October 21st, 1915

- Despite the failure of the attack by the Guards Division on the 17th, General Haig of the British 1st Army remains confident that a more methodical approach will secure the ground on the northern flank of the Loos salient he deems essential to establish a good defensive position for his forces over the winter.  Among the tactics Haig implements is the digging of approach trenches as close to the German lines as possible, to minimize the time needed for the attacking infantry to cross No Man's Land.  This work cannot be rushed, however, and Haig does not believe his army will be ready to attack until November 7th.  Today Field Marshal French gives his approval to the proposed local attacks.

- Over the past week the remainder of the French 156th Division has arrived at the Strumica rail station, and in cooperation with Serb forces has repulsed an attack by elements of the Bulgarian 2nd Army.

- This morning the 3rd Battle of the Isonzo opens on the Italian Front as infantry assaults are undertaken by the Italian 2nd and 3rd Armies.  Given the lack of both surprise and sufficient munitions, to say nothing of the terrain, the Italian attacks get nowhere.  North of Plava the Italian 27th Division attempts to cross the Isonzo River at Loga and Ajba before dawn, hoping to catch the enemy by surprise.  The intention of the attackers had long since been betrayed by the noise of their assembly, and the crossing runs into a hail of fire and is shattered.  A second attempt after dusk makes use of a more substantial preliminary bombardment, but is no more successful.  South of Görz, 3rd Army assaults the Karst plateau at 10am.  Only along small sections of the front do Italian infantry manage to even reach the first enemy trench line, and these successes are soon erased by fierce Austro-Hungarian counterattacks.  Only on a two hundred yard stretch of the Austro-Hungarian line north of Mt dei sei Busi are the Italian attackers able to hold captured ground against enemy counterattacks.  By nightfall hundreds of Italian dead lay before Austro-Hungarian positions on Mt S Michelle.  After dark the Italian VII Corps attacks up the slope of Heights #121 east of Monfalcone, and after four failed attempts the fifth managed to reach the enemy trenches just before midnight.

The 3rd Battle of the Isonzo, Oct. 19th to Nov. 4th, 1915.

- Today British and French warships bombard the port of Dedeagach and other points on the Aegean coast of Bulgaria.

October 19th, 1915

- Today Conrad achieves one of the great objectives of the war, one that however has nothing to do with the battlefield; instead it is marriage to his longtime mistress, Gina von Reininghaus.  They first met in 1907, when Conrad had become hopelessly smitten with Gina, who was less than half his age.  That Gina was already married with six children was but a mere inconvenience to Conrad, and he urged her to divorce her husband even as the two became lovers.  Conrad believed that if were victorious in war, his prestige and prominence would sweep aside all obstacles to making Gina his wife.  The current war, of course, has seen an unending succession of debacles, exposing his abysmal strategic judgement and the incompetence of the Austro-Hungarian army - the only victories he has achieved have occurred either due to Italian ineptitude (Cadorna is one of the few who legitimately rivals the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff in stubborness and detachment from the realities of war) or through German leadership.  What he has been unable to accomplish through battlefield glory has been accomplished through legal trickery: having divorced her husband, she has converted to Protestantism through a sham adoption by a sympathetic general, allowing her to skirt the Catholic Church's restrictions on divorce and remarriage.  Today's union legitimizes a relationship that Conrad and Gina had carried on openly and become the subject of mockery in Viennese social circles.  Unfortunately for the suffering Austro-Hungarian army, marital bliss does not confer martial ability on Conrad.

- In Serbia, on the western flank of the German XXII Reserve Corps the advance of 26th Division brings it into contact with the Austro-Hungarian 53rd Division of XIX Corps, held short of Obrenovac since its initial crossing of the Save River.  The arriving Germans turn the flank of the Serbian defenders, who pull back and allow the trapped Austro-Hungarians to finally break out.  To the east, the German 105th Division of IV Reserve Corps breaks through Serbian positions in the hills east of Lucić, suffering heavy casualties to overcome the fierce enemy resistance.  Meanwhile, however, the Germans score a coup when 232rd Reserve Regiment of 107th Division captures a Serbian patrol and an engineer detachment with orders to destroy the railway bridge over the Mlava River to the south.  Intelligence gleaned from the prisoners allow the Germans to capture the bridge intact, which will aid further advances.  To the south, while the Bulgarian 1st Army continues to be held up in the mountain passes east of Niš, to the south the Bulgarian 2nd Army has made much more progress, and today reaches the Vardar River at Veleš and cuts the railway linking Niš and Salonika.

- Both Russia and Italy formally declare war on Bulgaria today.

- The Serbian government has been pressuring General Sarrail to move his forces north from Salonika and concentrate them at Niš, to oppose the Bulgarians attacking from the east.  Sarrail knows that such a movement is impossible with the forces at his disposal, but recognizes that a gesture (beyond the deployment at the Strumica rail station) is needed.  As a result, he orders an infantry regiment and artillery battery, newly arrived at Salonika and from the French 57th Division, to move north to Krivolak, on the Salonika-Skopje railway thirty kilometres north of the Strumica rail station and south of Veleš.

The French advance from Salonika, October 1915.

- The Italian preliminary artillery bombardment along the lower Isonzo River is joined today by Italian aircraft, which this morning strike the Austro-Hungarian airbase at Aisovizza and begin airstrikes on marching columns and railway stations.  These raids are largely unopposed, as the Austro-Hungarian aircraft on the Italian Front are primarily designed for reconnaissance, not aerial combat.

- The government of Japan adheres to the Pact of London today, which had originally been signed on September 5th, 1914 by Russia, France, and Britain and by which they had pledged not to sign a separate peace with Germany.  Japan's agreement to remain in the war until the end does not, however, signal an expansion of the Japanese contribution to the war effort of the Entente.  Instead, the Japanese government hopes that adhering to the pact will secure it a seat at the peace conference at the end of the war and allow Japanese negotiators to secure the permanent transfer of captured German colonies in Asia and the Pacific to Japan.

October 16th, 1915

- In Serbia a further advance by the German 44th Reserve Division and the Austro-Hungarian 59th Division of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army secure today the northern face of the Avala Hills, the main Serbian defensive line south of Belgrade.

- The French government formally declares war on Bulgaria today.

October 15th, 1915

- Field Marshal Sir John French learns that Joffre has called off the French offensives in Artois and Champagne, which invalidates the strategic premise of the British offensive at Loos.  This, in conjunction with the failure of the attack of the 13th to secure significant gains, compels the commander of the BEF to call off the offensive in Flanders.  Henceforth, the British 1st Army will limit itself strictly to those operations essential to seize ground to protect itself from German counterattacks against the ground captured on the 13th.

Since September 25th the British 1st Army has suffered approximately 50 000 casualties, including almost 16 000 dead, while pushing forward between 800 and 2500 yards on a 6000 yard stretch of the German line north and south of the village of Loos.  As with the French in Champagne, most of this ground was seized in the first hours of the attack on the morning of the 25th, and again in common with the French the British proved unable to sustain the initial momentum and subsequent attacks proved increasingly futile.  In the case of Loos, the failures from the afternoon of the 25th onward have been ascribed by Haig and his supporters as primarily the responsibility of Field Marshal's French's mishandling of the reserves, a dispute that continues to fester in the upper ranks of the British army.  The battle has also proven to be a bitter introduction to the divisions of Kitchener's 'New Armies' to combat on the Western Front, the attack of 21st and 24th Divisions, though driven home with great courage, was an abysmal failure, gaining no ground at the cost of several thousand casualties.  They will not be the only divisions of the 'New Armies' to have such a deadly debut on the Western Front.

- With Bulgaria's entry into the war on the side of Germany with its invasion of Serbia, Great Britain and Montenegro formally declare war on Bulgaria today.

- Today Austen Chamberlain, Secretary of State for India, informs Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, that the Cabinet is discussing the withdrawal of the two divisions of Indian Expeditionary Force A from France and dispatching them to Mesopotamia.  This redeployment has two purposes: (1) to facilitate the capture of Baghdad; and (2) to secure the region if an Entente withdrawal from the Dardanelles allows the Ottomans to redeploy divisions there to Mesopotamia.

October 14th, 1915

- Overnight five German Zeppelins undertake a bombing raid on London.  While L11 turned back near the English coast after coming under fire, dropping his bombload on several small villages, and L16 strikes the town of Hertford, twenty miles north of London, the three others all manage to hit the British capital.  Most notably, L15, watched by members of Parliament who had been debating an emergency taxation measure, drops its bombs from Charing Cross to the Bank of England, with the second bomb exploding in Wellington Street and killing seventeen, the greatest number of deaths caused by a single bomb in a raid to date.  L13, meanwhile, targets pumping and power stations at Hampton as well as Woolwich Arsenal, and L14, after a lengthy diversion to Hythe on the Kent coast where it dropped nine bombs on an army encampment and killed fifteen soldiers, struck the suburb of Croydon where a number of homes were damaged or destroyed.  Though the Zeppelins had trouble with fog on the return voyage, all return safely (though L15 landed three miles short of Nordholz, necessitating repairs).  This raid is one of the deadliest of the war, with 71 killed and 128 injured, including 38 killed and 87 injured in London itself.

- The Kossava continues unabated in Serbia today, and the only craft able to cross the swollen Save and Danube Rivers are boats with motors or steam engines, of which only two are available to transport supply for the entire German III and X Reserve Corps.  For the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the south banks of the rivers, supply problems continue.

South of Belgrade further attacks by the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps succeed in pushing the Serbians back from their forward positions, and elements of the German 43rd and 44th Reserve Divisions advance on either side of the railway running towards Ripanj.  On the front of the German 11th Army, after reconnaissance patrols yesterday established that the Serbs had evacuated Požarevac, the German 3rd Bavarian Regiment occupies the town today.

Meanwhile the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies begin their advance today.  Given that the former is clearly aimed directly at Niš, the Serbs have deployed strong forces, totalling five infantry divisions and one cavalry division, to contain the Bulgarian advance in the mountain passes east of the city.  Given the strong resistance, coupled with the continuing bad weather, the Bulgarian 1st Army makes no progress today.  However, given the continued pressure the Serbs are under on all fronts, they are incapable of being strong everywhere, and only small forces can be spared to hold back the Bulgarian 2nd Army.

The deployment of the Bulgarian 1st and 2nd Armies and the Serbian forces assigned to
contain them, Oct. 14th, 1915.

- French forces begin to arrive at Strumica Station today, where they join seven Serbian battalions.  Given their proximity to the Bulgarian frontier here, however, they quickly come under Bulgarian artillery fire.

October 13th, 1915

- At noon today British artillery commence a preliminary bombardment of a six-thousand-yard stretch of the German line north of Loos, the target of today's attack.  Most of the fire is concentrated on German trenches, machine-gun posts, and barbed wire, though 114 guns concentrate on German artillery positions identified by aerial reconnaissance over the past several days.  The lengthy preparation has also allowed the British to move up and deploy gas cylinders, which are opened at 150pm.  The wind carries the gas in the desired direction along the entire line except at the north, where the wind direction would have pushed the gas down the British trenches instead of across No Man's Land.  Ten minutes later at 2pm, whistles sound and four divisions of the British 1st Army go on to the attack.  To the north, 2nd Division of I Corps advances north of the Hohenzollern Redoubt against a trench known as Little Willie, while 46th Division of XI Corps, fresh after being redeployed from the Ypres salient, assaults the German redoubt itself.  IV Corp's other division - 12th - is to seize The Quarries to the south of the redoubt, while 1st Division of IV Corps moves against a stretch of the German line on the Lens-La Bassée road.

The British attack north of Loos, October 13th, 1915.

The gas, however, did not have a noticeable effect on the German defenders other than to warn them that an attack was imminent.  Moreover, the preliminary bombardment had not succeeded in knocking out the German artillery, which open fire on the British infantry in the open as they cross No Man's Land.  As a result, the British suffer heavy casualties before they even reach the German line.  On the northern flank, only one officer, a Lieutenant Abercrombie, and one soldier actually make it into the Little Willie trench, and when Abercrombie sends the other soldier back to ask for support, the latter is wounded and the message never arrives.  On his own, Abercrombie wages what amounts to his own private war against the Germans, putting a machine-gun post out of action with his grenades.  With no bombs remaining, Abercrombie manages to return to British lines unscathed, his success notable for its audacity but otherwise without significance on the larger battle.  To the south, 138th Brigade of 46th Division advances over ground partially sheltered from German view, and are able to break into the Hohenzollern Redoubt.  Efforts to secure Fosse Trench beyond, however, fail as the division's other brigade - 137th - fails to get into the Big Willie trench, leaving the forward elements of 138th Brigade exposed to flanking fire.  Further south, 35th Brigade of 12th Division gains a foothold in the southeast corner of The Quarries while elements of 37th Brigade seize 250 yards of Gun Trench, and both brigades are able to hold off German counterattacks.  On the other hand, the attack of 1st Division is an abysmal failure - artillery fire fails to break the German wire, and the attacking infantry, trying to work their way through the few gaps in the wire, come under withering fire and take heavy losses.

British artillery bombards the Hohenzollern  Redoubt as gas drifts towards the German lines, October 13th, 1915.

Overall the British attack has achieved certain tactical successes, capturing and holding toeholds in the German line from the Hohenzollern Redoubt to Gun Trench.  However, these positions remain precarious and further attacks will be needed simply to consolidate the British gain, to say nothing of driving beyond the German lines attacked today.  The four British divisions, meanwhile, have taken significant losses, and the commander of XI Corps decides that 46th Division suffered sufficient casualties as to necessitate its withdrawal from the line, and this evening he orders the Guard Division back to the front in its place.

- To the south near Vimy Ridge, the German Guard Corps, after a series of counterattacks, manages to retake the trenches at the Five Crossroads west of Givenchy today.  Meanwhile, meeting with Joffre today, Foch argues for a resumption of the attack, given that 'only a bound' can gain the crest of Vimy Ridge.  He argues that the attack of the 11th had broken down due to insufficient artillery support - the heavy artillery of 10th Army had fired 73 000 shells prior to the September 25th assault as compared to only 21 600 shells prior to the 11th.  Joffre, however, replies that he does not have the ammunition to give, and moreover that the most recent failure has shown that 10th Army does not have the ability to make another big push.  Joffre thus instructs Foch to halt further major assaults, only attacking to consolidate the gains won west of Vimy of Ridge over the past three weeks.

- Joffre's order to Foch effectively brings the French fall offensive to a close, given that the French commander-in-chief had halted operations in Champagne on the 7th.  The French have gained ground in both Champagne and Artois - up to four kilometres in the former and up to two kilometres in the latter.  However, the ground seized confers no great strategic advantage, and is a far cry from both Joffre's objectives and the possibilities that appeared to exist in the first days of the attack.  Especially in Champagne, the initial French attack broke through the main German defensive position, driving several kilometres in a matter of hours while inflicting heavy losses on the defenders.  The failure to follow up this success and push through the reserve German line after the 25th highlights once again that the true tactical difficulty on the Western Front is not the initial attack but the follow up; that poor communication, delays in reserve forces moving forward over broken ground, and difficulties in coordinating artillery fire in a fluid engagement all combine to impair subsequent assaults.  In both regions the French had fired almost 4.4 million light and over 800 000 thousand heavy artillery shells, but only on the first day, when they had been firing on German defences that were well-known and whose position had been precisely known, had the bombardment had a decisive effect.  In the following days, when the artillery was firing on unfamiliar, and in some cases unknown, German positions, the bombardment had been much less effective.  It points to the necessity of accurate knowledge of enemy defences and where artillery fire is needed during battle, but the delays in communicating by foot across the former No Man's Land renders this exceedingly difficult.  Overall, the small French gains in Champagne and Artois had come at the cost of just over 190 000 casualties, including 30 000 dead, 110 000 wounded, and 50 000 missing in action.

On the German side, 6th Army in Artois lost just over 50 000 while the casualties of 3rd and 5th Armies in Champagne numbered just over 80 000.  The battle had a notable impact on Falkenhayn; in the first days of the fighting, as the battle hung in the balance and French breakthrough appeared possible, he was acutely aware of how he had stripped the Western Front of reserves for his earlier campaign in Russia and the ongoing operation against Serbia.  When Lieutenant-Colonel Gerhard Tappen, OHL's operations officer, met Falkenhayn on the 27th, he found the German chief of staff 'very dejected'.  However, as the German armies have held on over the next three weeks, Falkenhayn draws different conclusions from the course of the fighting.  Despite Entente superiority in manpower and material, the achievement of operational surprise, and the reduction of German reserves, the British and French had been unable to break through the German lines.  It confirms Falkenhayn's emphasis on the importance of constructing multiple trench lines to contain enemy assaults.  More importantly, Falkenhayn concludes that if an attacking can not achieve a breakthough in such propitious circumstances, a breakthrough is not a realistic possibility given the conditions of the war on the Western Front.  This informs not only Falkenhayn's defensive outlook; instead of attempting to break through Entente lines in the future, another strategic objective will have to inform future German offensives.  Moreover, the failure of the French fall offensive serves to reinforce Falkenhayn's poor opinion of the French army, believing it to be approaching the end of its strength.  These two threads, comprising the key lessons Falkenhayn takes from the fall fighting in Champagne and Artois, will figure decisively in the course of the fighting in 1916.

- In Serbia the storm portented in yesterday's weather has engulfed the region.  It is a Kossava, an autumnal weather sytem that comes up from the southeast, bringing heavy rains and high winds.  Though the storm had been expected, its intensity takes the Germans by surprise.  On the Danube and Save Rivers waves reach six feet high and more, and parts of the islands on the rivers flood.  By the end of the day the raging torrents have destroyed or rendered unusable all of the bridges that German and Austro-Hungarian engineers built across the rivers since the offensive began.  This effectively cuts the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the southern banks off from their supplies and heavy artillery on the northern bank.  Further, the heavy rains turn the dirt roads of the region into impassible mud.  The conditions makes a pause in the offensive to resupply and await better conditions an obvious option, and General Gallwitz of the German 11th Army argues for precisely this course of action.  Mackensen and Seeckt, however, speed is of the utmost priority to prevent the Entente forces recently landed at Salonika from moving north and reinforcing the Serbian army before it can be defeated in battle.  Moreover, despite the successes to date the bridgeheads of the two armies are still almost twenty miles apart, and creating a continuous front will put more pressure on the Serbs.

On the ground, the next objective of the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army are the Avala Hills, but when they advance today they encounter well-developed defensive positions manned by the Serbian 1st Timok, 2nd Timok, and 1st Morava Divisions.  In the poor weather and advancing over difficult terrain, the attackers make minimal progress.  To the west, additional attacks by the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps failed to secure significant gains yesterday, and today Mackensen orders the corps to leave only enough soldiers to hold the bridgeheads and redeploy the rest east to cross the Save River at Big Zigeuner Island where it can take its intended position on the western wing of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army.  On the front of the German 3rd Army, despite Gallwitz's reservations, the German 107th Division attacks east of Požarevac, fighting its way through a Serbian defensive line at Kalidol, while X Reserve Corps seizes the high ground at Lipovac.

Meanwhile, the Bulgarian government formally severs diplomatic relations with Serbia today, a prelude to the planned invasion of the country tomorrow.  General Zhekov, chief of the Bulgarian general staff, has deployed two armies - 1st and 2nd - along the country's western frontier with Serbia.  To the north, 1st Army, consisting of 6th, 8th, 9th, and 1st Divisions, is deployed east of its ultimate objective, the de facto Serbian capital at Niš.  To the south, 2nd Army, with 3rd and 7th Divisions, is push westwards into the Vardar River valley and sever the railway linking Niš and Salonika, thus preventing the rapid movement of Entente forces at the latter into Serbia.

October 10th, 1915

- In reaction to the Bulgarian entry into the war, the Russian Black Seas Fleet bombards the Bulgarian ports of Varna and Evxinograd, encountering no opposition.

- In two days of heavy fighting the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps remains pinned on the southern shore of the Save River, and due to heavy losses 205th Landsturm Brigade has been relieved south of Boljevci by 21st Landsturm Mountain Brigade.  To the east, the German XXII Reserve Corps and the Austro-Hungarian VIII Corps push out from Belgrade, the former taking the heights at Dedinje and the latter capturing the Vk. Vračar ridge.

Meanwhile General Nikola Zhekov, chief of the Bulgarian General Staff, informs Mackensen today that the offensive of his army, scheduled to begin tomorrow, will be delayed until the 14th.  There is also an entirely predictable spat between the German and Austro-Hungarian high commands today.  After Mackensen yesterday signalled that German and Austro-Hungarian forces had captured Belgrade, both had issued communiques crediting only their soldiers with the success.  Mackensen is quite annoyed at the conflicting stories published by the two high commands, and his operations staff can only explain that both sides had specific victories in the Belgrade fighting that they accomplished on their own - capturing the Konak by the Germans and the Kalemegdan by the Austro-Hungarians.

October 5th, 1915

- Overnight a reconstituted British XI Corps, with 12th and 46th Divisions (the former a New Army formation and the latter a Territorial unit; both had formerly been in the Ypres salient) replacing the shattered 21st and 24th alongside the Guards Division, has been reinserted into the frontline opposite the Hohenzollern Redoubt.  Haig believes that the ground lost here over the past week must be recaptured prior to any further advance eastward, and thus has ordered the Guards Division to recapture the Redoubt and 12th Division to seize The Quarries.  All of the artillery belonging to the British 1st Army will support this attack, which will also be accompanied by the release of chlorine gas from 480 cylinders.  Such a maximum effort, however, takes time to prepare for, especially with respect to the deployment of the drums of gas, and as such Haig has scheduled this assault to take place on October 9th, with the subsequent attack eastward scheduled for the following.  News of the delay, however, is disappointing to Joffre, who had hoped that the British attack at Loos would coincide with the renewed French assaults in Artois and Champagne, and despite a visit by Foch to Sir John French's headquarters the British refuse to be rushed.  Though terrible weather has postponed the attack in Artois, the preliminary bombardment in Champagne has already begun, and Joffre feels he has no choice but to abandon the concept of simultaneous assaults, ordering the French 2nd and 4th Armies to attack tomorrow as scheduled.

- With the growing French artillery bombardment, it has become clear to the German defenders in Champagne that the enemy is preparing to make another big push to break through their line.  General Einem of 3rd Army reports to Falkenhayn today that sufficient reserves are now available to halt any French assault in the coming days, though if the French attack for more than several days further reinforcements may be necessary.  Further, given that the reserve line German troops now inhabit was not as well-developed as the old first trench line, French artillery fire is having a particularly severe effect on soldiers who lack dugouts to shelter in.  Moreover, while the placement of much of the reserve line on the reverse side of various hills prevent the French from observing the fall of their shells, it also prevents the Germans from observing French preparations to attack.

- Joffre and Kitchener meet at Calais to discuss the expedition to Salonika and operations in the Balkans.  In addition to the infantry division and cavalry regiment already en route, Joffre has agreed to send an infantry brigade shortly and an infantry and two cavalry divisions once the fall offensive in Champagne is concluded.  The current French commitment to the operations thus stands at 64 000 men.  During today's meeting Kitchener promises to augment the British division on the way to Salonika with an infantry and cavalry division, while agreeing to send a further three infantry divisions when the Champagne battle is over.  Notably, these forces will come up about 20 000 short of the 150 000 requested by Venizelos, but when Joffre asks Kitchener to make up the difference, the latter states that this could only be accomplished by withdrawing further divisions from the British Expeditionary Force in France (from which the three infantry divisions mentioned above are to be taken).  Moreover, Kitchener remains unconvinced of the soundness of intervention in the Balkans.  The idea of sending forces into Serbia with winter imminent does not strike him as sound, and believes that even if the Entente force is augmented to 150 000 men it will not be sufficient to alter the balance of forces in the Balkans without Greek intervention.  Kitchener informs Joffre that the British contingent will not advance beyond Salonika unless the Greeks enter the war.  As a result, the two agree that the British will be responsible for defending Salonika itself while the French would undertake an advance northward to aid the Serbs.

- Though yesterday both the British and French governments had signaled their concurrence with the Russian ultimatum of the 1st, the Bulgarian government formally rejects the ultimatum today, unwilling to be dissuaded from entering the war.  The Entente interprets the rejection as the last straw, and instructions go out to the Entente ambassadors in Sofia to leave the country.

Meanwhile the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive against Serbia is about to begin - artillery today fires registration shots, aircraft tracking the fall of shells, so that when the main bombardment opens the Germans can be reasonably sure their shells are falling on the targets they intend to target.  On the other side the Serbian army has been preparing for the imminent attack, and General Radomir Putnik has deployed the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies to defend the line of the Save and Danube Rivers.  After repulsing three separate Austro-Hungarian attempts to conquer Serbia in 1914, both Putnik and the Serbian soldier have earned well-deserved reputations for toughness and tenacity.  However, the Serbian army of late 1915 is not the same as that of late 1914.  First, a series of epidemics had decimated Serbia earlier this year, striking down thousands and crippling many more.  The army was not immune, and disease has thinned its ranks.  Second, the mobilization of 1914 had drafted almost every able-bodied male into the army, and while this contributed to victory in 1914 it means that there are practically no replacements for the 120 000 casualties the Serbians have suffered in the war to date.  Quite literally, this is the last Serbian army - should it be defeated, it would be impossible to raise another.  Third, the supply situation has worsened.  Prewar ammunition stocks, already low from the two Balkan wars, had been largely depleted by the fighting in 1914, and while the minimal Serbian armaments industry has proved wholely inadequate to the demands of modern war, supplies from France, while vital, can hardly make up the shortfall.  The Serbians thus face a severe shortage of weaponry and munitions at the moment they are needed most.  Fourth, the obvious agreement of Bulgaria to enter the war means that the Serbs cannot deploy their entire army to face the Germans and Austro-Hungarians attacking from the north; instead, 2nd Army and smaller forces have to be deployed along the eastern frontier to prevent a Bulgarian offensive from cutting behind the Serbian forces to the north.  Finally, Putnik himself is ill, suffering from influenza, and his role in directing the Serbian army is necessarily reduced.  Thus the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive will face a Serbian army in significantly more dire straits than it had been in 1914, which should be kept in mind when comparing the results of the 1915 campaign with that of 1914.

- Despite the vote in parliament yesterday, significant domestic opposition in Greece remains to the policy of the government: the idea of foreign troops arriving unimpeded at Salonika is seen as a gross affront of Greek sovereignty by the opposition press, which over the past few days has been giving vent to its frustrations.  Further, the leadership of the Greek army is opposed to intervention in the war.  Most importantly, Venizelos has been entirely unable to assuage the concerns of King Constantine regarding Greek entry into the war.  Unwilling to accede any longer to Venizelo's pro-Entente policy, he dismisses Venizelos as Prime Minister, and appoints as his replacement Alexandros Zaimis, an adherent of Constantine's policy of strict neutrality.  In choosing this course of action, Constantine has set the course of Greek politics on a fateful path to what will become known as the 'Great Schism' - Venizelos has no intention of going quietly into retirement.

Regardless of the dismissal of the Greek government, the Entente landing at Salonika begins today as the first elements of two brigades and an artillery battalion from the French 156th Division start to disembark.

French infantry at Salonika, October 1915.

- After yesterday's order dispatching the Ottoman XVIII Corps to Baghdad, Enver Pasha orders the formation of a new 6th Army to take command of all Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia.  His hope is that a unified command for the region with new leadership will stabilize the front and keep the British away from Baghdad.  To command 6th Army Enver assigned German Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz, currently in command of 1st Army in Thrace.  Goltz's responsibilities, however, go beyond Mesopotamia: 6th Army includes Persia within its zone of operations.  His appointment meets the request of the Persian government for a senior German officer to be made responsible for Persia, and in addition to meeting the British advance in Mesopotamia Goltz is to win Persia to the side of the Germans, ideally to open the way to a land attack on India.

It will, however, take a number of weeks for the elderly Goltz to reach Baghdad, given the poor transportation system, and in the meantime command of 6th Army will reside in Colonel Nur-ud-din, who has led Ottoman forces in the region since mid-June.  Despite the record of defeat, Nur-ud-din is an experienced officer with lengthy service in the Ottoman army, and his defensive efforts have largely been let down by poor morale.  With reinforcements en route, however, Nur-ud-din hopes to be able to hold the British at Ctesiphon.

October 1st, 1915

- Overnight the portion of the British Guards Division still in the line digs a new trench east of Loos parallel to the Lens-La Bassée road, from which the planned renewal of the offensive is to be launched.  Having completed the trench, Guards Division is relieved by the French IX Corps this morning and joins 3rd Guards Brigade in reserve.  Haig intends to use the Guards Division to retake the ground lost at the Dump and Fosse 8 over the past several days of severe fighting, but feels this attack must occur before the main offensive is renewed; otherwise, German forces here will be able to fire into the northern flank of the advancing British infantry.  As the Guards will not be in position to attack before October 4th, Haig, with the support of Field Marshal French, insists that the Anglo-French offensive be postponed several more days.  Unable to compel the British to attack earlier, Foch has no choice but to delay the attack of the French 10th Army until October 6th.

- Given the clear intentions of Bulgaria to enter the war on the side of the Germans, the Russian ambassador presents an ultimatum to the Bulgarian government today, requiring the dismissal of German officers and a formal commitment to neutrality.

- The Russian Black Seas Fleet bombards the Ottoman ports of Kozlu, Zonguldak, and Eregli, an operation that sees the first sortie by the newly-completed dreadnought Imperatrista Maria II.  Armed with twelve 12-inch guns, protected by a 12-inch armor belt, and capable of 23 knots, it more than balances the presence of the German battlecruiser Goeben in the Black Sea, and allows the Russians to undertake more aggressive operations.

- At 4pm the lead elements of the Ottoman 35th Division, retreating after defeat at the First Battle of Kut-al-Amara on September 28th, reach the ruins of the ancient city of Ctesiphon, fifteen miles south of Baghdad.  It is here that Colonel Nur-ur-din intends to make the next stand against the British advance up the Tigris River, and 35th Division is ordered to begin construction of an elaborate trench system.

- After receiving approval from Kabul, the German mission to Afghanistan was permitted to depart Herat and today arrives at the capital after a journey taking over a year.  Here, too, however, the Germans are kept at arms' length - they are not permitted to enter Kabul and their movement is limited.  Afghanistan is been under the indirect control of Britain, after the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 assigned the country to the British sphere of influence.  The primary aim of Emir Habibullah is to lessen the influence of Britain in his country and restore a degree of independence, and it is through this lens that he views the German mission - they are seen as a potentially useful tool to win concessions from the British.  He has no interest in the Germans, or indeed the wider war, beyond the extent to which he can manipulate the situation to his own advantage.  This does not preclude throwing his lot in with the Germans, but it does require keeping them at arms length at present to avoid an excessive commitment.  Indeed, the British, having learned months before of the German mission, have already contacted Habibullah with assurances of friendship and protection.  The German mission thus finds themselves as just one piece in the Great Game for control of the Northwest Frontier of India, a game which began long before their arrival and will continue long after the present war has passed.

September 21st, 1915

- At 7am British artillery begin their preliminary bombardment of the German lines that are to be assaulted on the 25th.  While heavy guns and howitzers concentrate on shelling fixed defences, lighter field artillery targets German wire.  Each battery of field artillery (of four to six guns) is assigned 150 shells per day, and is responsible for cutting 600 yards of German wire.  Despite the concentration of field artillery, it is still not enough to guarantee that suitable paths are cut through the wire - belts of wire are from ten yards to twenty yards deep, and some are situated under cover from direct observation, making it impossible to know before the infantry attack whether the wire has been successfully cut.  Further, even if all shells hit on target it would not be enough to clear all the wire, as a number of the shells are duds.  Finally, the wire belts before the German reserve trench line are beyond the reach of the field artillery, and though howitzers are assigned to the task the dust clouds kicked up by the bombardment make long-range observation of its effectiveness problematic.

- With French artillery continuing to heavily bombard German positions on both sides of Arras, the headquarters of the German 6th Army concludes this morning 'that a major French attempt at a breakthrough seemed to be imminent.'

Meanwhile, Falkenhayn and Wilhelm II depart OHL headquarters at Pless in Silesia for the Western Front, where they will visit the various army headquarters for inspections and assessments of their situation.  This visit is not, however, the result of growing signs of a major Entente offensive on the Western Front - indeed, Falkenhayn himself believes that the artillery bombardments are mere demonstrations, designed to draw German forces from the Eastern Front.  He has concluded that if the French in particular did not attack over the summer months to aid their Russian ally when the crisis on the Eastern Front was at its greatest, they were unlikely to attack now that operations in the east are winding down.

- In June 1913 Greece and Serbia had concluded a military convention whereby each would support the other if attacked by a third party, though only if Serbia deployed 150 000 men to Greece's Macedonian frontier, and it was the absence of these forces that provided justification for Greek neutrality in August 1914.  As the French government contemplates action in the Balkans to aid their Serbian allies, they hope that Greece may yet be convinced to enter the war on the side of the Entente.  However, if Serbia was unable to deploy 150 000 to its border with Greece at the outbreak of war, it can hardly be expected to do so now when it is about to face invasion from the north and east.  Today Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos informs the French and British governments that King Constantine has concluded that the Serbs will not fulfill their obligations under the convention, and as a result the Greeks will remain neutral.  Venizelos, given his strong pro-Entente sentiments, does not leave matters there, and offers a very tempting alternative - if the French and British provide 150 000 soldiers instead, his government will consider the Serbian requirement completed, and that Greece will thus enter the war on the terms of the convention.

- According to the Bulgarian constitution the approval of parliament was required before war could be declared.  However, Prime Minister Radoslavov and King Ferdinand are reluctant to formally recall parliament lest the opposition succeed in defeating a vote for war.  Instead, Radoslavov convenes an informal meeting of parliamentary deputies in Sofia today, where he explains that the time is right for Bulgaria to recover the lands lost in 1913, and that this can only be done by allying with Germany and Austria-Hungary.  Despite some dissent, the deputies agree with Radoslavov's argument, and the path to war is clear.  Afterwards the Bulgarian government announces mobilization, and 800 000 men report for induction into the army.

September 20th, 1915

- In Champagne General Pétain issues final orders for the attack of his 2nd Army, which comprises the eastern wing of the major offensive planned for the 25th.  From west of Perthes to east of Massiges, he has deployed four infantry corps totaling nine divisions, with a further four infantry divisions and a cavalry corps in reserve.  To the west, General de Langle of 4th Army has similarly placed four infantry corps in the first line, with four infantry divisions and a cavalry corps in reserve as well.  The focal point of the assault will be the inner wings of the two armies, while beyond the outer wings supporting attacks will be undertaken by 3rd and 5th Armies.  The offensive will be supported by 2164 artillery pieces, including 728 heavy guns, which will commence a preliminary bombardment on the 22nd.  The reserve divisions of 2nd and 4th Armies are to be used to maintain the momentum of the offensive in order to fight a continuous battle that will wear through the Germans.  In expectation of rupturing the enemy front, French cavalry have undergone training in crossing trenches and battered terrain, and special platoons on foot have been formed to clear obstacles ahead of the cavalry.

The Entente plan for the 1915 fall offensive on the Western Front.

- The French military attaché in Bulgaria informs Paris today that news has reached him that the Bulgarian government has ordered cavalry regiments to the frontier with Serbia and intends to proclaim a general mobilization tomorrow.  It is the clearest evidence yet of an imminent offensive against Serbia.

September 17th, 1915

- General Alexeiev of West Front concludes today that even with the formation of 2nd Army east of the Sventsiany gap, Vilna can no longer be held in the face of the threat of the German offensive cutting the line of retreat of the city's defenders.  Orders are thus issued for 10th Army to withdraw from the city eastwards.

- At dawn elements of the Russian XXXIX Corps, advancing from the confluence of the Putilowka and Stubiel Rivers, crash into the Austro-Hungarian 62nd Division.  Already battered after severals days of combat, and with its southern flank uncovered by the retreat of 24th Division, 62nd Division quickly breaks, and its shattered remnants can only retreat westward as fast as possible.  Further north, Russian cavalry break through the Austro-Hungarian cavalry corps under General Berndt at Zurawicze and Karpilowka while the Russian IV Cavalry Corps pushes back the Austro-Hungarian 1st Cavalry Division.  By late morning the retreat of the Austro-Hungarian cavalry has uncovered the northern flank of 4th Army, and there are no more reserves immediately available to restore the situation.  The commander of 4th Army concludes that there is no alternative to a large-scale retreat to put space between his forces and the Russians and give time for his infantry to rest and recover - 4th Army has suffered 50 000 casualties since the beginning of the offensive towards Rovno a month ago.  Conrad reluctantly agrees with this assessment, and orders are issued for 4th Army to retreat all the way to the Sytr River, which also compels the northern wing of 1st Army to fall back on the Ikwa River.  After dark the exhausted Austro-Hungarian forces disengage from the Russians and begin their retreat, and the retreat begins after dark.

The collapse of 4th Army also compels Conrad to once again ask Falkenhayn for aid.  To the north of 4th Army, the German Army of the Bug has continued its successful advance, capturing Pinsk yesterday.  Conrad proposes that a significant portion of the Army of the Bug be diverted to the southeast to fall upon the northern flank of the now-advancing Russian 8th Army.  Falkenhayn agrees, but insists that the operation be placed under a German commander.  In no place to resist the suggestion, Conrad concurs, and General Linsingen, commander of the Army of the Bug, is made head of an army group that is to consist of the German XXIV Reserve Corps and the German 5th Cavalry Division from the Army of the Bug as well as the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army and the two Austro-Hungarian cavalry corps operating between the two armies.

- In Bulgaria opposition leaders secure an audience with King Ferdinand where they demand the recall of the Bulgarian parliament to debate entry into the war and warn the monarch that the Bulgarian people will not tolerate going to war with Russia.  Ferdinand, however, is not to be dissuaded from his chosen course of action, and merely promises to relay their concerns to Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov.

September 6th, 1915

- In writing to Generals Rawlinson (of IV Corps) and Gough (of I Corps) today about their roles in the forthcoming offensive in France, Haig does not hold back in explaining why the attack will be undertaken: they had been 'forced . . . to abandon their defensive attitude' by the 'losses incurred by the Russians.'  Not exactly a rousing call to arms.

- On the Eastern Front, the northern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army pushes through the Russian position at Podkamien, and forces the southern wing of the Russian 8th Army to fall back to the Ikwa River.  As this advance is occurring, the Russians undertake their first major counteroffensive to the south today when elements of the Russian XI Corps advance this afternoon out of bridgeheads they had maintained on the west bank of the Sereth River just west of Trombowla.  The advance strikes the inner wings of Südarmee (to the north) and the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army at a moment when the attention of their commanders are on attacks about to be launched elsewhere.  On the southern wing of Südarmee, the Russians are able to push into the poorly-constructed defences of the Austro-Hungarian 55th Division, and counterattacks by the corps' reserve are unable to restore the situation.  Just to the south the Russians are able to break through between the Austro-Hungarian 131st Brigade and 7th Division at Janow.

The Russian counteroffensive along the Sereth River, Sept. 6th to 8th, 1915.

- With the approval of his government, Lieutenant-Colonel Ganchev signs the military convention at Pless by which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria agree to a five-year defensive treaty and the latter pledges to enter the war on the side of the former.  For the campaign against Serbia, Germany and Austria-Hungary agree to commit six divisions each to an offensive against Serbia within thirty days, while Bulgaria will join the offensive within thirty-five days with four divisions.  In return Bulgaria is promised Macedonia and additional Serbian territory east of the Morava River, and further should either Greece or Romania enter the war on the side of the Entente Bulgaria will be entitled to recover those lands lost in the Second Balkan War.  The Germans agree to loan Bulgaria 200 million francs, while the latter agree to permit unimpeded transport of war material through Bulgarian territory to the Ottoman Empire.  Finally, on the insistence of the Bulgarian government the convention stipulates that General Mackensen will be in overall command of the invasion of Serbia, a term as pleasing to Falkenhayn as it is upsetting to Conrad.  Given the state of the Austro-Hungarian army and its abject failure in 1914 to conquer Serbia despite three separate offensives, it is entirely understandable that the Bulgarians want a German general to command the combined operation.  Conrad naturally sees this (quite correctly) as an affront, given Austria-Hungary's view of the Balkans as falling within its sphere of influence, but he is in no position to object.  It is also worth noting that on the German side the convention was negotiated and signed entirely by Falkenhayn and his staff - at no point was the civilian government of Germany involved in the decision, reflecting the growing power of the German army to dictate war policy within Germany.

September 3rd, 1915

- Overnight the German army airship SL11 undertook a bombing raid of London, and though it did not reach the centre of the city, it dropped a series of bombs on Edmonton, Ponders End, and Enfield after midnight.  As it turned for home it was illuminated by a searchlight over the village of Cuffley in Hertfordshire shortly after 2am, which drew the attention of 2nd Lieutenant Leefe Robinson of 39 (Home Defence Squadron), flying a night patrol in a BE2c.  His aircraft was equipped with new incendiary bullets, and he emptied two drums making passes at the airship.  This having no effect, he closes to within fifty feet and matches speed with SL11, and concentrates the fire of a third drum underneath aft.  As he finishes the drum the rear of the airship bursts into flame, and dives out of the way to avoid the stricken dirigible, which crashes near Cuffley, killing all aboard.

It is the first time that a German airship has been brought down over Britain, and demonstrates the ability of incendiary bullets to ignite an airship's hydrogen gas.  Robinson's victory is a sensation, and tens of thousands of Londoners descent on Cuffley after daylight to see the ruins of SL11, including the charred bodies of its crew.  When Robinson himself motors over from his airfield to inspect his kill, he is mobbed by well-wishers, and given several 'prizes' from the airship, including an Iron Cross found among the debris and a gold watch believed to have belonged to SL11's captain.  For his accomplishment he is also awarded the Victoria Cross.

The wreck of the German airship SL11, shot down near Cuffley, Hertfordshire early this morning by 2nd Lieutenant Leefe Robinson.

- Under pressure from Germany and Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman government agrees today to cede to Bulgaria northern Thrace and the Maritsa valley should the Bulgarians enter the war.  The Bulgarian desire to acquire part of Ottoman Thrace was their only territorial claim against the Central Powers, and with the concession the Bulgarians will now achieve all of their expansionist aims by joining the Central Powers and attacking Serbia.

August 10th, 1915

- With the new moon overnight, five Zeppelins attempt the first bombing raid on Britain since the restrictions on striking the City were lifted last month.  While L9 dropped bombs on the town of Goole in Yorkshire, mistaking it for the city of Hull, killing sixteen, the four others had intended on striking London.  All, however, lose their way - L13 turns back due to engine trouble, L10 bombs the island of Sheppey, mistaking it for the docks of east London, and L11 drops his payload in the waters off Lowestoft, its captain thinking they were over Harwich.  The captain of L12 is similarly confused, dropping his bombs on Dover thinking he too was over Harwich.  Only three incendiaries fall on land, injuring three, while L12 is struck by antiaircraft fire from a British 3-inch gun.  Two cells of the Zeppelin are ruptured and vent their gas, and the resulting loss of buoyancy causes Z12 to fall into the Channel at 340am.  The crew is rescued by a German torpedo-boat, which drags the wreck to Zeebrugge, arriving at noon.  In the spirit of the night's debacle, three British aircraft attempt to bomb the wreckage of L12 to prevent its salvage, but all miss while one of their number is shot down.

The Zeppelins L10, L11, and L13, as seen from L12, en route to bomb London.

The Zeppelin L12 after crash-landing in the Channel early on the morning of Aug. 10th, 1915.  The collapsed cells at the rear of the
Zeppelin were those struck by antiaircraft fire over Dover.

- Field Marshal Sir John French informs Joffre today of his decision that while the BEF will attack south of La Bassée Canal as the latter desires, it is to take the form of an artillery bombardment as opposed to an infantry assault.  To Joffre such an operation would still be insufficient to provide any significant assistance to the French offensive in Artois, and he asks the minister of war to apply pressure to Kitchener in an effort to convince the latter to overrule the commander of the BEF.

- As part of the redeployment of forces for the French autumn offensive, the stretch of the front held by 2nd Army in Artois has been taken over in part by the BEF and in part by 6th Army, and it has been transferred to Champagne, where it will comprise the right wing of the assault.  General Pétain is also to command 2nd Army, but to mask the French concentration in Champagne he was initially named the assistant to General Castlenau of the Army Group of the Centre, and today is appointed to command what is to be referred to as Pétain Group.

- On the Eastern Front, General Alexeiev orders a further withdrawal of the armies under his command, instructing 12th, 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 3rd Armies to pull back to a line running from Ossoviets in the north to Ciechanowiec on the Bug River, and henceforth southwards along the Bug.  Once the Russian armies have reached this line, the salient in central Poland will have almost ceased to exist.  For the time being, however, 3rd Army is to hold its current line in southern Poland to cover the flank of the retreating armies.

Meanwhile, the Russian evacuation of central Poland continues to open opportunities for the rapid advance of German and Austro-Hungarian forces, and the army group under Prince Leopold and the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army make rapid progress today against minimal opposition.  Along the southern face of the salient, Mackensen had expected his 11th Army to launch its assault on the Russian line here today, but unexpected difficulties force him to postpone the advance until tomorrow; the Russians have flooded the valley of the Tysmienica River, necessitating the redeployment of divisions to pass on either side, and great difficulties have been encountered in bringing up sufficient artillery shells.  To the east, the Army of the Bug has ground its way forward, advancing several miles, but is unable to secure a breakthrough.

- Bulgarian Lieutenant-Colonel Petur Ganchev returns to Sofia today where he relays his discussions with Falkenhayn to Minister President Radoslavov.  It is clear to the latter that the Germany are prepared to meet Bulgaria's terms for entry to the war.  Moreover, the events of the past week - the fall of Warsaw and the failure of the British landing at Sulva Bay - provide further evidence that the Germans are winning the war, which appears to minimize the risk to Bulgaria of joining the war on the German side.  With Ferdinand's support, Radoslavov concludes that the time has come to move off the fence.

August 3rd, 1915

- Joffre's staff at GQG submits a memorandum today on the probable future moves of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians, which suggests that the German concentration on the Eastern Front will shortly come to an end, and will be followed by a 'vast effort' on either the Balkan or Western Fronts.  France's response, the memorandum concludes that 'the simplest method is the attack.'  It is an argument reflective of Joffre's own views, who remains convinced that the French army must remain on the attack if the war is to be won.  The memorandum is also suggestive of the tendency of Joffre's staff to reinforce the inclinations of their commander-in-chief, instead of challenging them and offering alternatives.  Given Joffre's almost monomaniacal focus on the attack, this is not a healthy combination.

- Expanding on yesterday's orders to 2nd Army to evacuate the west bank of the Vistula River, General Alexeiev of North-West Front issues instructions for a broader withdrawal from the Polish salient, pulling his armies back to a line running roughly from Lomza south to a point southwest of Siedlec, then bending southeast to the Bug River between Cholm and Wlodawa.  This involves the retreat of the 12th, 1st, 2nd, and 4th Armies in central Poland, effectively 'flattening' the salient.  Again, however, this is not to be a rushed retreat, but rather 'gradual and orderly' - the concept is still to slow the pace of the German advance and make them fight for the terrain they do capture.  Thus east of the Narew River the German force under General Gallwitz find the Russians before them withdrawing to the east, and are able to occupy Ostrolenka today.

To the south, the Russian 3rd and 13th Armies opposite Mackensen's army group once again retreat to new defensive positions to the north this morning, as they implement Alexeiev's orders to slow the German advance but not risk the annihilation that would certainly ensue if they stood and endured the set-piece bombardments and assaults that have been the standard German tactic for the past few months.  The gradual retreat has had its desired effect - when the Germans reach a new Russian defensive position, they pause to gather artillery and prepare an assault, only to find the Russians gone when they are ready to strike.  Once they discover the latest Russian withdrawal the Germans quickly pursue, and by this afternoon come up against the next line of Russian defensives and prepare for a major assault tomorrow.

- As the German advance on the Eastern Front continues, Falkenhayn writes to Conrad today about the future direction of the campaign.  His aim is to drive the Russians behind the Bug River in the south and a line running from Brest-Litovsk to Grodno in the north.  Once this has been accomplished, Falkenhayn intends to withdraw significant forces from the Eastern Front, while leaving only enough strength to hold the territory gained.  Again this reflects Falkenhayn's limited perspective on the Eastern Front: Russia can never be crushed, and if it cannot be convinced to agree to a separate peace the aim should be to contain the Russians to allow redeployments to seek the decisive victories that are possible on other fronts.  Such views, of course, stand in stark contrast to those of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, who continue to believe that the Russian army can be annihilated, and seek the decisive envelopment campaign - Tannenberg on a massive scale - that can deliver victory.

- After the failure of a final set of Italian attacks along the Isonzo River today, Cadorna formally calls off the offensive today.  Over the two weeks of fighting, the 2nd Battle of the Isonzo has cost the Italians 42 000 losses while gaining no significant ground whatsoever.  Moreover, the Italian army has been ravaged by disease; 21 000 soldiers caught cholera or typhus, and 4300 died.  The only redeeming aspect of the battle was that the Austro-Hungarians suffered 47 000 casualties which, given the Italian numerical superiority on the Italian Front, means the Austro-Hungarians lost a significantly greater proportion of their forces than the Italians.

- The advance of the German armies on the Eastern Front over the past several months has had a significant impact on the attitude of neutral states in the Balkans: not only has Romania decided on neutrality for the time being, but the Bulgarian government of Minister President Vasil Radoslavov under King Ferdinand has shifted towards Germany, concluding that its primary foreign policy objective of annexing Macedonia can only be achieved through German aid.  To learn of the German position and discuss the potential terms of a Bulgarian entry into the war, Radoslavov had dispatched to Germany Lieutenant-Colonel Petur Ganchev, a former adjutant to Ferdinand and military attaché to Germany.  He brings with him Radoslavov's terms for Bulgaria's entry into the war: in addition to the territorial acquisitions, Germany is to extend a loan of two hundred million francs and guarantee support for Bulgaria against any potential intervention by Greece and Romania and assistance in defending Bulgaria's Black Sea coast from the Russian navy.

Today Ganchev arrives at Pless, headquarters of the German OHL, where he finds a receptive audience in Falkenhayn.  The German chief of staff has long intended to follow the offensive on the Eastern Front with an operation to conquer Serbia and open a land link with the Ottoman Empire, and a coordinated Bulgarian attack from the east would outflank the main Serbian line facing the Austro-Hungarian frontier to the north.  In response to Ganchev's proposal, Falkenhayn states that Bulgaria would need to deploy five divisions to participate in an offensive against Serbia within six weeks of agreeing to the terms of an alliance, and would need to exert diplomatic pressure on Romania to adopt a more pro-German stance.  Though there are differences between the two proposals, they are not substantive, and negotiations proceed accordingly.

- Having failed to take the British post at Saisi in northern Rhodesia on July 25th, and with ongoing difficulty with water supplies, retired major-general Wahle orders his small force to fall back across the frontier into German East Africa today.

April 12th, 1915

- After several days of artillery bombardment, a renewed French assault is launched at 10am against a four kilometre stretch of the German line west of Maizeray.  This operation was one of the methodical attacks promised by General Dubail to Joffre on the 10th.  However, the advancing infantry make no progress whatsoever.  General Augustin Gérard, commander of the army detachment that launched the attack at Maizaray, blames the failure on the artillery bombardment, which cut only some of the wire and left the Germand defences and artillery positions largely unmolested.  Moreover, the prior months of 'stagnation' on this front had given the Germans time to establish a formidable defensive position, with wire barriers up to five hundred metres deep in places and concrete casemates to protect their infantry.  Gérard's report to Dubail concludes that 'to continue to seek a penetration of the enemy line in this region with quickly prepared attacks, one risks . . . ruining an excellent infantry and destroying its confidence without [achieving any] results.'

- Joffre sends a lengthy communication to Grand Duke Nicholas at Russian army headquarters today, in which he emphasizes the important of co-ordinating offensive operations between the French and British in the west, the Russians in the east, and the Serbs in the Balkans.  If simultaneous attacks can be launched, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians will be tied down on all fronts and the possibility increases of securing a substantial victory.  The French Commander-in-Chief also seeks to reassure Grand Duke Nicholas, in the face of German redeployments from west to east since November, that the French army has done and is doing everything in its power to attack the Germans.

- Enver Pasha is eager to see a land link opened between the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary, which would allow the free flow of munitions and supplies and relieve many of the desparate shortages now existing in the Ottoman army.  As the conquest of Serbia the means by which this link can be achieved, the Ottoman War Minister writes to Falkenhayn today to offer to place two Ottoman corps at the disposal of the Bulgarian army, should the latter join in an offensive against Serbia undertaken by Austria-Hungary and Germany.

- Over the past week the men of the ANZAC Corps have been arriving on the island of Lemnos, having been assigned to participate in the amphibious operation against the Gallipoli peninsula, and today the ocean liner Minnewaska, carrying the divisional and corps command staff, moors in the immense anchorage at Mudros.

- In Lower Mesopotamia the now-expected Ottoman attack on the British defensive position at Shaiba opens this morning when a dozen Ottoman artillery pieces commence firing at dawn.  From 9am through nightfall, the Ottoman infantry, aided by Arab irregulars, launch a series of attacks on the British line from the south, but are halted by barbed wire and machine-gun fire, and the British and Indians suffer only five dead and sixty-six wounded.  To the east, the Indian 30th Brigade, is slogging through the ruins of Old Basra between Basra and Shaiba.  With news arriving of the Ottoman attack, and an overland advance impossible given the knee-deep flood waters, General Nixon orders the brigade back to Basra.  There they collect eighty boats, sufficient for brigade headquarters and the 24th Punjabis, and after 4pm begin moving up the river towards Shaiba.  Though sailing under fire, they arrive at the British line between 830pm and midnight.

The British position at Shaiba, west of Basra, and the Ottoman advance and retreat, April 1915.

Machine gunners of the 120th Rajputana Rifles, 18th Infantry Brigade, in a trench
at Shaiba, April 12th, 1915.

February 3rd, 1915

- In Champagne the left wing of the German 15th Reserve Division and the right wing of the German 21st Reserve Division launches an attack north of Massiges, on the eastern end of the Champagne battlefield.  In addition to its immediate objectives, the Germans hope the attack will draw French reserves from elsewhere.  After a morning of artillery fire, a number of mines under the French line are detonated at noon, followed by the advance of the infantry.  By 1230pm the French position on Hill 191 north of Massiges is in German hands.  In response the French bring up a division and prepare a counterattack.

- In the Carpathians elements of Südarmee have managed to seize the village of Tucholka today, but the situation of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army to the west continues to deteriorate.  Not only is Szurmay's group falling back from the heights north of the Uszok Pass, but under Russian pressure a gap is opening between between III and VII Corps in the centre of 3rd Army's line.  To reinforce 3rd Army VIII Corps begins to depart from the Balkans today, with its 21st Landwehr Division heading for the Mezolaborcz area and 9th Division bound for the Uszok Pass.

- For the past several months, the Bulgarian government has undertaken negotiations with the Great Powers on both sides of the war regarding the territorial concessions they would be willing to make.  Bulgaria's primary aim is the recovery of the Macedonian territory lost to Serbia in the Second Balkan War, and Germany and Austria-Hungary are better-placed to offer such a bribe than Russia.  Still, the pretence of talks with the Entente have made the Germans and Austro-Hungarians eager to win the friendship of the Bulgarians, and negotiations conclude today for a three million pound loan to the Bulgarian government at a very low interest rate, an agreement that the Bulgarian finance minister refers to as 'extortion.'  In exchange, the Bulgarians only have to agree to remain neutral, which is hardly a concession at all considering that the humiliating failures of the Austro-Hungarian army to conquer Serbia in 1914 has left the Bulgarian government unwilling to countenance entry into the war at present. The successful Bulgarian diplomacy allows the government not only to pay for the deficits run up during the Balkan Wars but also to take its time to decide when and how to enter the war to Bulgaria's greatest advantage.

- The Ottoman attack on the Suez Canal is launched today.  While diversionary attacks are to be made to the north, the main effort to cross the Canal is to occur in the centre, between Tussum and Serapeum.  The operation was originally scheduled to have been undertaken yesterday, but a sandstorm has delayed the attempt until this morning.  The main attack consists of eight separate columns approaching the canal in darkness, each several hundred metres apart and carrying three pontoons.  As surprise is essential, there is to be no preliminary artillery bombardment nor rifle fire as the Ottomans make their crossing.

At 2am the Ottoman engineers on the east bank begin to maneouvre their pontoons into position.  At first surprise is achieved - three pontoon bridges manage to reach the west bank and it is not until 325am that the British post at Tullum realizes that an attack is under way.  From here, however, the operation falls apart.  The diversionary attacks have failed to draw the defenders elsewhere, and with daylight the Indian soldiers on the west bank are able to fire into the pontoon bridges, while the remainder are sunk at 745am by a torpedo boat.  With surprise now lost, the Ottomans begin to use their artillery, and score some hits on shipping in the Canal.  However, with much of the bridging equipment now destroyed, the Ottoman commander calls off the attack.

The Ottoman attack on the Suez Canal, February 3rd, 1915.

- Since the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war, a significant effort has been made to appeal to Muslims to rise against the British, French, and Russian empires.  Today Enver Pasha casts his eyes south, past Egypt to the sultanate of Darfur, west of Sudan.  Though the sultanate is self-governing, it is also tied to the British colonial administration at Khartoum, as the sultan, Ali Dinar, is required to pay an annual tribute and acknowledge the suzerainty of the British.  Writing to Ali Dinar, Enver calls on the sultan to renounce British hegemony and unite with his fellow Muslims in the war against the Entente: 'Now is the moment to renew and organize the religion and Islamic unity of purpose . . . rise up and fight the infidels.'  Such rhetoric has an appeal to Ali Dinar, who increasingly resents British influence in his sultanate and yearns to assert his independence.  Enver's letter, however, is subject to the near-absolute lack of communication between Darfur and the outside world - it will be a year before the letter arrives, by which time the situation will have already changed.

- After a week's journey Emden's landing party arrives at the city of Sanaa.  The journey was uneventful, though initial progress had been slowed by the unfamiliarity of many of the sailors with riding the mounts provided to them by the Ottomans at Hodeida.  Again and again, the column would have to stop when one of the donkeys or mules bucked off its rider, often to the sound of laughter from the rest of the party.

December 6th, 1914

- Joffre sends a reply today to Grand Duke Nicholas' telegram of the 3rd, assuring the commander-in-chief of the Russian army that the French will shortly resume major offensive operations, once weapons appropriate to the new conditions resembling siege warfare are assembled.  At the same time he receives another report from the Operations Bureau recommending attacks in Artois and either Champagne or near Verdun.  This encapsulates the basic framework of the operation Joffre and his staff now begin to plan - a drive by the French 10th Army from the vicinity of Arras towards Cambrai, and an advance in Champagne east of Rheims by the French 4th Army from Suippes to Rethel.

- Overnight Russian forces at Lodz have abandoned the city and retreated eastward, and when wireless intercepts reveal the situation to the Germans, elements of 9th Army occupy the city.  The retreat, however, is not a precipitate withdrawal - the advance of the right wing of the German 9th Army and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army had resulted in Lodz forming a bulge in the front, and by retreating the Russians can shorten their line and establish themselves on defensible positions on the Bzura and Rawka Rivers west of Warsaw.  Indeed, for the past several days the centre and left of the German 9th Army has been battering itself against the Russian positions on the lower Bzura to no avail.  Further, the Russian forces opposite the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army remain in place, frustrating the hope for a further advance.  By abandoning Lodz, the Russians are in a better position to defend the remainder of Poland.

German soldiers marching through Lodz, December 6th, 1914.

- Southeast of Krakow further Austro-Hungarians attacks by Roth's forces on the Russian defences fail to achieve a breakthrough or turn the enemy's southern flank.  However, the continued pressure convinces the commander of the Russian 3rd Army to pull back the two corps that still faced westward between Wisniowa and Wieliczka.  Meanwhile reconnaissance reports from elements of the 10th Cavalry Division report significant Russian forces in Neusandez, but General Roth's focus remains the attack northwards - he has been ordered to continue the offensive in this direct irregardless of the threat to his own flank.

Operations of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army during the Battle of
Limanowa-Lapanow, December 6th to 9th, 1914.

- To the southeast the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army is planning an operation aimed at recapturing Bartfeld, lost on the 1st.  Though his army is exhausted, the apparent redeployment of elements of the Russian 8th Army westwards has opened a window of opportunity to go over to the attack.  However, today Conrad orders the left wing of 3rd Army to advance on Neusandez to support the offensive of 4th Army.  The commander of 3rd Army knows his force is not capable of attacking Bartfeld and moving to Neusandez simultaneously, so he asks Conrad which operation he should undertake first.  In an evasion typical of Conrad, he replies that the choice is at 3rd Army's discretion.

- Romanian Prime Minister Bratianu refuses today an Entente request to guarantee the independence of Greece against Bulgarian aggression.

- A small Ottoman force of twenty-four Russian-speaking cavalrymen attempt a raid today near Odessa on the Black Sea coast.  Landing at Akkerman and dressed in Russian uniforms, their objective is to cut a key railway before escaping into neutral Romania.  The attempt is a complete failure as every Ottoman soldier is rounded up shortly after making landfall.

- Early today reinforcements reach the detachment of Indian Expeditionary Force D encamped just south of Qurna on the opposite bank.  Reconnaissance has revealed that Ottoman soldiers numbering over a thousand have reoccupied the trenches to the north that the British had captured and then evacuated on the 4th.  The local British commander decides that these Ottomans will need to be defeated to secure the west bank of the river, the necessary prerequisite to then crossing the river to seize the town of Qurna itself.

- Admiral Spee convenes a meeting of his captains as the German East Asiatic Squadron continues to anchor off Picton Island.  Believing that the Falklands Islands are unprotected, de proposes an attack on Port Stanley to destroy the wireless station, burn any stocks of coal (the bunkers of his ships now being full), and capture the British governor to balance the British seizure of the governor of German Samoa.  Only the captain of Nürnberg supports the plan - the other captains wish to avoid the Falklands and pursue Entente shipping off the River Platte.  Spee, however, overrules his captains and they sail this afternoon to attack Port Stanley on the morning of December 8th.  It is a fateful, and for many a fatal, decision.

November 17th, 1914

- At Ypres the German 4th Division launch a heavy infantry attack against the British 3rd Division today, but they are repulsed with heavy losses.  With this failure, and considering the deteriorating weather and exhaustion of his soldiers, Duke Albrecht, commander of the German 4th Army, concludes that further attacks would be futile and suspends offensive operations.  Instead he orders 4th Army to focus on the construction of trenches and defensive positions, and begin to rotate units out of the line to provide for rest.

- Today sees the first serious fighting near Krakow as a result of the Austro-Hungarian offensive.  The entirety of both 1st and 4th Armies are committed to the attack today, but make very little progress, the Russians having had sufficient time to construct defensive positions.  By the end of the day the conditions of trench warfare prevailed along the entire front of the two Austro-Hungarian armies.

- Yesterday the Austro-Hungarian 5th and 6th Armies reached the Kolubara River, and today assault the Serbian defensive positions on the east bank.  The two sides fight in appalling weather, with heavy rain and snowfall - visibility is reduced and significant numbers of soldiers dying of frostbite and exposure.

- In an effort to secure its support in the war, the British government offers Bulgaria the entirety of Macedonia, part of which currently belongs to Serbia.  Though the British pledge to compensate Serbia with territory elsewhere, Russia objects to forcing its Balkan ally to hand over territory.

- At 515am this morning the two brigades of Indian Expeditionary Force D begin an advance upriver from its base camp at Saihan, and by 830am encounter an Ottoman force of several thousand who seek to block their way.  The initial attack of the Indian brigades accomplishes little - a sudden rainstorm turns the battlefield into mud, and their artillery rather unhelpfully fires on mirages.  Fortunately for the British, the Ottomans opposite are in even worse shape.  Mesopotamia is an isolated backwater of the Ottoman Empire, starved of supplies and soldiers - most of the Ottoman infantry here are composed of Arab levies who desert at an alarmingly high rate.  When several British gunboats move up the Shatt al-Arab and begin to fire into the Ottoman positions, the Ottoman forces break and retreat, handing victory to IEF D.