.  However, those formations had been given substantial time to prepare an attack against defences that had been subject to a four-day bombardment.  Today's attack by 21st and 24th Divisions, however, are to be undertaken by already-exhausted formations against German defences that will have been bombarded for only a couple of hours.  Such circumstances are hardly ideal, but Haig believes the Germans remain weak, and regardless the two divisions are the only reserves immediately at hand: if the offensive is to be continued, they need to be committed to the attack.

The orders for the preliminary attack on Hill 70 only reach the involved battalions at 7am, leaving little time for preparations for the attack scheduled for 9am.  More seriously, the artillery bombardment is hindered by a lack of ammunition: batteries that had moved forward to Loos overnight cannot be resupplied over roads that are clogged with the debris of battle and under constant German artillery fire, and thus can contribute only the shells they brought with them.  Confusion over where exactly the front line was, combined with the delay in communication orders, also means that a few of the British shells fall short among their own infantry.  When the infantry attack Hill 70 at 9am, a morning mist that had impeded the artillery bombardment lifts just in time for the German machine gunners to take a terrible toll on the advancing infantry.  Some manage to get into the redoubt on the top of Hill 70, but in bitter close-quarters fighting are unable to push the Germans back, and the survivors soon retreat westwards.  Attempts by the British to attack again are futile - four senior officers, starting with the Lieutenant-Colonel commanding 10/Green Howards, climb out of the trenches to encourage the infantry to advance once more.  Each of the four is killed in turn, and the soldiers prefer to take what cover is possible from the growing tide of German fire.

Despite the failure to take Hill 70, the commander of XI Corps orders the main attack by 21st and 24th Divisions to go ahead as planned.  Here too the preliminary bombardment is ineffective - in the chaoes of the battlefield the artillery of the two divisions had struggled to get forward, and when the morning mist clears at 9am they find that they have positioned themselves in full view of the German lines.  The result is that the Germans pour artillery fire of their own on the British guns, and the latter are understandibly unable to provide much of a preliminary bombardment of their own.  At exactly 11am the infantry of the two divisions leave the trenches hastily-constructed early this morning and begin to cross the thousand yards that separate them from the second German trench line.  This position is not nearly as elaborate as the old first German line - it lacks the usual support or communication trenches - but otherwise the Germans are in a favourable position.  Though the counterattack overnight largely failed, 8th Division is now available to aid 117th Division in repelling the British attack.  Artillery of both divisions, supported by fire from Hill 70, tear great holes in the ranks of the advancing infantry, and German machine guns sweep back and forth, felling hundreds at a time.  Despite the horrendous losses and the horrific baptism of fire, the British infantry continue to advance eastward.  The German trench is protected by great belts of barbed wire, which the preliminary bombardment has done nothing to disperse.  The survivors who reach the barbed wire can find no way through, and while their search for a way forward losses continue to mount.  Officers capable of coordinating attacks fall - five of the eight battalion commanders of 24th Division that went over the top are killed or wounded - and communications to the rear were nonexistant.  No formal order is given for the divisions to retire - there hardly remains anyone alive to even give such an order - but slowly the survivors begin to pull back from the German wire and return to the trenches from which they had departed.  The German defenders are impressed by the determination and bravery of the British infantry in making it as far as they did in the face of murderous fire, and so great has been the slaughter that out of compassion for a thoroughly beaten foe the German machine guns fall silent as the British withdraw.  German medics even move into No Man's Land to minister to those British wounded not yet beyond aid, and allow them to return to their lines unmolested.  The Germans refer to the battle as der Leichenfel von Loos - the Field of Corpses of Loos.  Of the 15 000 men of 21st and 24th Divisions, over 8000 have been killed or wounded in just four hours of fighting - for all intents and purposes, the two divisions have been destroyed.

When the first news of the attack reach Lieutenant General R. C. B. Haking of XI Corps, he simply cannot believe that it has been such an abject and thorough failure.  Neither can Haig, present at Haking's headquarters, and a staff officer is sent forward to ascertain the actual state of affairs.  When he returns shortly after 4pm, the report he provides extinguishes hope that any success has been accomplished by the attack.  The most significant reserve force available to Haig has thus failed to maintain the momentum of yesterday.  The only other reserve that remains is the Guards Division, which remained under Field Marshal French's control when 21st and 24th Divisions had been ordered forward on the 25th.  Now orders go out to the Guards to advance to the new British line from which the two 'New Army' divisions had attacked this morning.  They are to prevent a German counterattack against the shattered divisions from retaking the ground gained yesterday while also placing them in position to resume the offensive.  Again, orders are delayed and movement across the battlefield is painfully slow: it is not until 6pm that the Guards reach the old British front line trench from which the offensive had begun yesterday, and only reach the new front line after dusk, where they being to relieve the shattered remnants of 21st and 24th Divisions.

- To the south of the British 1st Army, the two northernmost corps of the French 10th Army attack at 110pm this afternoon after an artillery bombardment this morning, and though they are able to capture the pulverized ruins of Souchez, they are unable to advance further.  The attacks south of Arras yesterday, however, are not renewed, General d'Urbal having concluded, with Foch's agreement, that the offensive should only be continued where there was reasonable prospects of success, which existed only where 10th Army had gained ground the prior day.  Future operations of 10th Army are further limited as a result of a meeting of Joffre and Foch south of Amiens at 3pm, where the former remarkably instructs the latter to 'stop the attacks of 10th Army but avoid giving the British the impression that we are leaving them to attack alone, or the Germans that our offensive is slackening off.'  Believing that the operation in Champagne has the greatest chance of succeeding, Joffre wants to concentrate all resources there and draw down the commitment to Artois.  The meeting is also a telling reflection of Joffre's opinion of his British ally.

For their part, while Foch and d'Urbal narrow the scope of 10th Army's activities, they do not completely abandon offensive operations, if only to show the British that they are doing something.  There is a momentary surge of optimism late today when a message reaches 10th Army headquarters that XII Corps has broken through near Neuville.  The report, however, is mistaken, and such misinformation is another consequence of the chaos and interruption of communication on the modern battlefield - in such conditions, reports from subordinate formations of minor advances can become exaggerated and reflect instead the hopes of recipients.  Before the report can be corrected, orders are issued to two corps in the centre of 10th Army to attack, and though the orders are cancelled before they can be carried out, the corps are left sufficiently disordered to be unable to participate in other operations tomorrow.

- In Champagne, Falkenhayn believes that the German 5th Army under Crown Prince Wilhelm reacted better to the French offensive than 3rd Army, and that the command staff of the latter largely lost control of the battle and had made no attempt to inform itself of the state of VIII Reserve Corps.  The German chief of staff thus decides to place 3rd Army under the direction of Crown Prince Wilhelm, so that the efforts of the two armies could be better coordinated.  When news of the change in the command structure is telephoned to 3rd Army headquarters, the chief of staff of 3rd Army objects to serving under 5th Army's chief of staff, who by rank is his junior.  Falkenhayn's reply is to fire 3rd Army's chief of staff and replace him with Colonel Fritz von Lossberg, deputy chief of the Operations Section at OHL.  Arriving at 3rd Army headquarters at 330pm, he receives a call from General Fleck of VIII Reserve Corps, asking whether the withdrawal he proposed yesterday is to be carried out.  Keeping in mind his instructions from Falkenhayn to hold the line, Lossberg instead replies that 'VIII Reserve Corps must stand and die in its current position.'  A later tour of VIII Reserve Corps' line convinces Lossberg that it can hold on with reinforcements now arriving at the front, though he also orders the construction of a new reserve line several kilometres to the north.  He also instructs that the primary responsibility for halting French attacks is to fall on the artillery, which is to cut down the attacking infantry before they reached the German line.  This reflects not only the superiority of artillery on the modern battlefield but also acknowledges the heavy losses VIII Reserve Corps has already suffered.

On the French side, after their gains yesterday the inner wings of 2nd and 4th Armies resume their attacks this morning, focusing on the reserve defensive line of the battered VIII Reserve Corps north of Souain and Perthes.  Though this position is not nearly as fortified as the primary line the French overran yesterday morning, the one advantage it does have is that it is on the reverse slope of the Py Valley, which prevents French observation.  As a result, artillery bombardment early this morning is less effective, and most of the belts of barbed wire remain in place.  The French XIV Corps of 2nd Army attacks twice this morning, but is halted both times just north of Tahure.  Another attempt is made this afternoon, and in bitter fighting a brigade manages to work its way through the second line of trenches.  By this time, however, reinforcements ordered to the front yesterday by Falkenhayn are reaching the scene, and elements of the newly-arrived German 56th Division drives the French brigade back.  To the west, the French VI Corps, ordered into the line yesterday, attacks at 230pm, but barbed wire belts up to sixty meters deep prevent the infantry from reaching the German trenches.  Some success is achieved further to the west, where the French VII Corps, which had not gained ground yesterday, pushes through the first German trench line and reaches the second line, bringing it level with II Colonial Corps.  Though its efforts to fight through the reserve line are also frustrated, its advance raises hopes that another push tomorrow will finally break the German lines.

French artillery firing during the 2nd Battle of Champagne, Sept. 26th, 1915.

- Given Falkenhayn's instructions of yesterday and the inability of the German 10th Army to advance further past Vilna, Ludendorff acknowledges the inevitable and calls his September, or Sventsiany, offensive to an end.  Instead the armies of OberOst are instructed to establish a permanent line of trenches on which they will stand for the foreseeable future.

Ludendorff's decision to call off the offensive of the German 10th Army effectively brings an end to German operations on the Eastern Front, which had originated in the attack of Mackensen's 11th Army at Gorlice-Tarnow at the beginning of May.  In the months since, the Russian army has been forced to evacuate Poland while the Russian pressure on Austria-Hungary has been relieved.  Though the Russian army escaped the massive envelopment envisioned by Ludendorff, they have still suffered crushing losses: since the spring, the Russian army has lost over two million men, including a million prisoners of war.  Of almost equal significance, the fighting since May has reinforced the belief among Russian generals that the German soldier is inherently superior to his Russian counterpart, which has left them extremely reluctant to undertake offensive operations against the Germans.  Thus, despite the fact that the Russians still have a marked numerical superiority over the Germans - the former has seventy-five divisions arrayed against the forty-five divisions under Ludendorff - Falkenhayn has accomplished his objective of destroying the offensive capability of the Russian army, a victory as psychological as material.  This is the necessary prerequisite for offensive operations planned by Falkenhayn in other theatres - even if the Russians have not been knocked out of the war, they have been sufficiently damaged to allow for a significant redeployment of German divisions elsewhere.  It is also a vindication of Falkenhayn's operational approach of eschewing grand envelopments in favour of concentrating firepower to crush the enemy line and grinding the enemy down.

The Eastern Front at the end of the German offensives of 1915.

- This morning the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army discovers the Russians on the opposite bank of the Styr River have retreated overnight, but their own pursuit is delayed by a lack of bridges and boats, and it is not until evening that significant elements of the army have crossed to the east bank.  As a result, though Lutsk is recaptured, 4th Army has completely lost touch with the withdrawing Russian 8th Army.  Meanwhile, to the north the German XXIV Reserve Corps, the core of a group under General Friedrich Gerok sent from the Army of the Bug, crosses the Styr River at Kolki.

- With the imminent Anglo-French expedition to Salonika, Italian Prime Minister Sydney Sonnino asks his military advisors whether Italian forces can be commited to the operation.  Given that Italian governments have traditionally seen the southwestern Balkans as properly within their sphere of influence, an Entente deployment to the region without Italian participation may be detrimental to Italy's long-term interests.  Lieutenant-General Vittorio Zupelli, the war minister, argues that nothing can be spared from the Italian Front and that supplies to support such an expedition do not exist and are beyond the capability of Italian industry to produce.  Lieutenant-General Luigi Cadorna, the Italian chief of staff, takes the opposite view, believing that Austro-Hungarian forces tied down fighting in the Balkans means fewer defenders along the Isonzo River.  Though he is planning a major offensive for October, Cadorna states that afterwards he will be able to spare 20 000 men for the Balkans.

- West of Kut-al-Amara the British 6th Indian Division approaches the Ottoman defences, with 16th and 17th Brigades on the south bank and only 18th Brigade on the north bank.  Opposing them are two Ottoman divisions, one on either bank, with further battalions in reserve.  The British force, however, outnumbers the Ottomans almost two to one, at eleven thousand men to six thousand.  The two British brigades on the south bank establish a very conspicuous deception camp, and successfully convince the Ottomans that the main British attack will come south of the Tigris River, Ottoman artillery firing shells into the 'camp'.  The British had also hoped to encourage Ottoman guns north of the Tigris to fire, since it is here that the main British effort will actually be made and it is desirable to know the location of enemy guns so they can be knocked out when the main attack goes in on the 28th.  However, the British deception has been too effective; thinking there are no valuable targets north of the Tigris, the Ottoman artillery here remains silent.  The British here resort to any number of ruses to get the Ottomans to fire, including one captain who walks out into the open and, in full view of the Ottomans, sits on the desert ground and proceeds to read The Times.  Even the captain, though, was not tempting enough for the Ottoman gunners.

September 24th, 1915

- Overnight violent thunderstorms strike Flanders, and heavy rains turn the trench floors into mud, slowly the final movement of supplies up to the front for the British offensive scheduled for tomorrow.  At dawn visibility is reduced by low clouds and ground fog, preventing aerial bombing or reconnaissance, though artillery firing on pre-selected and pre-sighted targets.  The British bombardment of identified German artillery batteries is believed to be particularly successful, given that many of the positions targeted have ceased firing.  In practice, however, the Germans silenced their batteries voluntarily to give the impression that they have been knocked out.  They only await the main British attack before they resume firing.  Meanwhile, on the British side two field batteries per division are attached to their horses this evening, in expectation of immediately following the infantry as they advance tomorrow.

Meanwhile at the headquarters of the British 1st Army, Haig waits with his corps commanders Rawlinson and Gough for the latest weather updates, to see if conditions at dawn tomorrow will allow for the use of chlorine gas.  This afternoon Captain Gold reports that based on the morning's observations, there was a possibility only of a fair wind tomorrow morning.  As the hours passed and more recent observations could be added to his report, Gold become confident that the weather would cooperate for tomorrow - at 9pm he informed Haig that there was a favourable chance of a wind blowing west at ten miles per hour at ground level tomorrow morning.  With this assurance, Haig issues orders for chlorine gas to be used prior to the main infantry assault.

- In Artois the Entente artillery bombardment reaches a crescendo today, with the greatest volume directed against the German VI Corps in the Loos sector.  Further confirmation of the imminent enemy offensive comes via a French deserter, who is captured west of Vimy Ridge and reports that the French will attack at 5am tomorrow.

- In Champagne, French patrols enter No Man's Land to clear French wire, inspect and clear the remaining German wire, and observe the state of the enemy line.  Though they frequently come under fire from German defenders, it allows the French call down artillery fire on these surviving positions.  To this point most of the assault infantry have been kept several kilometres behind the front, to avoid casualties from German artillery fire, but after sundown they move up to their jumping-off points and prepare for the attack, scheduled for 915am tomorrow morning

- At Metz today, Falkenhayn receives reports during the day of continued heavy bombardments of the German 6th Army in Artois and the 3rd and 5th Armies in Champagne.  In response, the German chief of staff transfers several heavy artillery batteries to 3rd Army, and further agrees that 5th Division, scheduled to depart for the Balkans for the Serbian campaign, will instead be kept behind 3rd Army.  Nevertheless, Falkenhayn continues to have doubts that the Entente actually intend to launch an major offensive - in a telephone conversation with General Karl von Einem, commander of 3rd Army, that the French 'did not have the willpower' to attack.  Falkenhayn has allowed what he wants the French to do to cloud his judgement of what the French will actually do - his campaigns in the East and the Balkans are based on the premise that the forces left on the Western Front are sufficient to hold the line, and thus does not want to see an Entente offensive that could upset the delicate balance.

- On the northern flank of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, elements of the Austro-Hungarian 1st, 2nd, and 9th Cavalry Divisions clear Russian forces out of the Okonsk-Jablonka area as well as Borowicy and Kopyli on the Styr River, opening the path for the German XXIV Reserve Corps advancing rapidly from the north.

- At the request of Franz Joseph, Mackensen journeys to Vienna today to meet the aged Austro-Hungarian emperor, where he is awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephan and the two have a thirty-minute private audience after dinner.  Both Franz Joseph and his military retinue are won over by Mackensen's natural charm and character, as well as his reputation for success on the Eastern Front.  Mackensen is practically alone among his fellow German officers in being viewed positively by the Austro-Hungarian leadership (neither Falkenhayn nor Ludendorff can hide their oft-justified contempt), ensuring a degree of co-operation, even at times harmony, in the forthcoming Serbian campaign that is unimaginable had any other German general been in command.

- As the French Council of Ministers debates a French expedition to the Balkans to aid Serbia, Minister of War Alexandre Millerand sends a note to the French commander at Gallipoli, informing him that a division may be shortly ordered to cover the railway from the Greek port of Salonika to the de facto Serbian capital at Niš.  Meanwhile, Joffre advises the government that while he recognizes the desirability of propping up their Serbian allies, an expedition should be composed of four divisions - two French and two British - drawn from Gallipoli.  From his perspective, it is simply a case of redeploying the force already in the Near East from one theatre (the Dardanelles) to another (the Balkans).  This also has the advantage, from his perspective, of not requiring the withdrawal of forces from the Western Front to make up the expedition.

- The hesitant performance of the Italian navy to date has come in for criticism in the Italian press, and the unease claims a victim today as Vice-Admiral Leone Viale, the minister of marine, resigns today.  Ostensibly stepping aside for health reasons, having just undergone minor surgery, in practice he had quarrelled with Vice-Admiral Paolo Count Thaon di Revel and was increasingly left out of the loop regarding operational decisions.

- The British 6th Indian Division has completed its assembly at Sannaiyat on the Tigris River, and begins today the advance towards the Ottoman defensive line east of Kut-al-Amara.  Given the overall strength of the Ottoman position, General Townshend has decided on deception: the bulk of the division today moves slowly westward on the southern bank of the Euphrates River, giving the impression that it is here that the British intend to concentrate their attack.  On the north bank only 18th Brigade remains, which is deployed between the Tigris and Suwada Marsh.  North of Suwada Marsh sits another Ottoman defensive position, three redoubts supported by a trench system leading up to another marsh - Ataba - to the north.  This is the northernmost section of the Ottoman line, but reconnaissance has informed Townshend that Ataba Marsh is rapidly drying out, and that a gap of three hundred yards has emerged between the end of the Ottoman trenches and the start of the swamp.  It is this gap that has caught Townshend's attention and is to be the key point of the assault.  After the force on the southern bank makes a suitable demonstration of British intent to convince the Ottomans to keep significant strength here, this force is to cross over to the north bank at night and pass behind both 18th Brigade and Suwada Marsh where it will split into two forces: the first to assault the three Ottoman redoubts, and the second to pass through the gap to the north.  This force is intended to roll up the Ottoman line from the north, resulting in the capture of the Ottoman 35th Division deployed on the north bank.  It is a plan that would be inconceivable on the Western Front, but the conditions of the war in the Middle East - fewer soldiers and greater supply difficulties - means that flanks exist and can be turned.

The First Battle of Kut-al-Amara, September 24th to 29th, 1915.

September 15th, 1915

- On the Western Front the autumn French offensive, originally scheduled for September 8th, has been postponed to the 25th to allow more time to constitute the new 2nd Army under General Pétain on the Champagne front.  Joffre had originally intended for the attack in Artois to be undertaken first, but with the delay, and in accordance with a report by Lieutenant Colonel Maurice Gamelin, head of the Operations Bureau, the French commander-in-chief has decided that the main operation in Champagne and the secondary operation in Artois will be undertaken simultaneously.  Joffre also remains confident in the outcome of the offensive, writing to his army-group commanders today: 'The Germans have only a very few reserves behind their thin line of entrenchments.  The simultaneity of the attacks, their strength, their width, will prevent the enemy from massing his infantry and artillery reserves on a point as he was able to do north of Arras [in the Spring during the 2nd Battle of Artois].'

- The attack of the Russian XXXIX Corps along the Stubiel River on the 13th had been the first phase of Brusilov's offensive, and while its advance had been contained it has succeeded in drawing in the reserves of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army.  The newly-arrived Russian XXX Corps, meanwhile, has moved north of the Horyn River, and launches the second phase of Brusilov's plan when it descends on the Austro-Hungarian 62nd Division near Derazno this morning.  The Russian 80th Division pushes its swamp through swamp into the gap between 62nd Division and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Cavalry Division to the north.  Despite fierce counterattacks the Russians hold, and by nightfall 62nd Division is forced to fall back to the southwest.  As a result, the Austro-Hungarian X Corps is ordered to pull back to a new defensive line along the Klewan-Karpilowka road, while the cavalry corps under General Otto Berndt to the north also pulls back to remain in touch.  The commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army hopes that X Corps, in its new positions, will be able to hold the army's northern flank and avoid further withdrawals.

The counteroffensive of the Russian 8th Army, Sept. 15th to 18th, 1915.

September 8th, 1915

- Overnight the German army Zeppelins LZ74 and SL2 undertake a bombing raid on London.  The latter drops its bombload over the docks east of the City, while the former manages to reach the City itself, and though it has only a single incendiary left, LZ74 becomes the first German Zeppelin to strike the heart of London.

- As the British 1st Army continues planning for the attack scheduled for later this month to coincide with the great French fall offensive, the command staff of the corps and divisions work long hours to prepare the necessary orders and instructions.  As the BEF rapidly expands, officers find themselves in positions far above their prior experience, and not all prove up to the task: today Major General H. J. S. Landon breaks down and has to be invalided back to Britain sick, and is replaced as commander of 9th Division by Major General G. H. Thesiger.

- After several days of preparation, the Austro-Hungarian X and XIV Corps launch furious attacks against the Russian XXXIX Corps along the Putilowka River covering Rovno.  Fog, however, reduces the effectiveness of the preliminary bombardment, and heavy rain has turned the low ground along the river into a swamp.  Thus when the Austro-Hungarian infantry advances, they find themselves bogged down in mud and under intense Russian defensive fire, and the attack soon collapses.  Conrad had expected this attack to be the decisive moment of the offensive, which would lead to the much-desired envelopment of the Russian 8th Army from the north.  On its failure, Conrad vents his anger at the commander of 4th Army, noting that he has a superiority of almost 3-to-1 on the northern end of the front and that the rest of the line had been thinned to provide this advantage.

- Despite Joffre's opposition, he has been ordered by the minister of war to identify four divisions for deployment to the Near East, forcing the French commander-in-chief to shift to stalling; he writes today that ongoing preparations for the fall offensive in Champagne and Artois prevent him from pinpointing the required divisions.

- After receiving instructions from London to fully cooperate with the military, Kenyan Governor Sir Charles Belfield formed a War Council to direct the colony's war effort.  Its membership consists of four civil officials, two military representatives, and six representatives of the settler community.  The latter thus hold the balance of power on the council, and use their position not only to aid the army but also protect their own interests.  Their priorities are reflected in the Native Followers Recruitment Ordinance, which is proclaimed today.  To operate in the interior of Africa requires vast numbers of porters to carry all of the required supplies and food, and the ordinance provides for the enlistment of three thousand Africans per month into the Carrier Corps.  In addition, it lowers the pay of porters from the ten to fifteen rupees per month now prevalent to five to six, and exempts Africans working on the farms of European settlers.  The ordinance ensures not only the adequate provision of porters for the army, but also that manpower on European farms will remain plentiful: lower pay for porters ensures that Africans already employed on plantations will not be tempted to join the Carrier Corps for higher pay, while Africans who wish to avoid the Carrier Corps can do so by working on European-owned land.  The settler community in Kenya has thus used the pretext of military requirements to ensure the continued supply of cheap African labour for their farms.

September 1st, 1915

- Kitchener issues orders today for the Indian Corps in France to remain part of the British Expeditionary Force through the next winter.  Though concerns have been expressed in some quarters regarding the ability of the Indian soldier to cope with the cold and miserable conditions of a Flemish winter, Kitchener understands that the Indian Corps have shown themselves capable of operating under such conditions just as well as the British divisions they fight alongside. There were also worries about the losses suffered by the Indian Corps since its arrival in France in October 1914 could be adequately replaced, but since the summer a steady stream of recruits had replenished the Meerut and Lahore Divisions.  Of the three thousand replacements who arrived in July, General James Willcocks, the commander of the Indian Corps, wrote that they were 'very good . . . some of them quite exceptionally so, and I feel years younger now as I see these fine fellows joining the ranks.'

- Upon the instructions of Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, the German ambassador to the United States delivers a note containing what becomes known as the Arabic Pledge to Secretary of State Robert Lansing.  Based on the decision of the conference at Pless on August 26th in response to the sinking of Arabic, the Germans pledge that no passenger ship of any nationality will be attacked without warning, and that adequate provisions will be made for the survival of passengers and crew.

- Joffre remains under pressure from government ministers to dispatch several divisions from the Western Front to the Near East, and seizes on a staff study suggesting that the operations proposed by General Sarrail would require eight divisions.  He writes today that such a substantial reduction in French strength on the Western Front would have 'disastrous consequences.'  Moreover, he questions the entire premise of undertaking operations to relieve the British position on Gallipoli:

It is the British who have led us to the Dardanelles.  In reality halting the offensive will be a British defeat.  Tomorrow, if we send reinforcements and assume command, we will find ourselves, in case of failure, facing a French disaster.

- For several days the Austro-Hungarian 2nd and 7th Armies, as well as Südarmee, have launched assault after assault on the Russian lines along the Strypa River.  Though in places they have managed to win some ground, it has come at great cost - the Austro-Hungarian Corps, for instance, has lost over five thousand men in just two days of fighting.  Today the Russian 11th and 9th Armies pull back from their lines along the Strypa River, though this is not due to any defeat they have suffered but rather due to the threat of envelopment from the north due to the advance of the north wing of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army through Lutsk.  Brussilov's 8th Army, meanwhile, takes up its new defensive line today along the Putilowka, covering Rovno, and south to the hills west of Dubno.

August 18th, 1915

- Overnight four German Zeppelin undertake a bombing raid on London.  Two turn back due to engine trouble, and the captain of L11 manages to confuse the village of Ashford with the British capital, dropping his forty-one bombs in farmers' fields.  L10, however, guided by the lights of towns and villages after making landfall on the Suffolk coast, is able to find London.  Even its navigation is imperfect, though, and drops its bombs on what its captain believes is the City but is actually the north-east suburbs of Leyton and Wanstead Flats.  Nevertheless, it is the first time a Zeppelin of the German navy bombs London, and the strike kills ten and damages the Leyton railway station.

- Wilhelm II and Falkenhayn meet with Archduke Friedrich and Conrad at the latter's headquarters at Teschen today, ostensibly to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph, but also to decide further operations on the Eastern Front.  Despite his continuing lack of faith in the fighting ability of the Austro-Hungarian army, Falkenhayn approves Conrad's suggestion of the latter's army conducting an offensive through Kowel.  It is also agreed that the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army will be transferred from the left flank of the German 11th Army in Poland to the southeast, to join the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army in Conrad's offensive.  This will leave 11th Army directly adjacent to the forces under General Worysch, and will help facilitate a clearer division of the Eastern Front between German and Austro-Hungarian sectors.

In central Poland Prince Leopold's army group push forward in pursuit of retreating Russian forces, while 12th Army on its northern flank aims for the railway between Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok.  To the south, Mackensen's army group opens its offensive against Brest-Litovsk itself.  The Army of the Bug has been assigned additional responsibility for the line from the Krzna River west of the fortress southeast to the Bug River, and its 119th Division, alongside XXII Reserve Corps of 11th Army to the north, is to confront the western face of Brest-Litovsk.  This adjustment of responsibility has allowed 11th Army to reinforce its left wing for a drive across the Bug River downstream from Brest-Litovsk to enable the fortress to be enveloped from the northeast.  Here the advance is to be led by X Reserve Corps, followed by the Guard Corps, 103rd Division, and the Guard Cavalry Division.  Today XXII Reserve Corps and 47th Reserve Division of X Reserve Corps, after hard fighting, push forward to the line Kijowiec-Lipnica-Tielesnica to the west of Brest-Litovsk, while elements of 105th Division of X Reserve Corps secures a bridgehead across the Bug River downstream from the Russian fortress.

The German advance towards Brest-Litovsk, August 18th to 26th, 1915.

- After the successful Austro-Hungarian bombardment of Pelagosa yesterday, the Italian navy orders the evacuation today of the island, believing that it cannot be held in the face of active enemy opposition.  Covered by a strong cruiser and destroyer force from Brindisi, the Italian withdrawal is accomplished without difficulty.  The evacuation, however, does nothing for the reputation of the Italian navy in the eyes of their allies, as Captain Richmond, the British liasion officer, writes in his diary today:

They have by this admitted that the Austrians have command of the sea in the Adriatic in spite of inferior naval force & without fighting an action!  They have surrendered to them.  They had better sell their Fleet & take up their organs & monkeys again, for, by Heaven, that seems more their profession than sea-fighting.

- Immediately after assuming command of the French Army of the Near East, General Sarrail sent the government a memorandum which outlined a wide range of possible operations, from landings at Salonika in the Balkans to operations along the Anatolian and Syrian coast.  The government forwarded the note to Joffre, who today offers his comments to the minister of war.  Not surprisingly, Joffre is scathing, arguing that Sarrail's operations are 'incomplete, unrealizable, and disastrous,' and that one of the landings in the Near East could only be supplied by 'Arabs and mules.'  Behind the harsh criticism is Joffre's continued opposition to any diversion of French strength from the Western Front.

- A revolution in 1906 had transformed the Persian government into a constitutional monarchy, and an effort by the shah to reverse the reforms ended in his deposition and exile in 1909.  His son, Ahmad, came to the throne as a minor, and was only crowned ruler in his own right in 1914 at the age of 17.  While the unrest weakened the control of the central government over the country, the elected assembly (the Majlis) has become a hotbed of liberal and nationalist sentiment, who see Britain and Russia (quite rightly) as the primary threats to Persian independence, and thus after the outbreak of war Persian liberals and nationalists have seen an alliance with Germany as the means by which the British and Russians can be ejected from the country.  Government instability is endemic, however, with cabinets constantly collapsing, and the Maljis is just one of the interests in the country to be taken into account in the formation of new cabinets.  The past month has seen yet another cabinet crisis, which is resolved today with the formation of a government by Mustaufi ul-Mamalik, whose reliance on support in the Majlis necessitates an approach to Germany.  He informs the German ambassador, Prince Heinrich XXXI Reuss, that his government desires an alliance, a guarantee of independence, gold to pay the police force, and munitions with which to fight.  Though Reuss recognizes the limited ability of the German government to provide material aid to the Persian government, he knows that if such an approach is rejected, a similar opportunity is not likely to arise again, and thus opens negotiations.