- After three days of artillery bombardment French infantry attack the remnants of the village of Neuville in Artois. In hard fighting they are able to seize the main road through the village, but heavy fire from Germans remaining in the cellars and rubble that have survived the shelling prevent consolidation of French control over Neuville.
- Just as the fall of Przemysl has been the occasion for debate between the German and Austro-Hungarian army leadership regarding future operations in Galicia, General Ivanov of South-West Front has also been reflecting on the state of his command. Since the opening of the Gorlice-Tarnow offensive on May 2nd, the armies under his direction have suffered 412 000 casualties and are also short 300 000 rifles; many new recruits having to be sent to the front without weapons, with instructions to pick up the rifles of their fallen comrades. Despite this, Ivanov sees some grounds for optimism. He believes that the Germans have been using ammunition, especially artillery shells, at unsustainable rates, and that if the Russians can simply hold on the Germans will soon have to curtail operations due to munitions shortages. On this basis he issues orders today for his armies to hold their present ground, while six corps are pulled out of the line to create reserves sufficient, it is hoped, to deal with future German offensives.
- In Washington today Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan has an emotional interview with President Woodrow Wilson. The former objects not merely to the tone of the response to the sinking of the liner Lusitania, but more generally to what he perceives to be the harder line taken by the American government towards German unrestricted submarine warfare as opposed to the British naval blockade. To Wilson, however, the issue is clear: the killing of civilians by sinking passenger ships without warning is reprehensible, and cannot be allowed to continue without objection. While neither Wilson nor the American public have any appetite at present to enter the war, the president feels that it is a moral necessity to object as strongly as possible to the German conduct of the war at sea. Bryan, himself no stranger to moralizing, understands that he cannot alter Wilson's view, and thus tenders his resignation. The president accepts, and will appoint as Bryan's replacement Robert Lansing, currently an advisor at the State Department and a supporter of a harder line against Germany. With the departure of Bryan, the cabinet has lost the strongest voice in favour of strict American neutrality in the ongoing war.
Showing posts with label Wilson. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Wilson. Show all posts
Friday, June 05, 2015
Monday, June 01, 2015
June 1st, 1915
- Earlier this month the leadership of the German armed forces prevailed on the Kaiser to loosen his restrictions regarding the bombing of London; henceforth, it is permissible to target the city east of the Tower of London. Overnight the first bombing raid on the British capital is undertaken by the zeppelin LZ-38, which drops several bombs and killing thirteen people. No targets of any real strategic significance are hit, but the experience of being under fire is new to the city's inhabitants, and the raid also highlights the current inability of the Royal Flying Corps to stop such attacks. Of fifteen aircraft scrambled to intercept the zeppelin, only one so much as makes a visual sighting, while anti-aircraft fire is negligible; LZ-38 is never in any real danger.
- In Artois elements of the German XIV Corps retakes the trenches north of the sugar factory west of Souchez, but the trenches on the factory's other flank remain in French hands. To the south, the French 5th Division of III Corps attacks between Neuville and a confused network of trenches to the north of Roclincourt known as the Labyrinth. In bitter fighting they are repulsed near Neuville, but are able to seize and hold the first trench line of the Labyrinth.
- Overnight the Russians launch counterattacks all along the front of the German 11th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Armies in Galicia. Those that fall on the Germans, and in particular X and Guard Corps, are particularly heavy, but fail to make any headway whatsoever. To the north, however, the Russians have more success. Attacking at 2am, elements of the Russian XIV Corps break through the southern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 8th Division, capturing the town of Rudnik and establishing a bridgehead three kilometres wide on the west bank of the San River. In response the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army pulls five battalions from VIII Corps to the northwest and sends them to south in an effort to hold the line.
- In the context of the ongoing disaster in Galicia the Russian government is increasingly sensitive to criticism of its management of the war effort, and one perceived shortfall of the government has been the supply (or lack thereof) of munitions. To head off this line of attack, the government today appoints a special commission to supervise the supply of the army, implicitly diminishing the role of army headquarters in dictating the production of munitions.
- North of Qurna on the Tigris River elements of 6th Indian Division hit the main Ottoman defensive line at Bahran, only to encounter token resistance; most of the defenders have already broken and fled to the north. General Nixon, arriving from Qurna, convinces a reluctant General Townshend to order a pursuit to take advantage of the success. By necessity the advance will be led by the naval flotilla assembled for the operation, and several gunboats lead the way up the river.
- In Washington today President Wilson meets with his cabinet to discuss the reply of the German government, received on May 28th, to the first American note regarding Lusitania. The German communication had avoided dealing with the American request to halt unrestricted submarine warfare; instead, it had stated that Lusitania was an armed merchant cruiser with guns on its deck, and had often flown the American flag illegally to avoid German attacks. The Americans should investigate this situation, and until this was done Germany would postpone any decision on unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson sees the German statement as a diversion from the central issue of the impossibility of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare without risking the lives of neutral, especially American, lives, and he has come to the meeting with a draft for a second American note:
- In Artois elements of the German XIV Corps retakes the trenches north of the sugar factory west of Souchez, but the trenches on the factory's other flank remain in French hands. To the south, the French 5th Division of III Corps attacks between Neuville and a confused network of trenches to the north of Roclincourt known as the Labyrinth. In bitter fighting they are repulsed near Neuville, but are able to seize and hold the first trench line of the Labyrinth.
- Overnight the Russians launch counterattacks all along the front of the German 11th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Armies in Galicia. Those that fall on the Germans, and in particular X and Guard Corps, are particularly heavy, but fail to make any headway whatsoever. To the north, however, the Russians have more success. Attacking at 2am, elements of the Russian XIV Corps break through the southern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 8th Division, capturing the town of Rudnik and establishing a bridgehead three kilometres wide on the west bank of the San River. In response the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army pulls five battalions from VIII Corps to the northwest and sends them to south in an effort to hold the line.
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| The advance of the Russian XIV Corps at Rudnik, June 1st, 1915. |
- In the context of the ongoing disaster in Galicia the Russian government is increasingly sensitive to criticism of its management of the war effort, and one perceived shortfall of the government has been the supply (or lack thereof) of munitions. To head off this line of attack, the government today appoints a special commission to supervise the supply of the army, implicitly diminishing the role of army headquarters in dictating the production of munitions.
- North of Qurna on the Tigris River elements of 6th Indian Division hit the main Ottoman defensive line at Bahran, only to encounter token resistance; most of the defenders have already broken and fled to the north. General Nixon, arriving from Qurna, convinces a reluctant General Townshend to order a pursuit to take advantage of the success. By necessity the advance will be led by the naval flotilla assembled for the operation, and several gunboats lead the way up the river.
- In Washington today President Wilson meets with his cabinet to discuss the reply of the German government, received on May 28th, to the first American note regarding Lusitania. The German communication had avoided dealing with the American request to halt unrestricted submarine warfare; instead, it had stated that Lusitania was an armed merchant cruiser with guns on its deck, and had often flown the American flag illegally to avoid German attacks. The Americans should investigate this situation, and until this was done Germany would postpone any decision on unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson sees the German statement as a diversion from the central issue of the impossibility of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare without risking the lives of neutral, especially American, lives, and he has come to the meeting with a draft for a second American note:
Whatever may be the facts regarding the Lusitania, the principal fact is that a great steamer, primarily and chiefly a conveyance for passengers and carrying more than a thousand souls who had no part or lot in the conduct of the war, was torpedoed and sunk without so much as a challenge or a warning and that men, women, and children were sent to their death in circumstances unparalleled in modern warfare. . . . The United States cannot admit that the proclamation of a war zone . . . may be made to operate as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights . . . of American citizens bound on lawful errands as passengers on ships of belligerent neutrality.'Wilson is thus staking his position on the right of American citizens to travel as they see fit, without risk of death due to a war in which they are not involved. As the cabinet discusses the note, the Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, is increasingly restless. He feels that the American government is not being equally critical of the British, given that their blockade manifestly interferes with the ability of American citizens to trade as they saw fit. Moreover, he felt that if American citizens chose to sail on the liners of belligerents, they assumed responsibility for the consequences. Bryan's core argument is that the United States must treat Germany and Britain equally, and fears Wilson's note deviates from that position. As the discussion continues, Bryan snaps and interjects: 'You people are not neutral. You are taking sides.' President Wilson responds coldly to the accusation: 'Mr. Bryan, you are not warranted in making such an assertion. We all doubtless have our opinions in this matter but there are none of us who can justly be accused of being unfair.' His resolve unshaken, Wilson ensures the meeting endorses his note, even as the gulf between himself and his secretary of state grows.
Monday, May 11, 2015
May 11th, 1915
- For months the First Sea Lord, Admiral Fisher, has held deep misgivings about the Dardanelles operation, fearing heavy losses for negligible gain. When Admiral de Robeck's signal arrives at the Admiralty suggesting another naval attempt to force the straits, Fisher erupts in anger, writing to Churchill: 'I cannot under any circumstances be a party to any order to Admiral de Robeck to make any attempt to pass the Dardanelles until the shores have been effectively occupied.' Churchill, in contrast, is willing to at least allow a limited attack to clear the minefield off Kephez. The vast divergence of opinion between the two over the Dardanelles operation is now in the open, and Fisher has laid down the gauntlet: if the naval operation proceeds he will no longer serve as First Sea Lord. Another fuse is lit . . .
- General d'Urbal orders further attacks today in Artois, and sends additional divisions to XXXIII and XX Corps as reinforcements. After a two hour artillery bombardment, the infantry advance, but are repeatedly repulsed by strong German defences; Pétain reports his attacks are broken up by heavy machine gun fire on his flanks and increased enemy artillery fire. On the German side OHL releases 117th Division as a further reinforcement to 6th Army, and it arrives southwest of Lens. With additional reinforcements it is hoped to be able to hold the threatened villages of Carency and Ablain.
- Today President Wilson presents to his cabinet the draft of a note he intends to send to the German government regarding the sinking of Lusitania. While he states that he does not believe the German government directly ordered the sinking, he sees it as the natural consequence of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare:
- In Galicia the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies begin their retreat eastward towards the San River, pursued by (from northwest to southeast) the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, the German 11th Army, the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd Armies, and Südarmee. In places the battered Russians are able to disengage entirely, while in others their retreat is hastened by yet further fighting.
- Only in far eastern Galicia are the Russian still on the advance, continuing their offensive into the Bukovina. Today the Russian XXXIII Corps enlarged its bridgehead across the Dniester River yesterday, and today an attack to the west against the right wing of the Austro-Hungarian 15th Division forces the latter back. This retreat threatens the flank of the forces bottling up XXXIII Corps, and as a result the Austro-Hungarians are forced to withdraw to a new defensive line to the south, running through Horodenka and Obertyn.
- In Italy King Victor Emmanuel meets with Prime Minister Salandra this afternoon. The monarch is in a better mood than in prior days; yesterday's meeting with Giolitti has reassured him that the former prime minister will not attempt to return to power and provoke a grave constitutional crisis. Salandra, however, is still concerned about the extent of Giolitti's support in parliament, as the latter has voiced the belief that a vote of four-fifths against intervention would be sufficient to annul any otherwise binding commitment made to the Entente.
- In Mesopotamia General Nixon, commanding the Indian forces at and around Basra, formally instructs General Townshend of 6th Indian Division to clear the positions held by the Ottomans around Qurna, advance upriver, and occupy Amara.
- General d'Urbal orders further attacks today in Artois, and sends additional divisions to XXXIII and XX Corps as reinforcements. After a two hour artillery bombardment, the infantry advance, but are repeatedly repulsed by strong German defences; Pétain reports his attacks are broken up by heavy machine gun fire on his flanks and increased enemy artillery fire. On the German side OHL releases 117th Division as a further reinforcement to 6th Army, and it arrives southwest of Lens. With additional reinforcements it is hoped to be able to hold the threatened villages of Carency and Ablain.
- Today President Wilson presents to his cabinet the draft of a note he intends to send to the German government regarding the sinking of Lusitania. While he states that he does not believe the German government directly ordered the sinking, he sees it as the natural consequence of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare:
The government of the United States desires to call the attention of the Imperial German Government . . . to . . . the practical impossibility of employing submarines in the destruction of commerce without disregarding those rules of fairness, reason, justice, and humanity which all modern opinion regards as imperative. It is practically impossible for the officers of a submarine at sea to visit a merchantman at sea and examine her papers and cargo. It is practically impossible for them to make a prize of her; and if they cannot put a prize crew on board her, they cannot sink her without leaving her crew and all aboard to the mercy of the sea in her small boats. . . . Manifestly, submarines cannot be used against merchantmen . . . without an inevitable violation of many sacred principles of justice and humanity.Within cabinet, Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan sees the note as too pro-British; have not the British also violated international law in their conduct of their naval blockade of Germany? Bryan also opposes Americans travelling on ships belonging to combatants. His views are opposed by State Department Counselor Robert Lansing, who argues that the American government, having permitted American citizens to sail on British steamships to date, cannot now disavow such activity, and must insist on a German pledge to never conduct such an attack again. Bryan's objections are overruled, and Wilson's original note will be conveyed to the German government as is.
- In Galicia the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies begin their retreat eastward towards the San River, pursued by (from northwest to southeast) the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, the German 11th Army, the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd Armies, and Südarmee. In places the battered Russians are able to disengage entirely, while in others their retreat is hastened by yet further fighting.
- Only in far eastern Galicia are the Russian still on the advance, continuing their offensive into the Bukovina. Today the Russian XXXIII Corps enlarged its bridgehead across the Dniester River yesterday, and today an attack to the west against the right wing of the Austro-Hungarian 15th Division forces the latter back. This retreat threatens the flank of the forces bottling up XXXIII Corps, and as a result the Austro-Hungarians are forced to withdraw to a new defensive line to the south, running through Horodenka and Obertyn.
- In Italy King Victor Emmanuel meets with Prime Minister Salandra this afternoon. The monarch is in a better mood than in prior days; yesterday's meeting with Giolitti has reassured him that the former prime minister will not attempt to return to power and provoke a grave constitutional crisis. Salandra, however, is still concerned about the extent of Giolitti's support in parliament, as the latter has voiced the belief that a vote of four-fifths against intervention would be sufficient to annul any otherwise binding commitment made to the Entente.
- In Mesopotamia General Nixon, commanding the Indian forces at and around Basra, formally instructs General Townshend of 6th Indian Division to clear the positions held by the Ottomans around Qurna, advance upriver, and occupy Amara.
Sunday, May 10, 2015
May 10th, 1915
- Almost since the outbreak of the war the German government has been fighting a losing battle over its image abroad among neutrals. While Entente propaganda has undoubtedly made its mark, views on Germany have been inevitably tainted by the way in which it has conducted the war, as more recent incidents such as the use of gas at Ypres and the sinking of Lusitania join with such older episodes as the Rape of Belgium to cast Germany as the villain. The German government has attempted to counter such impressions since the first weeks of the war, and today publishes a White Book on the German occupation of Belgium. Its title - The Conduct of the War by the Belgian People in Violation of International Law - says all that needs to be said regarding its aim. Its objectivity is questionable at best and much dubious 'evidence' is included, and does little to dissuade those who already believe in German perfidy from continuing to do so. Moreover, the Germans are not the only ones who can publish reports . . .
- Even as the German government attempts to defend its conduct of the war, the latest outrage - the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania - is provoking a violent reaction in Britain, especially in Liverpool and other west coast ports in which many of the dead resided. For these civilians, the torpedoing of Lusitania is seen as culmination of a German campaign of deliberate barbarism that has included the Rape of Belgium, the bombardment of Scarborough and other towns, Zeppelin bombing raids, and the use of gas at Ypres. For many the news of Lusitania's loss is the final straw, and over the past few days anti-German riots have broken out in several British cities, including most prominently Liverpool, the destination of the doomed liner. Large crowds rampage through commercial districts, attacking any shop identified as being owned by Germans and looting its contents. Local police struggle to maintain order, with hundreds arrested. Today is the worst day of violence in Liverpool, and hardly a single commercial enterprise owned by a German remains unscathed at the end of the day. While the violence builds on existing anti-German sentiments and indeed xenophobia, they also arise from the general sense among the British public that the German methods of waging war are a fundamental threat to Western civilization, and that the war is not only worth fighting but must be fought until absolute victory can be secured and 'Prussian militarism', as it is often referred to, is crushed forever. Whether right or not, such views are genuinely held by much of the British public, and go some way to explaining the overwhelming support for the continuation of the war in the months and years ahead.
- A more measured reaction to the sinking of Lusitania is seen today in the United States when President Woodrow Wilson delivers a speech before fifteen thousand in Philadelphia. After several days of deliberation, he has come to the conclusion that an immediate declaration of war is not the proper course of action. More crucially, imbued with a moral sense of American righteousness, he proclaims to the assembled crowd that:
- In Germany, reaction to the sinking of Lusitania has been mixed. Much of the public, convinced that the liner was carrying munitions, celebrates its destruction, as does the naval leadership. For the Chancellor and the Kaiser, the sinking is seen as a disaster. Wilhelm II directly orders the naval chief of staff that
- In Artois today the French 10th Army attacks all along the German line, attempting to repeat the fleeting success of yesterday. Overall the French attacks fail: an attempt to move further east on the Lorette spur was held, and repeated attacks by 70th Division at Carency were also repulsed. However, a German counterattack by elements of 58th and 11th Divisions also fails, and the French XXXIII Corps is able to maintain control of the ground seized yesterday. This salient also leaves German positions at Carency and Ablain just to the north almost isolated, and the commander of the German 28th Division, responsible for this section of line, is concerned that the villages may have to be abandoned.
Further north, in light of the complete failure of the attacks of yesterday, Sir John French calls off the British offensive towards Aubers Ridge early this morning. General Haig, whose 1st Army had been responsible for the operation, is dismayed at the failure. Writing in his diary, he concludes that the defeat 'showed that we are confronted by a carefully prepared position, which is held by a most determined enemy, with numerous machine guns.' To overcome such defences, Haig believes that an 'accurate and so fairly long' preliminary bombardment will be necessary in future to ensure enemy strong points are destroyed before the infantry advance. However understandable Haig's conclusions may be, he is learning the wrong lessons.
- Overnight the Russian counterattack in Galicia is launched, with 44th Division advancing towards Jacmierz into the gap between 11th Bavarian and 119th Divisions and 33rd Division to the south advancing towards Besko. Though the Russians are able to initially gain some ground, the German commanders are more than equal to the task. To the north, 11th Bavarian Division pushes back the southern flank of XXIV Russian Corps to the north, which creates space for the German 20th Division to come up from its reserve position and launch a attack co-ordinated with 119th Division on the Russian 44th Division, throwing the latter back. To the south, the Austro-Hungarian X Corps secures the high ground near Odrzechowa, threatening the flank of the Russian 33rd Division. By nightfall the Russians have been repulsed and are retreating eastward towards Sanok.
The counterattack by the Russian XXI Corps had been the last throw of the dice for 3rd Army, and its defeat means any hope of holding the Germans west of the San River has evaporated. General Ivanov's chief of staff sends a despondent message to Stavka this evening, stating that the army is shattered and the situation is hopeless, and the only option is a pell-mell retreat eastwards: Przemysl will have to be surrendered, the Germans will soon invade the Ukraine, and Kiev should be fortified. The chief of staff is promptly fired, but Stavka finally acknowledges reality and finally acquiesces today to General Dimitriev's repeated requests to retreat behind the San, 3rd Army is a mere shell of its former self. Of the 200 000 men it had on May 2nd, only 40 000 remain to retreat eastwards today, and this despite 3rd Army having received 50 000 replacements in the meantime. Further, the Germans have taken 140 000 prisoners, reflecting the shattered morale of the Russian infantry. Some of its formations have simply ceased to exist: IX Corps has suffered 80% casualties, while III Caucasus Corps, which was sent into the battle on May 4th to restore the situation, has instead lost 75% of its strength in the six days since.
The strategic implications of the crushing defeat suffered by 3rd Army also continue to spread. In order to maintain some semblance of coherent line on the Eastern Front, Stavka issues orders for the southern flank of 4th Army to pull back east almost to the confluence of the San and Vistula Rivers, while 8th Army in the Carpathians will have to retreat to the northeast and reorientate to face to the west instead of the south.
- Though the Treaty of London had been signed on April 26th, details remained to be finalized regarding the nature of Italian co-operation with the Entente, and at sea Italy is in particular eager to secure substantial naval support in the Adriatic. Today in Paris a naval convention is signed between Britain, France, and Italy which calls for the creation of an allied fleet in the Adriatic under Italian command, to which the French would contribute twelve destroyers, a seaplane carrier, and a number of torpedo-boats and submarines, while the British pledged to dispatch four pre-dreadnoughts and four light cruisers. The British reinforcements in particular, however, are to be drawn from the fleet off the Dardanelles, and will not be sent to the Adriatic until they have been replaced by similar warships from France. This detail will be the source of friction between the allies once Italy formally enters the war.
- For Italian Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, the driving force behind Italian intervention on the side of the Entente, the struggle now is to carry the rest of the Italian government with them into the war. This is no easy task, as many politicians do not share their passionate desire for intervention. Instead, a vague desire for neutrality is the most common sentiment, a position to which some within the Cabinet itself adhere to. Moreover, King Victor Emmanuel is unreliable; just yesterday he proclaimed to Salandra his uncertainty as to the right course of action for Italy and the possiblity of abdicating in favour of his uncle the Duke of Aosta. There is also the necessity of securing a majority in parliament for war, which is far from assured. Finally and perhaps of most concern to the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, there is an alternative political leader known to oppose intervention: Giovanni Giolitti, who has served as prime minister on no fewer than four occasions from 1892 to 1914. The possibility exists that if Salandra and Sonnino cannot carry either the cabinet or parliament in support of intervention, Giolitti may form a government pledged, at minimum, to strict neutrality, if not a pro-German attitude. Indeed, when German Ambassador Bülow browbeats the Austro-Hungarian ambassador today to agree to further concessions, he communicates the offer not to the goverment but to Giolitti; the Germans see Giolitti as the last chance to keep Italy out of the war.
For all of the difficulties that Salandra and Sonnino face, the forces opposed to intervention are not without their own problems. Giolitti is 73 years old, and both his grip on and influence in Italian politics is not what it once was. He also has little desire to form a government led by himself, fearing he would be branded as a lackey of Austria, and crucially communicates this belief to Victor Emmanuel in an interview this afternoon, which does much to calm the nerves of the king. Salandra and Giolitti also meet this afternoon, and the former sufficiently dissembles to leave the latter with the impression that he is not wholeheartedly committed to war. Still, it is possible that Giolitti may still instruct his supporters in parliament to vote against the war when it reconvenes on May 20th. The next ten days will thus determine not only whether Italy enters the war, but indeed the future course of Italian politics overall.
- Today Admiral de Robeck cables the Admiralty a proposal for a renewed naval attack on the Dardanelles. The suggestion originated in a meeting with Commodore Keyes, who remains a strong advocate of naval action, and is convinced that futher naval pressure can yet secure victory. Robeck is more doubtful, and his message reflects his continued pessimism. Even if a naval attack succeeds, 'the temper of the Turkish army in the peninsula indicates that the forcing of the Dardanelles and subsequent appearance of the fleet off Constantinople would not of itself prove decisive. These are hardly fighting words, but Keyes hopes that even a tepid proposal will inspire Churchill to order another attempt.
- Near the mouth of the Bosporus the Russian Black Sea Fleet makes another appearance to bombard the forts, and this time the recently-repaired ex-German battlecruiser Goeben makes a brief appearance. The Germans are dismayed to discover that the 12-inch guns of the outdated Russian pre-dreadnoughts can still fire farther than the 11-inch guns of Goeben. After the battlecruiser takes two glancing blows it uses its superior speed to break off the battle and return to the Sea of Marmara.
- Even as the German government attempts to defend its conduct of the war, the latest outrage - the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania - is provoking a violent reaction in Britain, especially in Liverpool and other west coast ports in which many of the dead resided. For these civilians, the torpedoing of Lusitania is seen as culmination of a German campaign of deliberate barbarism that has included the Rape of Belgium, the bombardment of Scarborough and other towns, Zeppelin bombing raids, and the use of gas at Ypres. For many the news of Lusitania's loss is the final straw, and over the past few days anti-German riots have broken out in several British cities, including most prominently Liverpool, the destination of the doomed liner. Large crowds rampage through commercial districts, attacking any shop identified as being owned by Germans and looting its contents. Local police struggle to maintain order, with hundreds arrested. Today is the worst day of violence in Liverpool, and hardly a single commercial enterprise owned by a German remains unscathed at the end of the day. While the violence builds on existing anti-German sentiments and indeed xenophobia, they also arise from the general sense among the British public that the German methods of waging war are a fundamental threat to Western civilization, and that the war is not only worth fighting but must be fought until absolute victory can be secured and 'Prussian militarism', as it is often referred to, is crushed forever. Whether right or not, such views are genuinely held by much of the British public, and go some way to explaining the overwhelming support for the continuation of the war in the months and years ahead.
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| The aftermath of the Lusitania riots. |
- A more measured reaction to the sinking of Lusitania is seen today in the United States when President Woodrow Wilson delivers a speech before fifteen thousand in Philadelphia. After several days of deliberation, he has come to the conclusion that an immediate declaration of war is not the proper course of action. More crucially, imbued with a moral sense of American righteousness, he proclaims to the assembled crowd that:
. . . the example of America must be a special example . . . the example, not merely of peace because it will not fight, but of peace because peace is the healing and elevating influence of the world and strife is not. There is such a thing as a man being too proud to fight. There is such a thing as a nation being so right that it does not need to convince others by force that is is right.Wilson's proclamation is greeted by prolonged cheering. In Britain, perhaps not surprisingly, the president's words are not so welcome - Wilson's high-minded rhetoric appears completely divorced from the perceived reality of a struggle for civilization, and there is little inclination to take lessons in morality from someone whose country is resolutely on the sidelines.
- In Germany, reaction to the sinking of Lusitania has been mixed. Much of the public, convinced that the liner was carrying munitions, celebrates its destruction, as does the naval leadership. For the Chancellor and the Kaiser, the sinking is seen as a disaster. Wilhelm II directly orders the naval chief of staff that
. . . for the immediate future, no neutral vessel shall be sunk. This is necessary on political ground for which the chancellor is responsible. It is better than an enemy ship be allowed to pass than that a neutral shall be destroyed.Learning of the Kaiser's order, Bethmann-Hollweg informally conveys to Washington that German submarines have been instructed to avoid neutral vessels. Unfortunately for the pair, the naval chief of staff is committed to unrestricted submarine warfare, and in an act of deliberate insubordination does not convey the Kaiser's order to the fleet. For now the ostensible leaders of Germany are kept in the dark.
- In Artois today the French 10th Army attacks all along the German line, attempting to repeat the fleeting success of yesterday. Overall the French attacks fail: an attempt to move further east on the Lorette spur was held, and repeated attacks by 70th Division at Carency were also repulsed. However, a German counterattack by elements of 58th and 11th Divisions also fails, and the French XXXIII Corps is able to maintain control of the ground seized yesterday. This salient also leaves German positions at Carency and Ablain just to the north almost isolated, and the commander of the German 28th Division, responsible for this section of line, is concerned that the villages may have to be abandoned.
Further north, in light of the complete failure of the attacks of yesterday, Sir John French calls off the British offensive towards Aubers Ridge early this morning. General Haig, whose 1st Army had been responsible for the operation, is dismayed at the failure. Writing in his diary, he concludes that the defeat 'showed that we are confronted by a carefully prepared position, which is held by a most determined enemy, with numerous machine guns.' To overcome such defences, Haig believes that an 'accurate and so fairly long' preliminary bombardment will be necessary in future to ensure enemy strong points are destroyed before the infantry advance. However understandable Haig's conclusions may be, he is learning the wrong lessons.
- Overnight the Russian counterattack in Galicia is launched, with 44th Division advancing towards Jacmierz into the gap between 11th Bavarian and 119th Divisions and 33rd Division to the south advancing towards Besko. Though the Russians are able to initially gain some ground, the German commanders are more than equal to the task. To the north, 11th Bavarian Division pushes back the southern flank of XXIV Russian Corps to the north, which creates space for the German 20th Division to come up from its reserve position and launch a attack co-ordinated with 119th Division on the Russian 44th Division, throwing the latter back. To the south, the Austro-Hungarian X Corps secures the high ground near Odrzechowa, threatening the flank of the Russian 33rd Division. By nightfall the Russians have been repulsed and are retreating eastward towards Sanok.
The counterattack by the Russian XXI Corps had been the last throw of the dice for 3rd Army, and its defeat means any hope of holding the Germans west of the San River has evaporated. General Ivanov's chief of staff sends a despondent message to Stavka this evening, stating that the army is shattered and the situation is hopeless, and the only option is a pell-mell retreat eastwards: Przemysl will have to be surrendered, the Germans will soon invade the Ukraine, and Kiev should be fortified. The chief of staff is promptly fired, but Stavka finally acknowledges reality and finally acquiesces today to General Dimitriev's repeated requests to retreat behind the San, 3rd Army is a mere shell of its former self. Of the 200 000 men it had on May 2nd, only 40 000 remain to retreat eastwards today, and this despite 3rd Army having received 50 000 replacements in the meantime. Further, the Germans have taken 140 000 prisoners, reflecting the shattered morale of the Russian infantry. Some of its formations have simply ceased to exist: IX Corps has suffered 80% casualties, while III Caucasus Corps, which was sent into the battle on May 4th to restore the situation, has instead lost 75% of its strength in the six days since.
The strategic implications of the crushing defeat suffered by 3rd Army also continue to spread. In order to maintain some semblance of coherent line on the Eastern Front, Stavka issues orders for the southern flank of 4th Army to pull back east almost to the confluence of the San and Vistula Rivers, while 8th Army in the Carpathians will have to retreat to the northeast and reorientate to face to the west instead of the south.
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| The German offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow, May 10th to 12th, 1915. |
- Though the Treaty of London had been signed on April 26th, details remained to be finalized regarding the nature of Italian co-operation with the Entente, and at sea Italy is in particular eager to secure substantial naval support in the Adriatic. Today in Paris a naval convention is signed between Britain, France, and Italy which calls for the creation of an allied fleet in the Adriatic under Italian command, to which the French would contribute twelve destroyers, a seaplane carrier, and a number of torpedo-boats and submarines, while the British pledged to dispatch four pre-dreadnoughts and four light cruisers. The British reinforcements in particular, however, are to be drawn from the fleet off the Dardanelles, and will not be sent to the Adriatic until they have been replaced by similar warships from France. This detail will be the source of friction between the allies once Italy formally enters the war.
- For Italian Prime Minister Salandra and Foreign Minister Sonnino, the driving force behind Italian intervention on the side of the Entente, the struggle now is to carry the rest of the Italian government with them into the war. This is no easy task, as many politicians do not share their passionate desire for intervention. Instead, a vague desire for neutrality is the most common sentiment, a position to which some within the Cabinet itself adhere to. Moreover, King Victor Emmanuel is unreliable; just yesterday he proclaimed to Salandra his uncertainty as to the right course of action for Italy and the possiblity of abdicating in favour of his uncle the Duke of Aosta. There is also the necessity of securing a majority in parliament for war, which is far from assured. Finally and perhaps of most concern to the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, there is an alternative political leader known to oppose intervention: Giovanni Giolitti, who has served as prime minister on no fewer than four occasions from 1892 to 1914. The possibility exists that if Salandra and Sonnino cannot carry either the cabinet or parliament in support of intervention, Giolitti may form a government pledged, at minimum, to strict neutrality, if not a pro-German attitude. Indeed, when German Ambassador Bülow browbeats the Austro-Hungarian ambassador today to agree to further concessions, he communicates the offer not to the goverment but to Giolitti; the Germans see Giolitti as the last chance to keep Italy out of the war.
For all of the difficulties that Salandra and Sonnino face, the forces opposed to intervention are not without their own problems. Giolitti is 73 years old, and both his grip on and influence in Italian politics is not what it once was. He also has little desire to form a government led by himself, fearing he would be branded as a lackey of Austria, and crucially communicates this belief to Victor Emmanuel in an interview this afternoon, which does much to calm the nerves of the king. Salandra and Giolitti also meet this afternoon, and the former sufficiently dissembles to leave the latter with the impression that he is not wholeheartedly committed to war. Still, it is possible that Giolitti may still instruct his supporters in parliament to vote against the war when it reconvenes on May 20th. The next ten days will thus determine not only whether Italy enters the war, but indeed the future course of Italian politics overall.
- Today Admiral de Robeck cables the Admiralty a proposal for a renewed naval attack on the Dardanelles. The suggestion originated in a meeting with Commodore Keyes, who remains a strong advocate of naval action, and is convinced that futher naval pressure can yet secure victory. Robeck is more doubtful, and his message reflects his continued pessimism. Even if a naval attack succeeds, 'the temper of the Turkish army in the peninsula indicates that the forcing of the Dardanelles and subsequent appearance of the fleet off Constantinople would not of itself prove decisive. These are hardly fighting words, but Keyes hopes that even a tepid proposal will inspire Churchill to order another attempt.
- Near the mouth of the Bosporus the Russian Black Sea Fleet makes another appearance to bombard the forts, and this time the recently-repaired ex-German battlecruiser Goeben makes a brief appearance. The Germans are dismayed to discover that the 12-inch guns of the outdated Russian pre-dreadnoughts can still fire farther than the 11-inch guns of Goeben. After the battlecruiser takes two glancing blows it uses its superior speed to break off the battle and return to the Sea of Marmara.
Friday, May 08, 2015
May 8th, 1915
- After several days of artillery bombardment by both sides, the German XXVII Corps launches an attack at 1030am this morning against the British 28th Division holding the eastern face of the Ypres salient. Though the Germans are able to get into the forward British trench, the attack grinds to a halt.
- It is during lunch today that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson is first informed of the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania yesterday afternoon. By evening the president knows that over a thousand lives have been lost, a number that includes over a hundred American citizens. The attack calls for a response from the American government, a burden that Wilson takes entirely as his own. This evening he slips out of the White House and walks along Pennsylvania Avenue alone in a light rain. For his entire adult life Wilson has been driven by a stern and absolute Presbyterian faith, one that has inspired his life of public service and is the foundation of his political creed. How the sinking of Lusitania fits with his moralistic view of the world is the question the American president now grapples with. Later this evening Wilson returns to the White House and retreats to his study, deep in thought.
- In a sharp attack today the German 11th Army seizes the heights between Besko and Frysztak just to the west of the Wislok River in Galicia, while to the north the German Guards Corps secures a bridgehead across the Wislok and to the south X Corps threatens to drive a gap between the Russian XXIV and XXI Corps. The loss of the high ground in particular deprives the Russian 3rd Army of its best defensive positions in the area, prompting General Dimitriev to once again request permission to withdraw his battered army behind the San River. Once again, however, Russian army headquarters refuses, despite the fact that the line they had ordered 3rd Army to hold is now in German hands. Dimitriev thus turns to the planned counterattack of XXI Corps as the only hope to relieve the pressure on his army, though the corps will not be in position to advance until tomorrow evening.
- This morning General Hamilton orders yet another attack towards Krithia on Cape Helles. The warships offshore have done their best to destroy the Ottoman defences, but in the roughed terrain it is practically impossible to precisely strike well-concealed positions; in one case, naval fire practically cut off the top of the cliff at Gully Spur, but the machine guns the bombardment was aiming for remained in place. This time it is the New Zealand Brigade that bears the brunt of the fighting, advancing against withering fire and suffering heavily. By early afternoon the attack had collapsed, but another is ordered at 4pm, in which the entire Entente line, spearheaded by 2nd Australian Brigade, was to fix bayonets and charge the enemy line. The attack, like the others before it, is a dismal failure, and by nightfall the survivors are ordered to entrench where they are.
Today's futile attacks are the last gasp of the 2nd Battle of Krithia. The Entente forces have suffered 6500 casualties over three days of fighting, and nowhere have advanced more than 500 yards, and Krithia remains out of reach. Tonight Hamilton cables Kitchener, begs for reinforcements, and offers his appraisal of the situation on the peninsula:
- It is during lunch today that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson is first informed of the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania yesterday afternoon. By evening the president knows that over a thousand lives have been lost, a number that includes over a hundred American citizens. The attack calls for a response from the American government, a burden that Wilson takes entirely as his own. This evening he slips out of the White House and walks along Pennsylvania Avenue alone in a light rain. For his entire adult life Wilson has been driven by a stern and absolute Presbyterian faith, one that has inspired his life of public service and is the foundation of his political creed. How the sinking of Lusitania fits with his moralistic view of the world is the question the American president now grapples with. Later this evening Wilson returns to the White House and retreats to his study, deep in thought.
- In a sharp attack today the German 11th Army seizes the heights between Besko and Frysztak just to the west of the Wislok River in Galicia, while to the north the German Guards Corps secures a bridgehead across the Wislok and to the south X Corps threatens to drive a gap between the Russian XXIV and XXI Corps. The loss of the high ground in particular deprives the Russian 3rd Army of its best defensive positions in the area, prompting General Dimitriev to once again request permission to withdraw his battered army behind the San River. Once again, however, Russian army headquarters refuses, despite the fact that the line they had ordered 3rd Army to hold is now in German hands. Dimitriev thus turns to the planned counterattack of XXI Corps as the only hope to relieve the pressure on his army, though the corps will not be in position to advance until tomorrow evening.
- This morning General Hamilton orders yet another attack towards Krithia on Cape Helles. The warships offshore have done their best to destroy the Ottoman defences, but in the roughed terrain it is practically impossible to precisely strike well-concealed positions; in one case, naval fire practically cut off the top of the cliff at Gully Spur, but the machine guns the bombardment was aiming for remained in place. This time it is the New Zealand Brigade that bears the brunt of the fighting, advancing against withering fire and suffering heavily. By early afternoon the attack had collapsed, but another is ordered at 4pm, in which the entire Entente line, spearheaded by 2nd Australian Brigade, was to fix bayonets and charge the enemy line. The attack, like the others before it, is a dismal failure, and by nightfall the survivors are ordered to entrench where they are.
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| The aftermath of the attack of 2nd Australian Brigade at the 2nd Battle of Krithia, May 8th, 1915. |
Today's futile attacks are the last gasp of the 2nd Battle of Krithia. The Entente forces have suffered 6500 casualties over three days of fighting, and nowhere have advanced more than 500 yards, and Krithia remains out of reach. Tonight Hamilton cables Kitchener, begs for reinforcements, and offers his appraisal of the situation on the peninsula:
The result of the operation has been failure, as my object remains unachieved. The fortifications and their machine-guns were too scientific and too strongly held to be rushed, although I had every available man today. Our troops have done all that flesh and blood can do against semi-permanent works and they are not able to carry them. More and more munitions will be needed to do so. I fear that this is a very unpalatable conclusion, but I can see no way out of it.
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