October 15th, 1915

- Field Marshal Sir John French learns that Joffre has called off the French offensives in Artois and Champagne, which invalidates the strategic premise of the British offensive at Loos.  This, in conjunction with the failure of the attack of the 13th to secure significant gains, compels the commander of the BEF to call off the offensive in Flanders.  Henceforth, the British 1st Army will limit itself strictly to those operations essential to seize ground to protect itself from German counterattacks against the ground captured on the 13th.

Since September 25th the British 1st Army has suffered approximately 50 000 casualties, including almost 16 000 dead, while pushing forward between 800 and 2500 yards on a 6000 yard stretch of the German line north and south of the village of Loos.  As with the French in Champagne, most of this ground was seized in the first hours of the attack on the morning of the 25th, and again in common with the French the British proved unable to sustain the initial momentum and subsequent attacks proved increasingly futile.  In the case of Loos, the failures from the afternoon of the 25th onward have been ascribed by Haig and his supporters as primarily the responsibility of Field Marshal's French's mishandling of the reserves, a dispute that continues to fester in the upper ranks of the British army.  The battle has also proven to be a bitter introduction to the divisions of Kitchener's 'New Armies' to combat on the Western Front, the attack of 21st and 24th Divisions, though driven home with great courage, was an abysmal failure, gaining no ground at the cost of several thousand casualties.  They will not be the only divisions of the 'New Armies' to have such a deadly debut on the Western Front.

- With Bulgaria's entry into the war on the side of Germany with its invasion of Serbia, Great Britain and Montenegro formally declare war on Bulgaria today.

- Today Austen Chamberlain, Secretary of State for India, informs Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, that the Cabinet is discussing the withdrawal of the two divisions of Indian Expeditionary Force A from France and dispatching them to Mesopotamia.  This redeployment has two purposes: (1) to facilitate the capture of Baghdad; and (2) to secure the region if an Entente withdrawal from the Dardanelles allows the Ottomans to redeploy divisions there to Mesopotamia.

April 29th, 1915

- In Britain there has been a movement to reduce alcohol consumption among the working-class in the belief that drunkeness reduces productivety, and Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George has proposed doubling the duty on spirits and addition twelve shillings per barrel to the duty on beer.  These proposals, however, have an adverse effect on the political position of the minority Liberal government in the House of Commons.  It is no great surprise to see the Conservatives oppose the measure, given as they have always been the primary backer of the drink interest.  However, Irish Nationalist M.P.s also oppose raising the duty on one of the few industries in southern Ireland, while the Labour party resents the insult to the loyalty and productivity of the working-class.  In the face of united political opposition, the Liberals back down and today withdraw the proposed duty increases.

- Today the German 11th Army completes its deployment near Gorlice, with the German Guards, VI, XXXXI Reserve, and X Corps arranged north to south from Ciezkowice to Ropica Ruska.  To the north, the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army west of Tarnow deploys a further six infantry divisions and is to be under the operational command of General Mackensen.  Elaborate measures have been taken to maintain secrecy about the German deployment.  The trains carrying the corps eastward were routed through rail lines in northern Germany, to give the appearance they were destined for East Prussia.  Further, German formations took over their parts of the line only at night, to avoid Russian observation, and German staff officers surveying the front even wore Austro-Hungarian uniforms, lest the Russians notice and become suspicious.

The final attack orders are issued today by Mackensen to his corps commanders, with the attack scheduled to begin May 2nd.  While giving each corps freedom of action regarding particular targets, Mackensen stipulates the number of batteries each corps is to assign to the front, and emphasizes the importance of close infantry-artillery co-operation.  The artillery is to keep up with the pace of the infantry advance, and artillery observers are to be with the infantry to co-ordinate fire on enemy strongpoints.  Mackensen also issues a separate order for the artillery directly under army control, which is to be commanded by one officer only.  The army-level artillery was tasked with the preliminary bombardment the night before the attack, and is to prevent the arrival of Russian reserves and keep those at the front off-balance.  Further, the preliminary bombardment will briefly cease at two points overnight to allow pioneer patrols to make their way into No Man's Land to cut wire and observe the extent of the damage.  Once the initial infantry attack has been launched, continual pressure is to be maintained, the infantry advancing in deep columns protected by friendly artillery fire.  Crucially, if a unit finds itself ahead of their neighbours, instead of halting and waiting they are to keep advancing, keeping the Russians off balance.  These orders incorporate the lessons learned by Chief of Staff Seeckt and others on the Western Front over the past five months.

German soldiers arriving at a Carpathian railway station, April 1915.

- This evening Emden's landing party arrives at El Wegh after an uneventful overland journey from Sherm Munnaiburra.  Here they are able to bathe and wash clothing as they assemble the camels necessary for the next phase of their journey.

March 22nd, 1915

- In Britain the ongoing shortage of artillery shells leads Prime Minister Asquith to appoint a committee to plan for the formation of a new committee on munitions.  Beyond this reflecting the inanity of bureaucratic processes and the deliberate (to put it charitably) decision-making process of the Prime Minister, it also illustrates the growing marginalization of the War Office with respect to munitions production.  The new committee is to be under Cabinet, not the War Office, and David Lloyd George, but not Kitchener, was invited to attend its first meeting.  The growing belief in government circles is that however lustrous Kitchener's image is among the British public, his contempt for politicians and the normal procedures of administration has left the War Office in bureaucratic chaos.

- Overnight the Austro-Hungarian artillery at Przemysl fire off their remaining ammunition, and this morning are destroyed.  At 6am, the last of the fortifications are reduced to rubble, and at 7am an automobile carrying two staff officers depart Przemysl to negotiate the surrender of the garrison.  As white flags flutter over the remnants of the defences, the first Russian detachments enter Austro-Hungarian lines by 9am.

As a result of the surrender of Przemysl, 9 generals, 93 staff officers, 2500 other officers, and 117 000 men march into Russian captivity.  The rank-and-file of the Austro-Hungarian garrison has suffered terribly over the past months, their rations reduced to almost nothing.  The Russians, however, cannot help but notice that the senior Austro-Hungarian officers have a well-fed look about them.

The fall of Przemysl is undoubtedly a significant disaster for Austria-Hungary, it constituting one more military embarassment in a war that has gone completely off the rails for the Dual Monarchy.  The fortress' surrender also formally ends the efforts undertaken by the army over the past few months to break through the Russian lines to relieve the garrison.  Conrad's tunnel vision regarding the relief of Przemysl blinded him to the realities of attempting to conduct major offensive operations in mountainous terrain in the midst of terrible winter conditions.  The Winter Battles of the Carpathians have been a shattering debacle far beyond the mere failure to reach Przemysl.  Over the past few months, the Austro-Hungarian army has suffered 800 000 casualties, three-quarters as a result of sickness and exposure; the efforts to relieve the fortress squandered far more men than the besieged garrison itself contained.  In the end, Conrad's offensive has resulted in the worst of both worlds: not only has Przemysl been lost, but the catastrophic losses further cripples the fighting capacity of the field army.  It is one of Conrad's greatest failures in a war marked by them.

- Senior Entente commanders in the eastern Mediterranean meet today in the wardroom of Queen Elizabeth to plot the next move after the rebuff of the 18th.  For several days Admiral Robeck has continued to ruminate on the losses suffered in that day's bombardment, and opens the conference by declaring his opinion that the Dardanelles cannot be forced by warships alone.  Instead, the only way the minefields could be swept would be if the mobile batteries were destroyed and the enemy shore occupied by landing forces.  This declaration finds support from General Sir Ian Hamilton, who had been dispatched by Kitchener to command the various British forces assembling in the eastern Mediterranean and had arrived on the 17th.  His reaction to the failure of the 18th was that the army would now have to play a central part in the operation, and after communication with Kitchener had been informed by the latter that if large scale landing operations were necessary, then so be it.  With Hamilton's support, Robeck is able to carry the room, and the conference unanimously resolves that the naval attack should be postponed until the landing operation was ready to commence.  As the forces under Hamilton's command are scattered across the Mediterranean, he advises the admirals that it will be about three weeks before he is ready to move.

Keyes is absent from the meeting, attempting to reorganize the minesweeper fleet, and when he learns of the decision he works to change Robeck's mind.  Keyes is convinced that the Ottomans are tottering, and that one more push will shatter the defenders and open the way to Constantinople.  Robeck, however, still fearing additional warship losses more than anything else, refuses to budge.

March 16th, 1915

- As the British government discusses ongoing operations in the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, the focus is not only on securing victory in the current war but also ensuring that the British Empire is in the best position for the post-war world.  As Kitchener writes in a memorandum submitted to the War Council today:

It must not be forgotten that, after the conclusion of peace, old enmities and jealousies which have been stilled by the existing crisis in Europe, may revive.  We have, in fact, to assume that, at some future date, we may find ourselves an enmity with Russia, or with France, or with both in combination, and we must bear this possibility in mind in deciding how, when the time for settlement comes and the question of the partition of Turkey in Asia arises, our interests can best be safeguarded.

- In Champagne a large number of French assaults are launched between 445am and 2pm, but with only minor exceptions are repulsed.  With XVI Corps failing to make further progress, Joffre finally concludes that the operation in Champagne cannot win a decisive victory and ought to be wound down.  He orders General de Langle to undertake the planned XVI Corps' attacks with the remaining fresh infantry, and then cease operations, form strong defensive positions, and pull all but three corps out of the line.

- Falkenhayn orders the formation of eight additional divisions today, of which four - 111th, 113th, 119th, and 121st - will be ready for service by April 1st, with 115th, 117th, 123rd, and 11th Bavarian ready one to two weeks later.  With the six new divisions whose creation has previously been ordered, these constitute the fourteen divisions (down from the initial projection of twenty-four) available as an OHL reserve, and which Falkenhayn intends to use on the Western Front.

The German Chief of Staff also issues a written directive to the commander of the newly-formed 11th Army:

The OHL plans to break through the enemy front in the West after making an adequate number of troops available. To this end, strong reserves will be placed in readiness in rear of that front along the several rail lines.  The concentration of these reserves and their subsequent forward movement by rail to the point where the breakthrough is to be effected, will be regulated by the OHL.  The tim for placing the reserves in readiness and the place for the breakthrough operation proper have not yet been fixed.  The Commander of the Eleventh Army will conduct the offensive in a zone of action that will be designed in due time.  The Eleventh Army Commander's next task will consist of reconnoitring the terrain between La Bassée Canal and the Avre near Roye for a breakthrough operation, with a view to piercing the hostile front north of the Somme on a width of from 25 to 30 kilometres and advancing thence to the sea.  In the zones of action to be selected, it is planned to allot first of all, in addition to the troops already in position, as many infantry divisions (each of three regiments) as will enable each division to occupy from two and a half to three kilometres of frontage.  The necessary heavy artillery will be made available.  With the aid of these forces the tactical breakthrough should be successful - including the piercing of the enemy's line.  In rear of the rupture, the OHL intends to place as many additional forces in readiness as will be required to exploit the tactical breakthrough for strategic purposes.  The reconnaissance must be initiated as early as possible . . . [and] the result will be submitted to the OHL in the form of a report no later than the end of March.

- Today a doctor serving on the hospital ship Soudan examines Admiral Carden, declaring that he has a dangerous ulcer and that he requires several weeks of rest to avoid a complete breakdown.  Though it means the end of his naval career, Carden feels he has no choice but to signal the Admiralty that he must resign as commander of the Dardanelles expedition.

March 9th, 1915

- General Douglas Haig issues an Special Order of the Day to his 1st Army, announcing the offensive that is to be launched tomorrow morning.  In contrast to the ad hoc fighting of the past six months, especially during the 1st Battle of Ypres, this operation will be the first planned, set-piece attack undertaken by the British on the Western Front.  Meticulously planned, it constitutes the first sustained effort to deal with and overcome the stalemate of trench warfare.  The initial phase is the capture of the village of Neuve Chapelle, to be undertaken by 8th Division and the Meerut Division, and is to be followed by a general advance of IV and Indian Corps to Aubers Ridge and beyond.  Simultaneously, I Corps to the south and the Canadian Division to the north will conduct diversionary operations to pin the German forces opposite; for the Canadians, this will be their first significant taste of combat since coming into the line on March 3rd.

Similar to the other major combatants, the British are experiencing a shortage of artillery ammunition, so Haig intends to make a virtue of necessity by concentrating the preliminary bombardment into an intensive thirty-five minute barrage.  After the preliminary bombardment the initial attack will be launched over a narrow two-thousand yard section of the line, the hope being that concentrating the bombardment and attack on such a small stretch of the front will allow the British to overwhelm and break through the German defence.  The planning of the operation has been aided by comprehensive aerial reconnaissance of the German lines, allowing for detailed maps to be issued to officers illustrating the German defenses up to fifteen hundred yards behind the first trench line.

Despite the detailing planning and high hopes, the leadership of the BEF is well aware that even the most successful of attacks will incur substantial losses.  Writing to a friend today, Sir John French anticipates that five thousand will be killed in the attack, and is disturbed at the thought that these men will march to their deaths at his orders.

- Today the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister submits a proposal to the Italian government regarding territorial adjustments to be made should Italy remain neutral in the war.  The deteriorating military position in the Carpathians has finally convinced the Emperor and his ministers that some offer is necessary to mollify the Italians.  Their proposal is to surrender the Trentino, a territory in the Alps and home to a significant Italian population.  However, the transfer is not to be effected until after the end of the war.

- The Entente has occupied the Greek island of Lemnos, located about forty miles southwest of the Dardanelles, in order to use the port of Mudros as their base of operations.  With the dismissal of the pro-Entente Venizelos, the Greek government has asked the British government for an explanation of this violation of Greek territorial integrity.  In reply today, the British can only offer the justification used by combatants throughout history: necessity.

The harbour at Mudros, with a French hospital in the foreground.

August 20th, 1914

- The German 1st Army occupies Brussels today, while the Belgian army completes its retirement into the fortified camp of Antwerp.

Belgian soldiers during the retreat to Antwerp, Aug. 20th, 1914.
And yes, those are dogs pulling machine guns.

- The concentration of the British Expeditionary Force at Maubeuge is completed today, and the two British corps begin to advance northeast.  Meanwhile, in London, the British Cabinet has authorized the deployment of the fifth British infantry division to the Continent.

- The French 5th Army completes its advance to the Sambre and Meuse Rivers.  Its defensive position resembles an inverted 'V', with the Belgian forts at Namur at the point.  Just to the north, cavalry units belonging to 5th Army engage in small skirmishes with German cavalry.

- At 830pm Joffre issues orders for 3rd and 4th Army to attack tomorrow.  The latter will advance northeast towards Neufchâteau while the former will move against Arlon.  To protect the advance against a German counterattack from Metz, Joffre has formed a portion of 3rd Army into a separate Army of Lorraine to cover the southern flank of the attack.  This is to be the main assault of Plan XVII - a strike north of Metz-Thionville which will crush the centre of the German line.  While Joffre is aware that the Germans are advancing through Belgium, he still does not see it as the focal point of the German campaign.  Indeed, he believes that the Germans have reduced their forces opposite 3rd and 4th Armies to strengthen the German right, which will increase the odds of French success tomorrow.  He has also instructed the commanders of 3rd and 4th Armies to make no preparatory movements, so as to not tip off the Germans to the advance and cause them to stop moving forces into Belgium.

- Even as Joffre is ordering the main French attack, the offensive in Lorraine is disintegrating.  There is a renewed attack today by the French 1st and 2nd Armies, the former in particular attempting to seize Morhange.  Advancing into prepared German defences, the French suffer horrendous losses.  Simultaneously, Prince Rupprecht's 6th Army launches the counterattack 'authorized' by OHL on the 18th.  This attack falls primarily against the two corps of 2nd Army to the south of XX Corps, whose successful advance had uncovered their flank.  Unlike the French attack, the German advance is successful - both French corps retire in disarray, and by nightfall 2nd Army is retreating back across the French border to the Meurhe River and the fortifications of Nancy.  2nd Army has also lost contact with 1st Army to the south, and in order to re-establish the line 1st Army, which has also suffered heavily, and the Army of Alsace are ordered to fall back.

- In the early morning hours, the German I Corps under General François attacks the northern flank of the Russian 1st Army, and is a shattering success - one Russian division suffers 60% casualties.  The rest of the attack by 8th Army, however, has a very different outcome.  XVII Corps, under General August von Mackensen, and I Reserve Corps, under General Otto von Below, arrive on the battlefield only in the late morning, and the Russians facing them have been forewarned by I Corps' attack.  Devastating artillery fire is poured onto XVII Corps, which suffers eight thousand casualties in two hours.  An entire division breaks and retreats in disarray.  I Reserve Corps, attacking to the south of XVII Corps, is similarly repulsed, and with XVII Corps in retreat, has no choice but to retreat as well.  At 6pm 8th Army commander General Prittwitz calls François and informs him that despite his local success, I Corps must retreat.  Though it is not an overwhelming one, the Russians have won the Battle of Gumbinnen.

The defeat provokes a crisis of confidence in Prittwitz.  He sees his strategy - attacking each Russian army separately - in tatters.  8th Army is already in retreat, and the Russian 2nd Army will be able to advance northwards unmolested.  Indeed, the Russian 2nd Army is already to the west of the German 8th Army, and Prittwitz concludes that a hasty withdrawal behind the Vistula River is required.  This would abandon the entirety of East Prussia to the Russians, and his subordinates, François included, are appalled.  When Prittwitz informs Moltke this evening of his decision, the latter is aghast - such a precipitate retreat might allow the Russians to threaten Berlin.  Moltke instructs his staff to contact 8th Army's corps commanders directly, to learn their impressions of the situation.

There is one saving grave to come out of the Battle of Gumbinnen for the Germans - General Rennenkampf does not order his 1st Army to pursue.  Though victorious, his army is exhausted and supplies are dangerously low.  Instead, 1st Army is to rest and recover from the battle.  In this are the seeds of the German revival.

- Conrad orders IV Corps to abandon the Sabac bridgehead as a preliminary to its transfer to Galicia.  The order is countermanded by Potiorek, who believes the bridgehead is necessary to the preservation of 5th Army.  Meanwhile, other elements of 2nd Army only today begin the transfer by rail to the Russian front, while 6th Army is finally in position to begin its offensive across the Drina River.

- Lord Kitchener persuades the British Cabinet to reject an alliance offer from Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, fearing that such a move would increase the probability of the Ottoman Empire joining the war on the side of Germany.  Kitchener views this issue primarily through the lens of the Empire - his concern is avoiding an Ottoman offensive against Egypt.

August 16th, 1914

- Fort Loncin, the last surviving Belgian fort near Liège, comes under bombardment from a Krupp 420 mortar firing from within the town itself.  One shell penetrates the concrete and explodes in the fort's magazine, detonating the ammunition stores and blowing up the fort from the inside.  With the destruction of Fort Loncin, all Belgian resistance at Liège has come to an end.  It has taken the Germans twelve days from the moment they crossed the Belgian frontier to clear the forts.  For their efforts General Emmich and Ludendorff are awarded the Pour le Mérite, Germany's highest military honour.  Nevertheless, the Liège forts have served their purpose - overall, the advance of the German 1st and 2nd Armies has been delayed by several days.  In the context of the Schlieffen Plan, such delay is of the gravest importance.

Fort Loncin after its destruction on Aug. 16th, 1914.

- Today the shipment of the British Expeditionary Force reaches its peak, as thousands of soldiers cross the Channel.  Throughout this process, the German navy has made no effort whatsoever to interdict the British ships.  Doing so would require sending the navy into the narrows of the Strait of Dover, where they would be susceptible to mines, subject to submarine attacks, and could potentially have their avenue of retreat cut off by the Grand Fleet sailing south from Scapa Flow.  Perhaps more importantly, however, the Germans do not feel that stopping the BEF from arriving in France is of particular importance.  By continental standards, the BEF is pitifully small - four infantry divisions plus cavalry, in comparison to the seven entire armies the Germans have in the West.  It is felt that the BEF is too small to make a decisive difference, and once the Schlieffen Plan is successfully executed it can be dealt with easily.  Yet another assumption of the German General Staff that will be upset by events.

- Moltke and the Supreme German Command (OHL in German), the headquarters of the German army in the war, relocates from Berlin to Coblenz on the Rhine River today.  It is still eighty miles from the frontlines, and Moltke lacks information about the progress of the fighting.  Wireless communications are inconsistent at best - the Eiffel Tower is being used to jam German signals.  Telephone communication is also problematic - as the German armies advance, the telephone lines are broken and only irregularly repaired.  The best method of communication is for junior officers, acquainted with Moltke's views, to be dispatched from headquarters to subordinate commands.  For an operation that requires such precision as the Schlieffen Plan, this is hardly an ideal system of administration.

One communication that does get through to OHL today is from Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, commander of 6th Army.  He is responsible for the defense of the German left, the actions of 7th Army conforming to his orders.  For two days he has been gradually retreating in the face of the French offensive in Lorraine, though inflicting heavy casualties on the French.  As per the Schlieffen Plan, this is the essential task of the German left, to draw in the French and make it more difficult to respond to the advance through Belgium.  Rupprecht, however, does not appreciate being assigned such a mundane task.  Instead, he yearns to go on the attack and win glory on the battlefield.  Further, a strong attack will pin the French forces in Lorraine, preventing them from redeploying against the German right moving through Belgium.  However, he makes an even more tantalizing argument to Moltke and OHL.  A successful German counterattack in Lorraine could open the way for an advance into France itself, and ultimately achieve the great goal of almost every general since Hannibal - a second Cannae.  If the German right and left wings can break through, they can surround the entire French army and annihilate it.  It is a major break from the Schlieffen Plan, and will necessitate committing forces to 6th and 7th Armies that might be more profitably utilized in Belgium.

Moltke, whose confidence has never really recovered from the Kaiser's rebuke on August 1st, is chronically indecisive.  Does he seize an opportunity on the battlefield, or does he rigidly adhere to the war plan developed and refined over the past decade?  A staff officer is sent by Moltke to Rupprecht's headquarters, but discussion solves nothing, and the question remains undecided.

- Field Marshall Sir John French meets General Joseph Joffre at the latter's headquarters for the first time since the outbreak of war.  Neither particularly likes the other - French disdains Joffre's plebeian background, while Joffre feels the British commander is too concerned with his own army's fate, and insufficiently attuned to the needs of the broader campaign.  Joffre insists that the BEF needs to be prepared to go into action to the left of Lanrazac's 5th Army by August 21st at the latest.  In contrast to his discussion with President Poincarè, today French says he will do his best.  When the British commander requests that French cavalry, to be deployed on the BEF's left flank, be put under his control, Joffre refuses - the British are here to aid the French army, not command it, and the French commander is hardly interested in delegating authority to his own subordinates, let alone the British.

- A surprise night counterattack by Serbian forces savages VIII Corps of the Austro-Hungarian Army, throwing it into retreat.

- The arrival of Goeben and Breslau at the Dardanelles six days ago has created the issue of what, exactly, should be done with the two ships.  As the Ottoman Empire is still neutral, combatant ships are supposed to be interned, but there is no chance of this being acceptable to Admiral Souchon.  Instead, the German ambassador suggested that the ships be 'sold' to the Ottomans, a solution quickly seized upon by the Ottoman government.  Not only would this resolve the status of the ships, but it would also appear as compensation provided by the Germans to the Ottomans for the seizure of the latter's dreadnoughts under construction in Britain.  Today, in a formal ceremony the German flag is lowered from the ships, replaced by the Ottoman flag, and the ships are re-christened Jawus Sultan Selim (ex-Goeben) and Midilli (ex-Breslau).  The British ambassador can only protest feebly.  The British have been hoist on their own petard - having seized the Ottoman dreadnoughts, they can hardly complain about the Ottomans 'purchasing' replacement vessels.  In practice, the 'sale' is a fiction.  The ships remain manned by German sailors (though now in fezzes) and commanded by Admiral Souchon, the latter loyal to Berlin over Constantinople.  It is another step of the Ottoman Empire into the orbit of Germany.

Meanwhile, a meeting between the German military mission in the Ottoman Empire and Enver Pasha discuss possible Ottoman operations in the event of their entry into the war.  An offensive against Egypt receives the most emphasis, while amphibious operations in the Black Sea, backed by Goeben and Breslau, are also canvassed.

August 12th, 1914

- Great Britain and France today declare war on Austria-Hungary.

- The assembly of the German East Asiatic Squadron is completed at Ponape, an island in the Carolines and part of the German New Guinea colony in the Pacific.  Commanded by Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee, the squadron consists of two armoured cruisers - Scharnhorst and Gneisenau - and three modern light cruisers - Emden, Nürnberg, and Leipzig.  Of these ships all but Leipzig is present, it being on station off the Pacific coast of South America.

- German cavalry has penetrated Belgium towards Louvain, but is held up at the bridge at Haelen by Belgian cavalry.  Fighting as dismounted infantry, the Belgians pour murderous fire into the Germans, until by evening the Germans are forced to withdraw.  The Battle of Haelen, while not of any strategic significance, is a great morale booster for the Belgians.

- The first Krupp 420 mortar is set up at Liège this afternoon, and at 630pm fires its first shell at Fort Pontisse, while several Skoda 305 mortars begin to bombard other Belgian forts near Liège.  The aiming of the mortars is assisted by observers in church towers and balloons, and after each shot corrections are sent to the mortars.  The effect is that the shells are 'walked' toward their target, each shell landing closer and closer until the target itself is hit.  The effect is terrifying for the Belgian garrisons of the forts, hearing the whistle of the incoming shell in flight, watching its detonation point move closer and closer, knowing that inevitably the massive explosions will be on the fort itself, and that there is nothing they can do about it.  Some of the defenders are driven mad at their helplessness and the inevitably of successful bombardment, foreshadowing the psychological impacts of the massive bombardments to come on the Western Front.

- Field Marshall Sir John French, commander of the British Expeditionary Force, receives instructions from Secretary of War Lord Kitchener on the coming campaign in France.  Though Kitchener writes that French is to co-operate with the French, the commander is to 'distinctly understand that your command is an entirely independent one and that you will in no case come in any sense under the orders of any Allied general.'  Kitchener's concern is the preservation of the BEF, so it may form the core of the massively-expanded army he intends to raise.  The practical impact of the instructions, though, is to impress on French that he is to place self-preservation first, regardless of the military situation or the danger France is in, and to make him unresponsive to pleas for co-operation from the generals of France.

- The Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia begins today, but the operation is plagued by disputes between General Oskar Potiorek, its commander, and Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorff.  As a result of Conrad's vacillations during mobilization, 2nd Army will only be available to Potiorek until August 18th, when it is to begin transfer to the Galician front against Russia.  As such, Conrad instructs Potiorek that 2nd Army, deployed to the north of Serbia along the Sava River, can only support the operations of Potiorek's other armies, and may not cross into Serbia in strength.  Potiorek, naturally, is opposed to such a limitation on his forces - indeed, subtracting 2nd Army leaves Potiorek's remaining forces outnumbered by the Serbian army (290 000 vs. 350 000).  It is on Potiorek's other two armies that the main burden of the offensive will fall.  They are 5th and 6th army, arranged north to south along the Drina River on the western border with Serbia.  Potiorek's plan is for the 5th Army to begin the assault, fixing the Serbian army on its front, after which it will be attacked on its flank by the 6th Army.  Conrad, meanwhile, believes that 5th Army's attack will be the main advance, envisioning it sweeping into central Serbia and driving the enemy army from the field.

Both conceptions of the coming operation are faulty.  First, the limitations on the actions of 2nd Army ensure that 5th Army's left flank will be uncovered as it advances.  Second, the mobilization of 6th Army has been delayed - it will be almost another week before it is in place along the Drina, which means that 5th Army's right flank will also be exposed.  It creates an opportunity for the Serbs to attack 5th Army in isolation and defeat it before turning to 6th Army.

The actions of 5th Army today hardly inspire confidence in the outcome of the offensive - the crossing of the Drina is delayed by a lack of bridging equipment, which has not yet arrived for the army.  Most of the army spends the day mulling around the river's edge, while those efforts to cross the river by boat meet accurate and sustained Serbian fire.

The first Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, August 1914.

- The tiny German colony of Togoland in western Africa comes under attack today by British and Imperial forces.  Two companies of the Gold Coast Regiment, under the temporary command of Captain F. C. Bryant, seizes Lome, the colony's only port.  Lome had been largely abandoned by the small German garrison, which has retreated northward towards Kamina, home of Germany's single most important overseas wireless station, linking the home country with the rest of the German colonies in Africa as well as shipping in the South Atlantic.  Lome having fallen, the British commence an advance northwards towards Kamina.  It is during this action that the first shot is fired by a British soldier during the First World War, by Regimental Sergeant-Major Alhaji Grunshi of the West African Frontier Force.  It is a useful reminder that for all of the attention paid to the clash of armies in France and Belgium, this war is also a global and Imperial conflict for Britain, in line with prior British wars of the 18th and 19th centuries.

The German colony of Togoland, August 1914.

August 9th, 1914

- Today the Royal Navy sinks its first German U-boat of the war.  As anti-submarine weapons do not exist as of yet, the light cruiser Birmingham attacks the submarine U-15 by ramming it.  Sliced in half, the submarine sinks quickly, and all hands are lost.

- German industrialist Walther Rathenau meets today with War Minister General Erich von Falkenhayn.  Rathenau's initial concern is the exploitation of Belgian industry, but he also has concerns about the German economy as a whole if, as he suspects, the war will be lengthy.  In a memorandum he submits to Falkenhayn, he suggests the creation of an organization to manage to the appropriation and distribution of raw materials, in order to ensure German industry was operating as efficiently as possible, and that factories producing the essentials of war - steel, ammunition, etc. - have priority on the raw materials they need.  Falkenhayn is convinced, and establishes the Kriegsrohstoffsamt (KRA) under Rathenau's leadership.  The KRA will play a vital role in managing the wartime German economy, especially in the face of shortages caused by the Entente naval blockade.

- At dawn, Goeben and Breslau arrive at the harbour of Denusa, meeting their collier.  The two German ships attach themselves to either side of collier, and begin transferring coal as rapidly as possibly, sailors shoveling nonstop throughout the day and into the night.  At 9pm, the wireless room on Goeben report the first faint signals from approaching British warships.

- This morning, German units sent from Strasbourg begin a counterattack against the French force that has occupied Mulhouse.

- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force begins at ports in southern England.  Eighty thousand infantrymen and twelve thousand cavalrymen are destined for Le Havre and other nearby French ports.

- Two Krupp 420 mortars have been readied at Essen for use, and tonight are loaded on freight cars for transportation towards Liège.

August 7th, 1914

- In the pre-dawn hours, as Goeben and Breslau continue to sail eastwards, a British squadron of four armoured cruisers under Rear Admiral Ernest Troubridge are moving to intercept.  However, Troubridge is troubled at the scenario playing out.  His force will not be in position to attack Goeben and Breslau until after dawn.  Further, Goeben is faster than his ships, and the main guns of Goeben can shoot farther than his own.  His fear is that his squadron would be unable to close to engage Goeben, the latter using its superior speed to keep the range at where the Goeben can fire but the British armoured cruisers cannot.  Despite outnumbering the German force, at 405am Troubridge, fearing annihilation, orders his squadron to abandon the chase.

At dawn, Goeben and Breslau, unaware of how close they had come to battle, sail eastwards, still followed by the light cruiser Gloucester.  Early this afternoon, Admiral Souchon attempts to shake his pursuer by turning to fight, but Gloucester simply turns as well, remaining outside the range of Goeben's guns.  Souchon orders a return to the prior course, needing to rendezvous with his collier if he is to reach the Dardanelles.  At 440pm, Gloucester, almost out of coal, is forced to give up the chase.  The British now lose track of Goeben and Breslau.

- As with the other self-governing dominions of the British Empire - Canada, Australia, and New Zealand - South Africa was automatically at war with Germany when Great Britain declared war on August 4th.  Today the South African government receives a telegram from London asking whether South African forces could seize key points in neighbouring German South-West Africa.  Prime Minister Louis Botha is supportive of the appeal - the conquest of the German colony offers the prospect of the creation of an empire of its own for South Africa.  But the issue is not clear-cut - when Botha brings the request before his cabinet today, four ministers support him, while four are opposed.  The issue raises to the surface the underlying tension in South African society - the Boer population, which politically dominate the dominion, are not altogether supportive of Britain and its war.  It has only been a dozen years since the Boers were forced to surrender their autonomy at the end of the Second Boer War in 1902.  Further, German South-West Africa has been a haven for die-hard Boer rebels, raising the possibility of Boer fighting Boer in an invasion of the German colony.  Finally, the rhetoric of Britain makes many Boers uncomfortable - Britain declares itself to be fighting on behalf of small nations such as Belgium, which stands in uneasy contrast to British policy towards the very small Boer republics prior to 1902.  Thus there is a genuine fear among ministers in Botha's government that a move to openly support Britain through attacking German South-West Africa might destabilize South Africa itself and lead to a rebellion among those Boers who have never completely reconciled themselves to membership in the British Empire.

- As the rest of the French army continues to assemble, General Joffre orders the VII Corps to undertake an offensive into Alsace with the objective of seizing Mulhouse.  This is separate from the main offensives Joffre is planning to launch under Plan XVII, and is designed both to satisfy the desire of the French public to reclaim the 'lost territories' of Alsace-Lorraine and demonstrate to their allies the readiness of the French army.  Undertaken by two infantry divisions and one infantry brigade, this force crosses the border at 5am and begins the twenty-five kilometre march to Mulhouse.

- At Liège, Ludendorff decides that the brigade he has led inside the ring of forts should assault the town itself.  The German force is able to enter the town unopposed, the Belgian 3rd Division having been withdrawn the previous day.  Ludendorff himself drives up to the old Citadel guarding the centre of the town, strides up to the gates, and demands their surrender.  The Belgian soldiers remaining in the Citadel, instead of shooting Ludendorff for his insolence, surrender.  How much better for the Entente would it have been if they had surrendered only after dispatching Ludendorff first?  Regardless, the Germans now control the town of Liège, but there are still the forts around the town to subdue before 1st and 2nd Armies can fully begin their march through Belgium.

- Lord Kitchener issues his first public appeal for volunteers, calling for 100 000 recruits.  Kitchener intends these volunteers to form the seventy-division British army he envisions will be needed to win a war that will last years, not months.

Volunteers for Kitchener's 'New' Army in London, Aug. 7th, 1914.

August 4th, 1914

- At 4am, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe receives orders from the Admiralty to take command of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet as Commander-in-Chief.  The Grand Fleet is the strongest naval force in the world, consisting of dreadnoughts, battlecruisers, and supporting vessels, and is based at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys.  As its commander, Jellicoe's role is the most important in the Royal Navy.  The Grand Fleet is essential to the survival of Great Britain - should its ships be sunk, the Germans would be able to easily blockade the country and, since Britain must import food, force starvation and surrender within weeks.  Thus, as Churchill says of Jellicoe, he is 'the only man on either side who can lose the war in an afternoon.'  Jellicoe is acutely aware of the pressure and responsibilities of his role.  He sees it as his task not to destroy the German navy, but to preserve the Grand Fleet.  The status quo is satisfactory for Britain - merely by existing, the Grand Fleet is able to blockade Germany, as no German ships can possible sail through the Channel or out of the North Sea east of Scapa Flow without interception by the Royal Navy.  Thus Jellicoe does not seek battle with the Germans merely for the sake of battle, as he knows that victory in such a battle will not substantially change the status quo, but defeat can end the war.

- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble.  Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations.  The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army).  It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan.  On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army).  The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany.  The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain.  For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance.  For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine.  Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory.  Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.

French and German deployments on the Western Front at the start of the war.

- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force.  The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion.  Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside.  This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen.  As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.

- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège.  Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable.  For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies.  Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.

- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside.  Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich.  This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles.  Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown.  When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders.  By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.

The Liège forts and the initial German advance, Aug. 4th, 1914.

- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany.  When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war.  At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum.  The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.

- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly.  The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality.  He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.'  Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.

- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!'  At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers.  Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort.  At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.

- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber).  He concludes:

In the war which is beginning, France will have Right on her side, the eternal power of which cannot with impunity be disregarded by nations any more than by individuals.  She will be heroically defended by all her sons; nothing will break their sacred union before the enemy; today they are joined together as brothers in a common indignation against the aggressor, and in a common patriotic faith.  She is faithfully helped by Russia, her ally ; she is supported by the loyal friendship of Great Britain.  And already from every part of the civilised world sympathy and good wishes are coming to her. For today once again she stands before the universe for Liberty, Justice, and Reason.  Haut les coeurs et vive la France!

Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies.  It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.

- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War.  The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis.  For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable.  The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660.  When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent.  Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence.  What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages.  He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa.  His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had.  It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.

The face of Kitchener, with its distinctive moustache,
would be ubiquitous on recruiting posters throughout
Britain.

- In a statement to a private meeting of bankers and businessmen Lloyd George reassures them that it will be 'business as usual' regarding the economy - government intervention will be minimized, so there is no need for panic or hasty withdrawal of funds.  The slogan will become famous as a description of the British approach to the wartime economy in the early stages of the conflict, but right from the start some 'unusual' measures were being taken.  This day also sees the British government taking over the management of the nation's railways, to ensure efficient distribution of war material and food.  Railway owners were only the first to see how 'unusual' the economy could become in wartime.

- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification.  They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau.  Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area.  This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France.  At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd.  Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment.  Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.

The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente.  With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau.  The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers.  Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am.  Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other.  After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward.  The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire.  Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go.  Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships.  By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon.  By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared.  The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm.  Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.

- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call.  Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'.  Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm.  When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.

Crowds outside Buckingham Palace cheer the declaration of war against Germany.

August 3rd, 1914

- The Belgian Council of Ministers reconvenes at 230am to approve the reply to the German ultimatum, which states that they 'would sacrifice the honor of the nation and betray its duty to Europe' if it accepted the German demands, and declared that they would resist by force any violation of its frontiers.  At 7am, at the precise moment the ultimatum expires, the reply is delivered to the German ambassador.  That day excited crowds gather in Brussels as news of the act of defiance spreads.

The Kaiser makes one last appeal for Belgian neutrality in a personal telegram to King Albert, a distant cousin.  He argues that only the most extreme of circumstances had required the dispatch of the ultimatum, and that Germany continued to have 'the most friendly intentions' towards Belgium.  King Albert is not impressed - 'What does he take me for?" he exclaims.  Orders are given to detonate key bridges on the Belgian-German frontier.

- The Reichstag deputies of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) meet to decide their attitude towards the war.  Prior to the July Crisis, similar to socialists in other countries, the SPD had opposed war and sought to mobilize the working-class to prevent hostilities from commencing.  However, again as with socialists elsewhere, the speed of the July Crisis has overtaken any desire to avoid war.  Crucially, by August 3rd the issue is not war vs. peace, but whether the SPD will vote in favour of war credits in the Reichstag, essential to the mobilization of the German economy.  The SPD can also see this war in socialist terms - in their eyes, the SPD is the strongest socialist party in Europe, and the 'heart' of socialism is under attack by backward hordes from the East.  A vote among SPD deputies finds seventy-eight in favour of war credits to only fourteen against.  The discipline and solidarity of the SPD ensures that all deputies will endorse the majority view - the SPD vote will be unanimous in the Reichstag.

- The Italian government makes public today its declaration of neutrality in the European war, despite its alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, on the basis that the alliance is defensive only, and since it has been Austria-Hungary that has initiated hostilities, Italy is not required to intervene.

- This evening the German ambassador to France delivers a declaration of war to Premier Viviani.  It alleges that French airplanes have dropped bombs on German cities, and violated Belgian airspace.  The allegations are nonsense, as Viviani well knows.  Instead, they are meant for domestic consumption in Germany, to justify a declaration of war on a country that had no role to play in the original crisis that started the war.  The Premier denies the charges, and the ambassador departs for the last time.

- Today is a Bank Holiday in Britain, and the crisis brings thousands of people into the streets around Westminster and Trafalgar Square, eager to participate in the historic events.  The German ultimatum has transformed public opinion - whereas a massive anti-war rally had been planned for the capital on Sunday, it never occurs, and by today most in the crowds are calling for war with Germany.  A Cabinet meeting at 11am reflects this shifting opinion.  After much debate and deliberation, the Cabinet agrees that if Germany should invade Belgium and Belgium resist, Britain should declare war on Germany.  There are two further resignations submitted, but there is where the dissension stops.  The middle group of waverers, and especially David Lloyd George, are won over to the position of Grey on intervention.  Overall, the Liberal government has survived the crisis relatively intact - those who did resign were second-rank figures, and the public has swung around to support intervention as well.

At 3pm Grey addresses a full House of Commons on the crisis.  First emphasizing the lengths to which Britain had gone to avoid conflict, he now emphasized that the war was nothing less than an attempt by Germany to secure hegemony over the European continent, and that in line with British policy for centuries, such an attempt must be resisted.  After an hour and fifteen minutes, he sits to general applause.  As Grey later comments to Churchill, the next step will be to issue an ultimatum to Germany to withdraw from Belgium or face war with Britain.  At nightfall, Grey stands at his window in the Foreign Office, looking down at the lamps being lit in St. James' Park.  To a friend beside him, Grey remarks: 'The lamps are going out all over Europe.  We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.'  Thus ended the age of European dominance, dead by its own hand.

August 2nd, 1914

- In many of the larger cities of Europe, enormous crowds form, in part to celebrate the coming of war (in the belief it will be both short and glorious), in part to learn the latest news, and in part simply to be present at the most important moment of their nation's lives.  In St. Petersburg, crowds gather in the Winter Palace Square, waving flags and portraits of the Tsar.  When Nicholas II appears on the palace balcony, the entire crowd kneels and sings the national anthem.  Images of these crowds are among the most famous of the war, seen as a poignant reminder of the hopes and optimism that many embraced in August 1914, in stark contrast to the horrors to come.  Not everyone, though, shares this war enthusiasm.  These crowds are urban and disproportionately middle-class.  In rural Europe, the coming of war is greeted with much more reserve - through conscription peasants were more familiar with army life than their urban middle-class counterparts, and thus they do not share the latter's romantic and idealist view of war.

A jubilant crowd in Munich on August 2nd, among whom is one
particularly infamous figure.

- In France, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), representing the trade union movement in the country, calls on its members to support the government and mobilization.  This is a dramatic about-face for the CGT - it had long embraced revolutionary syndicalism and pacifism, and its stance had long been that if war ever appeared likely a general strike was to be called to ensure the maintenance of peace.  This about-face is a product of several factors.  First, the death of Jaurès has robbed the movement of a key voice at the moment of crisis.  Second, many of the urban working-class prove susceptible to the call of nationalism - forced to choose, most feel greater loyalty to other classes in France than their working-class compatriots in Germany.  Third, the war can be seen in terms favourable to the left - in this light, Imperial Germany is an autocratic and feudal remnant, which the war will sweep away.  Finally, the very speed of the crisis has prevented coordinated action - as late as the 30th, Jaurès himself was suggesting that the crisis would blow over.  Even if the workers had wanted to go on strike to prevent the war, there was hardly time to have organized such a move.

- As part of German mobilization, the first trains, each with fifty-four cars, cross the Hohenzollern Bridge over the Rhine River.  Over the next sixteen days, 2150 such trains are scheduled to use the bridge.

- After the debacle of the 1st, Luxembourg is fully occupied today, the Germans meeting no significant resistance.

- A strange scene at Armstrong's Elswick shipbuilding yard on the Tyne in northern England.  In the yard lies the dreadnought Sultan Osman I, built by Armstrong under contract for the Ottoman Empire. It was one of two dreadnoughts ordered by the Ottomans from British shipyards - the other, Reshadieh, had been completed just weeks earlier, while Sultan Osman I was awaiting the last of its 12-inch guns.  An Ottoman steamer had arrived in England on July 27th, carrying 500 sailors for the voyage to Constantinople.  The two dreadnoughts were to form the backbone of the otherwise-antiquated Ottoman navy.  They had cost the impoverished nation almost £6 million, and had been paid for through extra taxes, donations from villagers, and deductions from the salaries of civil servants.  The two were seen as a point of pride by the Ottoman people, a symbol that their much-battered nation was still a Great Power, despite the recent loss of Libya and most of its Balkan territories.

The ships will never reach Constantinople.  The focus of Churchill and the Admiralty is on the possibility of war with Germany, the latter having the second-largest navy in the world.  In a war at sea, the crucial measurement of strength was the number of dreadnoughts one could deploy.  While the Royal Navy had more than Germany, the margin was not overwhelming, and so Churchill had decided that, in this moment of crisis, Britain needed to confiscate the Ottoman dreadnoughts to add to the British margin of superiority at sea.  Thus the yard sees the odd sight of a detachment of the Sherwood Foresters Regiments, bayonets fixed, boarding Sultan Osman I, in order to prevent the Ottoman sailors from taking possession.  Though Churchill offers compensation, the Ottoman government is both offended and indignant at the British action.

- The seizure of Sultan Osman I and Reshadieh happens the same day that secret negotiations are concluded between the Ottoman Empire and Germany.  Prior to the July crisis, the Ottomans had sought alliances with the Great Powers of Europe, both for defending the tottering empire as well as regaining lost territories in the Balkans.  None had taken the Ottomans up on their offer - the Ottoman Empire had long been described as the 'Sick Man of Europe,' whose decline appeared to be terminal.  Its military was ineffective, its economy backwards, and was reliant on foreign investment for any significant industrial growth.  Their most recent alliance offer, made by Grand Vizier Said Halim and Enver Pasha, had been sent to Germany on July 22nd, one day before the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was delivered to Serbia.  While previously the Germans had viewed the Ottomans as militarily useless, the prospect of a general European war changed perspectives.  Suddenly, the prospect emerged of using the Ottomans to distract the British and the Russians, drawing some of their forces away from the more vital battlefields in Europe.  Though war with Russia was not the original intent of Enver and the Grand Vizier, they were willing to accept the terms, believing the war would be short, and offered the potential of German aid if other Great Powers attempted to partition the Ottoman Empire.  Thus a secret defensive alliance is signed between Germany and the Ottoman Empire this day.  It does not immediately lead to the Ottomans entering the war, however, for the negotiations have been kept from most of the Ottoman cabinet by Enver, and it would not be easy to convince the others of the necessity of entering the war.  Further, the Ottoman military remained a shambles - it would take months of mobilization before they would be able to threaten their neighbours.  Still, having negotiated the alliance, the Germans are now eager to make the Ottomans co-belligerents.

- At 7pm, the German ambassador to Belgium delivers an ultimatum to the Foreign Office in Brussels.  It had been in the ambassador's safe since its arrival by special courier on July 29th, having been drafted personally by Moltke on the 26th.  The note stated that the Germans had indications the French intended to invade Belgium to attack the German army - obvious misinformation without considering that Moltke must have had a 'premonition' of the 'indications' a week earlier.  It goes on to state that, given the obvious inability of the Belgian army to defend itself, it would be necessary for the German army to move into Belgium to block the French 'advance'.  Emphasis was placed on the benign nature of this intervention, pledging to restore Belgian independence as soon as the war was over.  However, if Belgium resisted, the country would be seen as an enemy, and dealt with militarily.  Finally, a answer was demanded within twelve hours.

The ultimatum was a central component of the Schlieffen Plan, and it was hoped that Belgium would stand aside as the Germans marched through.  Indeed, Moltke could not imagine the tiny army of Belgium offering anything more than token resistance - surely they understood that active resistance meant annihilation.  So much the better if the pesky neutral adopted the proper attitude to Germany.

- There are two Cabinet meetings held in London today to discuss the ongoing crisis.  Grey is finally able to win agreement for a declaration that the Royal Navy will not allow the German fleet to pass into the Channel and bombard French ports unmolested.  Though this is a step towards war, it is still a very small one, and Grey continues to emphasize to the French ambassador that further commitments are not inevitable.  Even this decision comes at the cost of two resignations, and it is apparent that the middle group in Cabinet is still unwilling to go any further in the direction of intervention.  That afternoon a communication from the leaders of the opposition Conservative party emphasize their support for intervention and their willingness to join a coalition government.  This adds a party dimension to the crisis - this is a Liberal government, and ministers do not want to make way for Conservatives who would be even more energetic and aggressive in prosecuting the war.  Thus a desire to keep the Conservatives out is one small addition to the scale in favour of intervention.

That evening, Grey is informed by telegram of the German ultimatum to Belgium.  He immediately meets with Prime Minister Asquith, who agrees to order immediate mobilization of the British army.  An invasion of Belgium might now bring unity to a Liberal government that remains badly divided over the war.  The British government now awaits word of the Belgian response - they can hardly enter the war in defense of Belgian independence if the Belgians themselves are not willing to defend themselves.  Will tiny Belgium stand in the way of the German behemoth?

- At 9pm, the Belgian Council of State convenes, presided over by King Albert.  Discussing the matter for the next three hours, there was no serious consideration given to accepting the German ultimatum.  No faith was placed in the assurance that in victory Germany would evacuate Belgium - it was generally believed that once the Germans were allowed into the country, they would never leave.  Both the King and the ministers also had no illusions regarding the consequences of resistance - the Belgian army was hopelessly overmatched, and at best could hope to slow the German steamroller.  However, as Baron de Bassompierre recorded, 'If we are to be crushed, let us be crushed gloriously.'  The meeting adjourns at midnight to allow the Prime Minister, the Foreign Minister, and the Justice Minister to draft the reply.

August 1st, 1914

- At noon, the German ultimatum to Russia expires without a response.  The response of the German government follows through on the logic of 'mobilization means war', as given in the ultimatum, and instructs its ambassador to call on Foreign Minister Sazonov and deliver a declaration of war.  He does so at 710pm, and after a sharp exchange over honour, the German ambassador breaks down and weeps, his diplomatic efforts at an end.  Sazonov pats the ambassador on the shoulder and helps him on his way.

- Kaiser Wilhelm II signs the order for mobilization of the German army at 5pm, and the decision is made public shortly thereafter.  That afternoon the Kaiser appears at the balcony of the Royal Palace in Berlin, and briefly addresses the assembled crowd:

I thank all of you for the love and loyalty that you have shown me these past days. These were serious days, like seldom before. Should it now come to a battle, then there will be no more political parties. I, too, was attacked by the one or the other party. That was in peace. I forgive you now from the depths of my heart. I no longer recognize any parties or any confessions; today we are all German brothers and only German brothers. If our neighbors want it no other way, if our neighbors do not grant us peace, then I hope to God that our good German sword will see us through to victory in these difficult battles.

It was one of the first expressions of the common sentiment in the first days of the war, that the onset of war had erased all distinctions of class, race, religion, etc.  Each nation, it was believed, was now united by the crucible of war, each singularly devoted to surmounting the great challenge of the age.  How long such unity could last in the face of modern warfare remains to be seen.

Kaiser Wilhelm II speaks from the balcony of the Royal Palace in Berlin, Aug. 1st, 1914.

- At 11am, the German ambassador in Paris arrives at the French Foreign Office, requesting a reply to the German ultimatum of the previous day.  In his anxiety he is two hours early, though he knows the likely outcome of the meeting.  Premier René Viviani replies that 'France will act in accordance with her interests.'  To the ambassador, and indeed to the German government in Berlin, this is a clear statement that France will stand by its Russian ally.

Viviani had left a Cabinet meeting to meet with the German ambassador, and when he returns they decide to approve the formal request from Jospeh Joffre for mobilization of the French army.  At 4pm, mobilization is publicly announced, to begin the following day.

- In London the government remains divided.  In Cabinet Churchill and Grey are the leading advocates for British coming to the aid of the French, but they are faced by a solid phalanx of opponents, while a middle group, among whom was the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, wavers.  When Churchill requests permission to mobilize the naval reserves, the Cabinet declines.  When Grey asks to implement the secret naval guarantees made to France in peacetime - namely, that the French fleet will concentrate in the Mediterranean while the Royal Navy protects the Channel - four ministers state they would resign rather than approve such a course.  The issue of Belgium comes to the fore - Britain is pledged by a treaty signed in 1839 to defend it.  A German invasion of Belgium might sway the wavers in the Cabinet - it is easier to justify war if it is seen as being on behalf of the small and defenceless, and the navy does not want to see its ports in German hands.  The conversation devolves into a discussion of what constitutes a 'violation' of Belgium neutrality.  Tracing a line on a map, Lloyd George suggests it would only be 'a little violation' if German forces merely cut through the southeast corner of Belgium, as opposed to invading the entirety.  The Cabinet meeting ends with no resignations, and no decisions.  Despite his own preferences, Grey tells the French ambassador that France must make its decision on war or peace without assuming that British aid will be forthcoming.  The French ambassador is despondent - to the editor of the Times, he remarks whether the word 'honour' has been striken from the English dictionary.

That evening Churchill is at the Admiralty, entertaining friends among the Opposition.  As they play cards, a message arrives that Germany has declared war on Russia.  He immediately leaves the Admiralty and crosses Horse Guards Parade to Downing Street, where he finds Prime Minister Asquith with Grey, the Lord Chancellor, and the Secretary of State for India.  Churchill told them he intended to order mobilization of the naval reserves, despite the Cabinet's decision of that afternoon.  Asquith says nothing, which Churchill takes as silent consent, and he departs to issue the orders.

- A day of dramatic developments conclude in Berlin.  Shortly after 5pm, a telegram arrives in Berlin from the German ambassador in London, reporting a conversation with Sir Edward Grey in which the latter pledged to guarantee the neutrality of France in a Russo-German war if Germany refrained from attacking France.  The statement is as a lifeline to a drowning man for the Kaiser.  He is desperate to avoid a two-front war, and the offer of Grey suggests that the war can be confined to the East, where German strength ought to overwhelm Russian numbers.  Moltke, the signed order for mobilization in hand, has left the palace in Potsdam, driving back to General Staff Headquarters in Berlin.  An aide to the Kaiser is instructed to race after Moltke, insisting on his return.  When Moltke arrives back at the palace, the Kaiser informs him of the offer from Grey, and states: 'Now we can go to war against Russia only.  We simply march the whole of our army to the East.'

Moltke could hardly have been more startled if the Kaiser had sprouted wings and flew out of the palace.  The German army in 1914 has exactly one war plan: the Schlieffen Plan.  Designed to ensure victory against the Franco-Russian alliance, it was created by General Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of Staff of the German Army from 1891 to 1905.  Schlieffen, who died in 1913, had sought a way to avoid a prolonged war of attrition on two fronts, which Germany was likely to lose.  His solution rested on the nature of his enemies.  France was compact, like Germany, and could be expected to mobilize rapidly on the outbreak of war.  Russia was a vast landscape, and with fewer railroads it was expected that it would take them much longer to mobilize.  Schlieffen perceived that this Russian delay created a window of opportunity, in which Germany could attack France before Russia was prepared to invade from the East.  Thus the imperative was to force the surrender of France before Russia could attack.  Schlieffen understand that a frontal assault along the Franco-German border was unlikely to produce a decisive result, given the rough terrain and the numerous French fortifications.  The solution was as simple and elegant as it was profound - go around them.  Instead, of attack France directly, the bulk of the German army would be sent through Belgium, where little resistance was expected, and descend on France from the north.  As most of the French armies would be on the Franco-German frontier, there would be practically nothing stopped the German army from sweeping through France from the north and delivering the knockout blow.  The expectation was that Paris would fall and the decisive battle defeating the French army would occur within forty days of German mobilization.  Indeed, forty days was the time limit, as afterwards the Russians would be sufficiently prepared to invade Germany, and if the bulk of the German army was still in France, there would be little stopping the Russians from sweeping through eastern Germany to the gates of Berlin.  The plan was immensely intricate, with each German corps assigned particular roads for the march through Belgium into France.  A precise timeline required the strictest adherence in order to ensure victory within the forty day limit.  It was an immense gamble, one of the greatest in military history.  Success, and Germany would crush its enemies and ensure its dominance of Europe.  Failure, and Germany faced ruin and defeat.

The planned march of the German armies under the Schlieffen Plan.

These were the stakes when Moltke was confronted with the Kaiser's suggestion to only attack Russia.  Not only was it the German plan for war, it was the only plan for war.  While the General Staff had maintained a plan for a war against Russia only, they had stopped updating it in April 1913 and had discarded it entirely.  Thus for Moltke, the only way Germany can fight a war is to attack France first.  It didn't matter that France had nothing to do with the original dispute - the plan said to attack France, so France would be attacked.  To do anything else is simply impossible - Moltke has visions of the entire strategy for the war collapsing to pieces, units separated from each other, massive confusion on the railways, supplies delivered to the wrong places.  He begs the Kaiser to change his mind.  To change the plan for war at the last minute cannot be done - the schedules are too precise to allow for any deviation.  He argues, 'If Your Majesty insists on leading the whole army to the East it will not be an army ready for battle but a disorganized mob.'

The Kaiser is not used to hearing 'no'.  In reproach he tells Moltke bitterly 'Your uncle would have given me a different answer.'  The criticism shatters Moltke's confidence - he has lived his entire life in his uncle's shadow, and at the supreme moment of his career he is told he does not measure up.  He returns to the General Staff Headquarters and bursts into tears.

The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is to seize tiny Luxembourg, whose railways would be essential to the invasions.  A detachment of the 16th Division is assigned to cross the border at 7pm.  The Kaiser personally sends the order to halt the move, still hoping to avoid war with France at the last moment.  The result is a farce.  One German column does not receive the order in time, and as per its instructions seizes the town of Ulflingen with its key railway connections at 7pm.  Thirty minutes later, another detachment arrives by automobile, instructing the first column to return to Germany.  Thus the first German invasion of the war ends in an attempt to pretend the whole thing was a mistake and never happened.  The Luxembourgers are not fooled - the Minister of State promptly informs the British and French of the invasion.

Later that evening, another telegram arrives from the German ambassador in London, stating that he had misunderstood the earlier conversation with Grey and that no offer of French neutrality was on the table.  The straw the Kaiser had clutched at disappears from his hand.  At 11pm Moltke is instructed to return to the palace.  The Kaiser greets his Chief of Staff with a military overcoat over his nightshirt, states bitterly, 'Now you can do what you like', and promptly returns to bed.  Moltke returns to General Staff Headquarters, to resume the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan, beginning with an order for the 're-invasion' of Luxembourg at midnight.  Germany thus enters the war with commander of its armed forces, the man tasked to ensure victory by the precise implementation of the only war plan Germany has, having had his self-confidence thoroughly crushed.