- In an effort to expand aircraft production, the French government orders that skilled workers from aircraft factories who had enlisted or been conscripted into the army after August 1st be allowed to return ti civilian life and reenter their prior occupation. This is a recognition that while this is a war of mass armies, some men, given their skills, are more valuable out of uniform, given that the effectiveness of these mass armies are not only dependent on their size but also on the amount of material available for them to use.
- For several months Frederick Lugard, the British governor of Nigeria, has desired an attack against the fort at Garua in northwestern German Kamerun, especially after the German thrust of April to the Benue River undermined British prestige in northern Nigeria. A combined Franco-British force of fourteen companies, accompanied by two heavy artillery pieces, has advanced to Garua, and by yesterday had closed to within a kilometre of the German positions. The goal of the operation was not only to seize Garua but also cut off the garrison's line of retreat and force their surrender. The first rounds fired by the artillery, however, panicked the askaris of the garrison, half of whom promptly fled by swimming down the Benue River towards Banyo. Greatly weakened, the three hundred men remaining in Garua surrender the fort today before the British and French can launch an attack on the German line.
For the British and the French, the operation against Garua has been a subsidiary one, designed to restore British prestige and preempt further incursions into Nigeria. They believe that the Germans are focusing their defensive efforts in the south of the colony, in the region surrounding Jaunde, which is where the British and French have directed their main attacks. In fact, the Germans have based their defense of Kamerun on the broad northern uplands around Ngaundere, and Garua was the key to holding this territory. Thus the Germans are greatly concerned about the fall of Garua, which calls into question their entire focus on the north, while the British and French have no idea of the significance of what they have actually managed to accomplish.
Showing posts with label Economics. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Economics. Show all posts
Wednesday, June 10, 2015
Wednesday, April 01, 2015
April 1st, 1915
- The German industrialist Walther Rathenau resigns today as head of Kriegsrohstoffsamt (KRA), the government agency overseeing the allocation of raw materials in the German war economy. While the resignation is in part a reflection that the KRA is now fully functioning, and he is able to ensure the appointment of his hand-picked successor, Major Joseph Koeth, as his replacement, Rathenau has also been dogged by criticism of the KRA, both that he has utilized his position to benefit his own corporation (AEG) and more generally has prioritized large firms over small ones, while the KRA has been accused of facilitating profiteering. The range of criticisms reflects ongoing tensions within the German war economy, balanced between profits and patriotism.
- Over the first months of the war, the aerial combat that has occurred has been undertaken by pilots firing pistols or observers firing light guns. Such methods leave much to be desired, and make the shooting down of an aircraft a relatively rare event. Mounting machine guns facing forward would allow the pilot to aim and fire while still flying his aircraft, though at the expense of shooting off his own propeller. Both sides have been striving to develop a mechanism that would allow a machine-gun to fire through a propeller with no success.
One alternative, however, is to protect the propeller itself so that it is not damaged when hit by a bullet, and for several months French pilot Roland Garros, along with his mechanic Jules Hue, have been developing an armoured propeller that would allow a Hotchkiss machine gun to fire forward in his Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft. He has been assigned to the squadron MS26 at Dunkirk, and today, flying his specially-modified Moraine, which includes channeled deflectors, Garros shoots down his first German aircraft using his forward-firing machine gun.
- In the Carpathians the situation continues to deteriorate for the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army; this morning the Russians force the right wing of XVIII Corps to fall back into the Wetlinka valley. At 2pm the commander of 2nd Army concludes that the only way to avoid disaster is to retreat behind the main crest of the mountains, yielding to the Russians the Uszok Pass but taking up new defensive positions to the south. Not surprisingly, both 3rd Army to the west and Conrad at army headquarters objects, but the reality on the ground is that 2nd Army cannot hold its current position, and further attempts to do so would court disaster.
- Meanwhile the Chiefs of Staff of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies are also concerned regarding the diplomatic situation with Italy. While Falkenhayn continues to urge his counterpart to pressure the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Ministry to offer concessions, Conrad rejects the suggestion. In his opinion, giving territory to Italy now will only whet Italy's appetite, and increase, not decrease, the likelihood of an Italian attack in the long run.
- As the small German caravan makes its way across the desert towards Djidda, the reassurances of the Ottoman escorts given the previous evening are shown to be false. Instead of a few dozen robbers, Emden's landing party is suddenly attacked just after dawn by several hundred Arabs, firing from all sides. The Germans shelter behind their camels, which become the primary target as several continue to stand, while most of their Ottoman escorts flee the battlefield. The machine guns they are able to employ, however, goes some way towards evening the odds. Under cover of machine gun fire, the Germans charge the Arabs, who initially scatter. Attempting to regroup, First Officer Mücke orders the caravan to reform and move towards the sea, where at least one flank would be covered. The Arabs, however, will not be so easily dissuaded from the attack, and as soon as the caravan moves again it comes under fire, and the rear guard has to frequently halt and set up their machine gun to disperse the attackers. When the Arabs briefly cease firing to parley, the Germans entrench, using everything from camel saddles to sacks of rice, and Mücke refuses the Arabs' demand to hand over all guns, ammunition, camels, food, and water in exchange for safe passage. Firing continues into the evening, and by nightfall Seaman Rademacher and Lieutenant Schmidt have been killed, and another seaman wounded.
- Over the first months of the war, the aerial combat that has occurred has been undertaken by pilots firing pistols or observers firing light guns. Such methods leave much to be desired, and make the shooting down of an aircraft a relatively rare event. Mounting machine guns facing forward would allow the pilot to aim and fire while still flying his aircraft, though at the expense of shooting off his own propeller. Both sides have been striving to develop a mechanism that would allow a machine-gun to fire through a propeller with no success.
One alternative, however, is to protect the propeller itself so that it is not damaged when hit by a bullet, and for several months French pilot Roland Garros, along with his mechanic Jules Hue, have been developing an armoured propeller that would allow a Hotchkiss machine gun to fire forward in his Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft. He has been assigned to the squadron MS26 at Dunkirk, and today, flying his specially-modified Moraine, which includes channeled deflectors, Garros shoots down his first German aircraft using his forward-firing machine gun.
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| The French Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft. |
- In the Carpathians the situation continues to deteriorate for the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army; this morning the Russians force the right wing of XVIII Corps to fall back into the Wetlinka valley. At 2pm the commander of 2nd Army concludes that the only way to avoid disaster is to retreat behind the main crest of the mountains, yielding to the Russians the Uszok Pass but taking up new defensive positions to the south. Not surprisingly, both 3rd Army to the west and Conrad at army headquarters objects, but the reality on the ground is that 2nd Army cannot hold its current position, and further attempts to do so would court disaster.
- Meanwhile the Chiefs of Staff of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies are also concerned regarding the diplomatic situation with Italy. While Falkenhayn continues to urge his counterpart to pressure the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Ministry to offer concessions, Conrad rejects the suggestion. In his opinion, giving territory to Italy now will only whet Italy's appetite, and increase, not decrease, the likelihood of an Italian attack in the long run.
- As the small German caravan makes its way across the desert towards Djidda, the reassurances of the Ottoman escorts given the previous evening are shown to be false. Instead of a few dozen robbers, Emden's landing party is suddenly attacked just after dawn by several hundred Arabs, firing from all sides. The Germans shelter behind their camels, which become the primary target as several continue to stand, while most of their Ottoman escorts flee the battlefield. The machine guns they are able to employ, however, goes some way towards evening the odds. Under cover of machine gun fire, the Germans charge the Arabs, who initially scatter. Attempting to regroup, First Officer Mücke orders the caravan to reform and move towards the sea, where at least one flank would be covered. The Arabs, however, will not be so easily dissuaded from the attack, and as soon as the caravan moves again it comes under fire, and the rear guard has to frequently halt and set up their machine gun to disperse the attackers. When the Arabs briefly cease firing to parley, the Germans entrench, using everything from camel saddles to sacks of rice, and Mücke refuses the Arabs' demand to hand over all guns, ammunition, camels, food, and water in exchange for safe passage. Firing continues into the evening, and by nightfall Seaman Rademacher and Lieutenant Schmidt have been killed, and another seaman wounded.
Tuesday, March 31, 2015
March 31st, 1915
- After the directive of the 29th regarding the defensive of current positions, today OHL issues a second directive regarding the training of reserves which emphasizes the importance of offensive training. To do so, successful operations, such as the Battle of Soissons, are to be studied in detail, while training camps are to be established which include mock fortified positions on which units can practice assaults. The directive also states that the mission of the first line in an attack is to break through the enemy line; it will be the responsibility of subsequent waves of infantry to exploit the breakthrough.
- The Russian air force has lagged behind its opponents in innovation, with one very notable exception: the Il'ia Muromets bomber, a creation of the young and very talented designer Igor Sikorskii. This massive aircraft was an unparalleled marvel of technical engineering; propelled by four engines, it is capable of carrying a crew of three for a five-hour flight with two machine-guns and a half-ton of bombs. In a reconnaissance flight conducted today, one Muromets flies 533 kilometres at between 3200 and 3600 metres altitude.
Perhaps not surprising given the Russian war performance to date, the Muromets has been criminally underappreciated by army headquarters, including a ban on further production issued in October 1914. Only by circumventing the army was Sikorskii able to have a squadron of Muromets formed under the patronage of the owner of the Russko-Baltiiskii aircraft company, allowing for the true value of the Muromets to be demonstrated.
- In the Carpathians, the main Russian attack over the past two days has fallen on the centre and right of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army. Crucially, they have broken through the front of XIX Corps, forcing 41st and 37th Honved Divisions to fall back (the former having suffered 60% casualties, the latter reduced to two thousand riflemen). The situation of 2nd Army is perilous - only fifteen hundred reserves remain available to plug holes in the line - and its commander orders preliminary planning for a withdrawal southwards out of the Carpathians if necessary.
- When Emden's landing party stops at a watering hole at 11am this morning, they are met by an Ottoman patrol of eighteen sent from Djidda to escort them the remaining distance to the town. At 4pm they depart, the path carrying them away from the sea and through numberless flat sand drifts topped with grass. After nightfall, a group of Bedouins, numbering about twelve or fifteen, are sighted in the distance before disappearing, which the Ottoman escort takes for robbers. This causes little concern to the Germans, given that their party numbers fifty and carries with them four machine guns.
- Munitions production in Canada has been hindered by the lack of a pre-war armaments industry which could have been expanded once hostilities began. To circumvent this limitation, a shell committee has been established by Sam Hughes, the minister of militia, to place orders not for complete shells, but rather individual components, allowing manufacturers to focus on those components which they already have some skill in producing. The result is that by today 155 factories employing 25 000 are engaged in shell production in Canada.
- The Russian air force has lagged behind its opponents in innovation, with one very notable exception: the Il'ia Muromets bomber, a creation of the young and very talented designer Igor Sikorskii. This massive aircraft was an unparalleled marvel of technical engineering; propelled by four engines, it is capable of carrying a crew of three for a five-hour flight with two machine-guns and a half-ton of bombs. In a reconnaissance flight conducted today, one Muromets flies 533 kilometres at between 3200 and 3600 metres altitude.
Perhaps not surprising given the Russian war performance to date, the Muromets has been criminally underappreciated by army headquarters, including a ban on further production issued in October 1914. Only by circumventing the army was Sikorskii able to have a squadron of Muromets formed under the patronage of the owner of the Russko-Baltiiskii aircraft company, allowing for the true value of the Muromets to be demonstrated.
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| The Russian Il'ya Muromets bomber. |
- In the Carpathians, the main Russian attack over the past two days has fallen on the centre and right of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army. Crucially, they have broken through the front of XIX Corps, forcing 41st and 37th Honved Divisions to fall back (the former having suffered 60% casualties, the latter reduced to two thousand riflemen). The situation of 2nd Army is perilous - only fifteen hundred reserves remain available to plug holes in the line - and its commander orders preliminary planning for a withdrawal southwards out of the Carpathians if necessary.
- When Emden's landing party stops at a watering hole at 11am this morning, they are met by an Ottoman patrol of eighteen sent from Djidda to escort them the remaining distance to the town. At 4pm they depart, the path carrying them away from the sea and through numberless flat sand drifts topped with grass. After nightfall, a group of Bedouins, numbering about twelve or fifteen, are sighted in the distance before disappearing, which the Ottoman escort takes for robbers. This causes little concern to the Germans, given that their party numbers fifty and carries with them four machine guns.
- Munitions production in Canada has been hindered by the lack of a pre-war armaments industry which could have been expanded once hostilities began. To circumvent this limitation, a shell committee has been established by Sam Hughes, the minister of militia, to place orders not for complete shells, but rather individual components, allowing manufacturers to focus on those components which they already have some skill in producing. The result is that by today 155 factories employing 25 000 are engaged in shell production in Canada.
Thursday, March 05, 2015
March 5th, 1915
- As the major combatants seek to increase the production of war material, one means that comes to the fore is 'dilution', whereby skilled labourers are replaced by unskilled labourers working on industrial machinery. The advantage of dilution is that it allows for the expansion of the industrial workforce without significant training or prior experience. For the workers, however, dilution is seen as a means by which employers can replace higher-wage jobs with lower-wage jobs, and those many trade union leaders are extremely reluctant to agree to dilution on any terms. In Britain today, though the Engineering Employers' Federation and the Amalgamated Society of Engineers agree to accept the principle of dilution, it is only for the duration of the war and only in factories producing munitions. Moreover, it is an agreement that is not matched in other industries.
- After two days of attack and counterattack, the French have regained the ground on the Lorette Spur lost to the Germans on the 3rd, while the latter have suffered 1800 casualties.
- A French assault at Hartsmannswillerkopf seize a portion of the enemy's first trench line, though the Germans remain in control of the summit of the peak.
- In the Carpathians, VII Corps and the left wing of X Corps of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army attacks the Russian lines opposite, but suffering a shattering defeat. The capability of 3rd Army to undertake offensive operations has been crushed; VII Corps alone has lost 60% of its strength over the past five days. The commander of 3rd Army thus orders his formations to go over on to the defensive, though this calls into question the viability of 2nd Army's offensive and indeed the entire concept of a continued Austro-Hungarian effort to relieve Przemysl.
- Though the Admiralty sent the new dreadnought Queen Elizabeth to the Dardanelles to participate in the operation, they have forbidden it from sailing into the straits themselves, lest it strike a mine and sink. Instead, Queen Elizabeth today anchors off the Aegean coast of Gallipoli and fires 15-inch shells over the peninsula at the Ottoman forts in the straits. Though the sudden bombardment from an unexpected direction and from an unseen foe confuses the Ottomans, without accurate spotting the shells fail to hit anything of significance.
- While the Entente focus is on the Dardanelles operation, other operations in the region are also the subject of attention. One such attack begins today when the pre-dreadnoughts Triumph and Swiftsure and the armoured cruiser Euryalus, accompanied by minesweepers and smaller craft, commence a bombardment of the port of Smyrna, the largest Ottoman port on the Mediterranean. There were concerns that Smyrna might be used as a base by German or Austro-Hungarian submarines, so its neutralization was seen as desirable. The task force is to destroy the forts protecting the harbour to facilitate a close blockade and leave the port itself open to attack at any time. In many respects, it is a miniature version of the Dardanelles operation, and also shares its problems; the pre-dreadnoughts cannot close to destroy the forts until protective minefields have been cleared, but these are protected by mobile guns. One difference, however, is an attempt to negotiate with the Ottoman governor of Smyrna, who is believed to be synmpathetic to the Entente and potentially willing to surrender his small craft to the British and allow them to sweep the minefields. Thus the operation beginning today is two-pronged: a military attack on the harbour defences and a diplomatic approach to render such an attack unnecessary.
- Admiral Anton Haus, commander of the Austro-Hungarian navy, writes today to Admiral Souchon at Constantinople, responding to the German desire for naval support for the Ottomans at the Dardanelles. Haus states that only two Austro-Hungarian submarines have even the potential range to reach the Dardanelles in ideal conditions, while they are required instead to defend the key naval base at Cattaro and remain available should the Italians come into the war on the side of the Entente. He also pours cold water on the idea of sending a fast light cruiser to the Ottomans to deliver munitions. Why should his navy, he wonders, sacrifice a valuable warship to deliver, at most, three hundred tons of ammunition. The letter shows that the Ottomans will not be able to rely on any Austro-Hungarian support against the Entente naval assault on the Dardanelles.
- After two days of attack and counterattack, the French have regained the ground on the Lorette Spur lost to the Germans on the 3rd, while the latter have suffered 1800 casualties.
- A French assault at Hartsmannswillerkopf seize a portion of the enemy's first trench line, though the Germans remain in control of the summit of the peak.
- In the Carpathians, VII Corps and the left wing of X Corps of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army attacks the Russian lines opposite, but suffering a shattering defeat. The capability of 3rd Army to undertake offensive operations has been crushed; VII Corps alone has lost 60% of its strength over the past five days. The commander of 3rd Army thus orders his formations to go over on to the defensive, though this calls into question the viability of 2nd Army's offensive and indeed the entire concept of a continued Austro-Hungarian effort to relieve Przemysl.
- Though the Admiralty sent the new dreadnought Queen Elizabeth to the Dardanelles to participate in the operation, they have forbidden it from sailing into the straits themselves, lest it strike a mine and sink. Instead, Queen Elizabeth today anchors off the Aegean coast of Gallipoli and fires 15-inch shells over the peninsula at the Ottoman forts in the straits. Though the sudden bombardment from an unexpected direction and from an unseen foe confuses the Ottomans, without accurate spotting the shells fail to hit anything of significance.
- While the Entente focus is on the Dardanelles operation, other operations in the region are also the subject of attention. One such attack begins today when the pre-dreadnoughts Triumph and Swiftsure and the armoured cruiser Euryalus, accompanied by minesweepers and smaller craft, commence a bombardment of the port of Smyrna, the largest Ottoman port on the Mediterranean. There were concerns that Smyrna might be used as a base by German or Austro-Hungarian submarines, so its neutralization was seen as desirable. The task force is to destroy the forts protecting the harbour to facilitate a close blockade and leave the port itself open to attack at any time. In many respects, it is a miniature version of the Dardanelles operation, and also shares its problems; the pre-dreadnoughts cannot close to destroy the forts until protective minefields have been cleared, but these are protected by mobile guns. One difference, however, is an attempt to negotiate with the Ottoman governor of Smyrna, who is believed to be synmpathetic to the Entente and potentially willing to surrender his small craft to the British and allow them to sweep the minefields. Thus the operation beginning today is two-pronged: a military attack on the harbour defences and a diplomatic approach to render such an attack unnecessary.
- Admiral Anton Haus, commander of the Austro-Hungarian navy, writes today to Admiral Souchon at Constantinople, responding to the German desire for naval support for the Ottomans at the Dardanelles. Haus states that only two Austro-Hungarian submarines have even the potential range to reach the Dardanelles in ideal conditions, while they are required instead to defend the key naval base at Cattaro and remain available should the Italians come into the war on the side of the Entente. He also pours cold water on the idea of sending a fast light cruiser to the Ottomans to deliver munitions. Why should his navy, he wonders, sacrifice a valuable warship to deliver, at most, three hundred tons of ammunition. The letter shows that the Ottomans will not be able to rely on any Austro-Hungarian support against the Entente naval assault on the Dardanelles.
Monday, February 02, 2015
February 2nd, 1915
- Financial representatives from Britain, France, and Russia meet today in Paris to discuss the financing of the war. Britain objects to a French proposal to issue a joint allied loan of £800 million, fearing that British credit would be undermined by association with the weaker credit of its allies. Instead, Britain (with £25 million) and France (625 million francs) agree to support Russia, while in exchange France and Russia agree to ship £6 million in gold to Britain if the reserves of the Bank of England falls by over £10 million in the next six months.
- The defeat at Dogger Bank just over a week ago has capped a frustrating first six months of the war for the German High Seas Fleet. The British clearly dominate the North Sea, as evidenced by their attack on the Heligoland Bight in August, and the naval raids against the British coast only narrowly avoided catastrophe at the hands of intercepting British squadrons. Such setbacks demand a scapegoat, and today he is found - Admiral Ingenohl is dismissed as commander of the High Seas Fleet.
- In the Carpathians the Austro-Hungarian effort to seize the heights north of the Uszok Pass have failed. Given the utter exhaustion of the infantry in the bitter cold, efforts to attack the Russian positions frontally and outflank them have gotten nowhere. Early his morning General Szurmay pulls his forces back towards the Uszok Pass, in order to give them a brief respite from the fighting.
- The defeat at Dogger Bank just over a week ago has capped a frustrating first six months of the war for the German High Seas Fleet. The British clearly dominate the North Sea, as evidenced by their attack on the Heligoland Bight in August, and the naval raids against the British coast only narrowly avoided catastrophe at the hands of intercepting British squadrons. Such setbacks demand a scapegoat, and today he is found - Admiral Ingenohl is dismissed as commander of the High Seas Fleet.
- In the Carpathians the Austro-Hungarian effort to seize the heights north of the Uszok Pass have failed. Given the utter exhaustion of the infantry in the bitter cold, efforts to attack the Russian positions frontally and outflank them have gotten nowhere. Early his morning General Szurmay pulls his forces back towards the Uszok Pass, in order to give them a brief respite from the fighting.
Friday, January 30, 2015
January 30th, 1915
- Though the war has now passed the six-month mark, there are still some within financial circles who feel that hostilities will have to shortly cease as the combatants run out of the financial ability to pay for the war. In France today the influential journal L'Économiste Français declares that the war will be over in seven months.
- As the centre of his army buckles under Russian pressure, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army is forced to send the last of his reserves - 29th Division - into the line to prevent a Russian breakthrough. With no further reserves at his disposal should the Russians continue to push forward, an urgent message goes out to the commander of the neighbouring 4th Army, requesting the immediate transfer of a division.
- With the defeat of Maritz's attack on Upington on the 24th, and concluding that the Boer Rebellion has failed, the rebel commando led by General Kemp surrenders to government forces in South Africa today, leaving the small commando under Martiz as the only rebel unit still in the field.
- As the centre of his army buckles under Russian pressure, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army is forced to send the last of his reserves - 29th Division - into the line to prevent a Russian breakthrough. With no further reserves at his disposal should the Russians continue to push forward, an urgent message goes out to the commander of the neighbouring 4th Army, requesting the immediate transfer of a division.
- With the defeat of Maritz's attack on Upington on the 24th, and concluding that the Boer Rebellion has failed, the rebel commando led by General Kemp surrenders to government forces in South Africa today, leaving the small commando under Martiz as the only rebel unit still in the field.
Wednesday, January 28, 2015
January 28th, 1915
- A meeting of the War Council in London is scheduled for 1130am. Beforehand, Churchill receives a letter of resignation from Fisher over the latter's opposition to the proposed Dardanelles campaign. Unwilling to lose the First Sea Lord, Churchill drags Fisher to a private meeting with Asquith at 10 Downing Street. There the two rehash their positions, and Asquith, forced to choose, decides that the operation should go forward, and when Fisher receives the decision in silence, Churchill assumes the First Sea Lord has been won over. The trio then go to the War Council meeting in the Cabinet Room. Fisher, however, believes that Asquith resolved that the final decision will not be taken today. When Asquith instead states that a decision needs to be made today, Fisher silents stands and makes for the door. Lord Kitchener, well understanding what Fisher meant to do, leaps to his feet, gets to the door before Fisher, and steers him aside. The Secretary of State for War argued to Fisher that he was the only one opposed to the mission, and as the Prime Minister had made his decision, it was the First Sea Lord's responsibility to the country to implement the choice. Reluctantly, Fisher returns to the table, sitting in petulant silence as the discussion on the operation continues.
At 2pm the meeting is adjourned, at which point Churchill corners Fisher and proceeds to place, as he would later write, 'great and continuous pressure' on the First Sea Lord. Churchill, with his overbearing personality and absolute conviction in the rightness of his beliefs, finally wears down Fisher, and the latter finally agrees to consent to the operation. Elated, Churchill announces when the War Council reconvenes later in the afternoon that the entire Admiralty is behind the Dardanelles plan, and the meeting gives its final authorization for the attack to begin, though it will take several more weeks until the naval force is prepared to commence the operation. Fisher, however, has only momentarily yielded under the pressure of his associates; in his heart he still believes the Dardanelles operation is foolhardy and risks significant losses. It will only take for his fears to become reality for his opposition to resurface again.
- General de Langle of the French 4th Army issues details to his corps commanders today regarding his plan for the resumption of the offensive in the Champagne. For this next phase of the battle, 4th Army is to utilize five corps in the line, of which two - XVII and I - will undertake the initial penetration of the German front at Perthes. Once they have reached their objective, located about 1500 metres behind the line, they are to turn left and right in order to attack the German defenses from the flank and enlarge the breach. Following the breach IV Corps, 4th Army's reserve is to advance deep into the enemy position. Notably, the tactics de Langle outlines are for successive waves of infantry in order to achieve the initial breakthrough.
- In France while the shortage of artillery shells has been a focus of economic concern, there has also been criticism of the government regarding the provision of rifles. Production has been minimal, while 850 000 have been lost in the first six months of the war, leaving a shortfall of almost 700 000. Today the director of artillery meets with representatives of private industry regarding their manufacturing rifles for the army. While the firms represented are willing to take on government contracts, many are unable to fulfill the terms of the agreement - the precision required to produce rifles was far greater than such firms were accustomed to, and mobilization has reduced the available pool of skilled labour.
- As the Russian counterattack in the Carpathians continues, the east wing of the Russian 8th Army is able to advance against the centre of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army. Today, XVIII Corps of the latter is pushed back five miles by the Russians.
At 2pm the meeting is adjourned, at which point Churchill corners Fisher and proceeds to place, as he would later write, 'great and continuous pressure' on the First Sea Lord. Churchill, with his overbearing personality and absolute conviction in the rightness of his beliefs, finally wears down Fisher, and the latter finally agrees to consent to the operation. Elated, Churchill announces when the War Council reconvenes later in the afternoon that the entire Admiralty is behind the Dardanelles plan, and the meeting gives its final authorization for the attack to begin, though it will take several more weeks until the naval force is prepared to commence the operation. Fisher, however, has only momentarily yielded under the pressure of his associates; in his heart he still believes the Dardanelles operation is foolhardy and risks significant losses. It will only take for his fears to become reality for his opposition to resurface again.
- General de Langle of the French 4th Army issues details to his corps commanders today regarding his plan for the resumption of the offensive in the Champagne. For this next phase of the battle, 4th Army is to utilize five corps in the line, of which two - XVII and I - will undertake the initial penetration of the German front at Perthes. Once they have reached their objective, located about 1500 metres behind the line, they are to turn left and right in order to attack the German defenses from the flank and enlarge the breach. Following the breach IV Corps, 4th Army's reserve is to advance deep into the enemy position. Notably, the tactics de Langle outlines are for successive waves of infantry in order to achieve the initial breakthrough.
- In France while the shortage of artillery shells has been a focus of economic concern, there has also been criticism of the government regarding the provision of rifles. Production has been minimal, while 850 000 have been lost in the first six months of the war, leaving a shortfall of almost 700 000. Today the director of artillery meets with representatives of private industry regarding their manufacturing rifles for the army. While the firms represented are willing to take on government contracts, many are unable to fulfill the terms of the agreement - the precision required to produce rifles was far greater than such firms were accustomed to, and mobilization has reduced the available pool of skilled labour.
- As the Russian counterattack in the Carpathians continues, the east wing of the Russian 8th Army is able to advance against the centre of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army. Today, XVIII Corps of the latter is pushed back five miles by the Russians.
Sunday, January 04, 2015
January 4th, 1915
- After closing on the outbreak of war in August, the London Stock Exchange reopens today.
- The ability of the French army to increase its stock of artillery shells is hampered by the necessity of supplying ammunition to its allies in order to enhance their fighting ability. As the French minister of war reports today, at a time when Joffre is demanding the production of 60 000 rounds per day, France is exporting 12 000 per day to Russia, 3000 to Romania, 2000 to Serbia, and between 1000 and 2000 to Belgium.
- At the far southern end of the Western Front, the line runs just inside the German province of Alsace until it reaches the Swiss border. Here the French have entrenched themselves on the eastern ridges of the Vosges Mountains, giving them observation of the upper Rhine River and allowing bombardment of the German-held plains to the east. The Vosges are rocky and forested, preventing the construction of continuous trench lines. Instead, each side entrenches on available high ground and emphasizes strong points. Nevertheless, the stalemate to the north has replicated itself in the Vosges - indeed, advancing exposed up hillsides, where artillery shells create lethal airborne rock splinters, advances are particularly arduous.
For the past month, French infantry have been attacking at several points in order to push the line eastward and bring more of the German rear under artillery fire. In order to bring a halt to the enemy attacks, Army Detachment Gaede, responsible for defending German Alsace, has been reinforced by six battalions and three batteries of artillery and ordered to seize Hartmannswillerkopf (known to the French as Vieil Armand), at 3136 feet one of the highest points in the Vosges and one from which the French have been able to direct artillery fire on the vital railway linking Mulhouse and Colmar. Today three German regiments of light infantry, grenadiers, and dismounted light cavalry attack Hartmannswillerkopf, but are repulsed by the entrenched French defenders.
- For several months the vital Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl has been besieged by the Russians, who are content to simply starve out the defenders. Indeed, the food stocks, never high, are continuing to dwindle. Today, the commander at Przemysl radios Conrad to inquire whether the garrison should attempt to break out around February 1st, or simply hold out until March 7th, the date on which it is expected food supplies (including the slaughter of horses) will run out. Conrad views the fall of Przemysl not only as a military but also a political catastrophe, as its loss would further undermine the prestige of Austria-Hungary among neutral states, and thus views an early offensive in Galicia to relieve Przemysl to be of vital importance.
- At Sarikamish the shattered remnants of the Ottoman IX Corps, surrounded and attack from Bardiz to the rear, surrender today. Enver Pasha, who had been with IX Corps, manages to escape through Russian lines to reach XI Corps, which is still attacking in a vain effort to recover the situation.
- The ability of the French army to increase its stock of artillery shells is hampered by the necessity of supplying ammunition to its allies in order to enhance their fighting ability. As the French minister of war reports today, at a time when Joffre is demanding the production of 60 000 rounds per day, France is exporting 12 000 per day to Russia, 3000 to Romania, 2000 to Serbia, and between 1000 and 2000 to Belgium.
- At the far southern end of the Western Front, the line runs just inside the German province of Alsace until it reaches the Swiss border. Here the French have entrenched themselves on the eastern ridges of the Vosges Mountains, giving them observation of the upper Rhine River and allowing bombardment of the German-held plains to the east. The Vosges are rocky and forested, preventing the construction of continuous trench lines. Instead, each side entrenches on available high ground and emphasizes strong points. Nevertheless, the stalemate to the north has replicated itself in the Vosges - indeed, advancing exposed up hillsides, where artillery shells create lethal airborne rock splinters, advances are particularly arduous.
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| The Western Front in the Vosges. |
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| Winter in the Vosges, 1915. |
For the past month, French infantry have been attacking at several points in order to push the line eastward and bring more of the German rear under artillery fire. In order to bring a halt to the enemy attacks, Army Detachment Gaede, responsible for defending German Alsace, has been reinforced by six battalions and three batteries of artillery and ordered to seize Hartmannswillerkopf (known to the French as Vieil Armand), at 3136 feet one of the highest points in the Vosges and one from which the French have been able to direct artillery fire on the vital railway linking Mulhouse and Colmar. Today three German regiments of light infantry, grenadiers, and dismounted light cavalry attack Hartmannswillerkopf, but are repulsed by the entrenched French defenders.
- For several months the vital Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl has been besieged by the Russians, who are content to simply starve out the defenders. Indeed, the food stocks, never high, are continuing to dwindle. Today, the commander at Przemysl radios Conrad to inquire whether the garrison should attempt to break out around February 1st, or simply hold out until March 7th, the date on which it is expected food supplies (including the slaughter of horses) will run out. Conrad views the fall of Przemysl not only as a military but also a political catastrophe, as its loss would further undermine the prestige of Austria-Hungary among neutral states, and thus views an early offensive in Galicia to relieve Przemysl to be of vital importance.
- At Sarikamish the shattered remnants of the Ottoman IX Corps, surrounded and attack from Bardiz to the rear, surrender today. Enver Pasha, who had been with IX Corps, manages to escape through Russian lines to reach XI Corps, which is still attacking in a vain effort to recover the situation.
Sunday, December 28, 2014
December 28th, 1914
- In Britain the primary decision-making body regarding the conduct of the war is the War Council, comprised of Prime Minister Asquith, relevant Cabinet ministers, and the service chiefs. The secretary of the War Council is Colonel Maurice Hankey, whose position gives him more influence over British strategy than most generals. Today he circulates to some of the members of the War Council a memorandum on the future conduct of the war he had begun to draft two days earlier, and this 'Boxing Day Memorandum' is notable on two accounts. First, he wonders whether British strength is best concentrated on the Western Front, or whether they should look elsewhere, especially in terms of where British seapower can most usefully be employed. One of the alternatives Hankey mentions is against the Ottoman Empire, either along the Syrian coast or, significantly, against the Dardanelles. Second, Hankey has been in communication with Colonel Ernest Swinton, formerly an Assistant Secretary under Hankey and now the official war correspondent on the Western Front. Swinton had learnt before the war of an American firm that produced farm tractors with caterpillar treads, and while at the front had come to wonder whether a vehicle so-equipped could have military applications. Swinton passed the suggestion to Hankey, and Hankey has included it in his Boxing Day Memorandum, proposing the following machine:
- The German occupation of most of Belgium and northeastern France has meant that a significant amount of industrial resources, including everything from coal mines to locomotives to river barges, is now under German control. The exploitation of these resources, however, has been problematic. As a KRA report of today notes, nobody knows who actually owns these resources, which makes coordinating their exploitation next to impossible. Private businesses in Germany proper want to secure a share of the booty for themselves, while alternatively not wanting utilization of these resources by KRA and other state agencies to, for example, drive down the price of coal in Germany. The exploitation of the occupied territories is far from a straightforward proposition, a theme that will recur in other lands conquered by Germany and ensure that it never receives the full economic benefit from its conquests.
- In German Kamerun the French column that occupied Baturi on December 9th has advanced westward to Bertua, but over the past few days has been halted in a series of engagements with German forces.
Numbers of large heavy rollers, themselves bullet proof, propelled from behind by motor-engines, geared very low, the driving wheel fitted with a caterpillar driving gear to grip the ground, the driver's seat armoured and a Maxim gun fitted. The object of this device would be to rol down the barbed wire by sheer weight, to give some cover to men creeping up behind and to support the advance with machine gun fire.This proposal contains the core elements of what will become the tank, and Hankey's circulation of this suggestion is one of the first steps in its development.
- The German occupation of most of Belgium and northeastern France has meant that a significant amount of industrial resources, including everything from coal mines to locomotives to river barges, is now under German control. The exploitation of these resources, however, has been problematic. As a KRA report of today notes, nobody knows who actually owns these resources, which makes coordinating their exploitation next to impossible. Private businesses in Germany proper want to secure a share of the booty for themselves, while alternatively not wanting utilization of these resources by KRA and other state agencies to, for example, drive down the price of coal in Germany. The exploitation of the occupied territories is far from a straightforward proposition, a theme that will recur in other lands conquered by Germany and ensure that it never receives the full economic benefit from its conquests.
- In German Kamerun the French column that occupied Baturi on December 9th has advanced westward to Bertua, but over the past few days has been halted in a series of engagements with German forces.
Monday, November 24, 2014
November 24th, 1914
- In the first months of the war the French government had imposed a number of what it had described as temporary moratoriums on a range of financial transactions in order to avoid panicked withdrawals of bank deposits and conserve funds for the war effort. Today, however, the French government announces that the moratoriums will last for the duration of the war. While the measures allow for a greater government influence over economic activity, they also deaden commerce and economic activity in the private sector, and measures such as the moratorium on the collection of rents result in the accumulation of large amounts of debts by some.
- East of Lodz the decisive moment arrives for the German XXV Reserve Corps and Guards Division as they attempt to escape encirclement, as the Russian Lovitch detachment of 1st Army stands between them and the rest of the German 9th Army. The Lovitch detachment, however, is handled with about the same level of professionalism as the other Russian formations that had encircled the two German units. One of the detachment's two divisions moves too far west and gets tangled up with the Russian defenders of Lodz, and by the time it gets itself sorted out the German Guards Division has broken through and rejoined 9th Army. Meanwhile, the other Russian division has entrenched behind a railway embankment astride the line of retreat of XXV Reserve Corps, the latter of which consist of second-line soldiers exhausted from days of marching and fighting. Naturally, the strong Russian defensive position promptly disintegrates, the divisional commander suffers a nervous breakdown, and only 1600 Russian soldiers escape capture as XXV Reserve Corps breaks through, bringing back with them 16 000 Russian prisoners.
The survival of Guards Division and especially of XXV Reserve Corps is a testimony to the prowess of the German army. Most commanders in such situations would have simply surrendered, but General Reinhard von Scheffer-Boyadel remained awake for seventy-two hours directing the retreat, and the German infantry demonstrated its endurance and resolution. On the Russian side, the episode serves to reinforce a sense of inherent inferiority vis-a-vis their German counterparts, which seeps into the mindset of Russian commanders, leaving them unwilling to stand against the enemy even when circumstances favour them.
- While the Russians feel themselves inferior to the Germans, they certainly don't harbour any such concerns about the Austro-Hungarians. Today Conrad calls off the attempted offensive near Krakow by 4th and 1st Army. Both have failed to make any significant gains, and by today indications are growing that the Russians, far from being about to break, are about to go over to the attack. Both 4th and 1st Army are ordered to stand on the defensive, and at places along the front pull back to more defensible positions. The Austro-Hungarians have lost tens of thousands of men for no gain whatsoever, and the only redeeming aspect of the defeat is that the Russians have suffered as well - the regiments of III Caucasian Corps are down to three to four hundred soldiers each. The failure also means that alternate means will have to be found to save the deteriorating situation in the Carpathians, where the Russian 8th Army continues to push back the weakening Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army.
- After three days of heavy fighting between the Austro-Hungarian 6th Army and the Serbian 1st Army, the latter has been forced to retreat again today. Potiorek does not order 6th Army to pursue the foe, as the fierce engagements of the past week have disorganized and fatigued his units and he has determined that they require rest. He remains convinced that he has won a crushing victory - that with the Serbian 1st Army retreating he will be able to turn the flank of the Serbian armies to the north and envelop them. Reflecting the optimism of his commanders, Emperor Franz Joseph today appoints General Stefan Sarkotic governor of Serbia.
- East of Lodz the decisive moment arrives for the German XXV Reserve Corps and Guards Division as they attempt to escape encirclement, as the Russian Lovitch detachment of 1st Army stands between them and the rest of the German 9th Army. The Lovitch detachment, however, is handled with about the same level of professionalism as the other Russian formations that had encircled the two German units. One of the detachment's two divisions moves too far west and gets tangled up with the Russian defenders of Lodz, and by the time it gets itself sorted out the German Guards Division has broken through and rejoined 9th Army. Meanwhile, the other Russian division has entrenched behind a railway embankment astride the line of retreat of XXV Reserve Corps, the latter of which consist of second-line soldiers exhausted from days of marching and fighting. Naturally, the strong Russian defensive position promptly disintegrates, the divisional commander suffers a nervous breakdown, and only 1600 Russian soldiers escape capture as XXV Reserve Corps breaks through, bringing back with them 16 000 Russian prisoners.
The survival of Guards Division and especially of XXV Reserve Corps is a testimony to the prowess of the German army. Most commanders in such situations would have simply surrendered, but General Reinhard von Scheffer-Boyadel remained awake for seventy-two hours directing the retreat, and the German infantry demonstrated its endurance and resolution. On the Russian side, the episode serves to reinforce a sense of inherent inferiority vis-a-vis their German counterparts, which seeps into the mindset of Russian commanders, leaving them unwilling to stand against the enemy even when circumstances favour them.
- While the Russians feel themselves inferior to the Germans, they certainly don't harbour any such concerns about the Austro-Hungarians. Today Conrad calls off the attempted offensive near Krakow by 4th and 1st Army. Both have failed to make any significant gains, and by today indications are growing that the Russians, far from being about to break, are about to go over to the attack. Both 4th and 1st Army are ordered to stand on the defensive, and at places along the front pull back to more defensible positions. The Austro-Hungarians have lost tens of thousands of men for no gain whatsoever, and the only redeeming aspect of the defeat is that the Russians have suffered as well - the regiments of III Caucasian Corps are down to three to four hundred soldiers each. The failure also means that alternate means will have to be found to save the deteriorating situation in the Carpathians, where the Russian 8th Army continues to push back the weakening Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army.
- After three days of heavy fighting between the Austro-Hungarian 6th Army and the Serbian 1st Army, the latter has been forced to retreat again today. Potiorek does not order 6th Army to pursue the foe, as the fierce engagements of the past week have disorganized and fatigued his units and he has determined that they require rest. He remains convinced that he has won a crushing victory - that with the Serbian 1st Army retreating he will be able to turn the flank of the Serbian armies to the north and envelop them. Reflecting the optimism of his commanders, Emperor Franz Joseph today appoints General Stefan Sarkotic governor of Serbia.
Sunday, October 19, 2014
October 19th, 1914
- Today can be seen as marking an important watershed on the Western Front. For the Entente, the arrival of I Corps in Flanders today means the entire BEF is now in the north, and a continual line, though thin in places, now exists from the Channel to Switzerland. For the Germans, today sees the first serious fighting undertaken by the four reserve corps of 4th Army, sent by Falkenhayn to achieve the decisive victory that had eluded them to date. Thus the Race to the Sea has come to an end, while the First Battle of Ypres begins.
For the past five weeks, both sides have thrown forces northward from the Aisne, trying to outflank the other. Indeed, the popular name for this period of the war is something of a misnomer - they were not racing for the sea, but rather racing to outflank the other. However, all such attempts failed, for a whole range of reasons - railways allowed for rapid redeployment of forces; trenches freed up units to move north, the machine gun allowed for even small forces to hold up larger enemy formations until reinforcements arrived, etc. The result of the failure of either to outflank the other has been the extension of the front line roughly north from Noyon to the English Channel, a line which will become increasingly static as both sides dig in.
In a strategic sense as well, neither the Germans or the Entente can feel satisfied with the result of the Race to the Sea. For the French, the northeastern portion of their country, which included almost 75% of prewar coal production and over 60% of prewar steel production, now lies in enemy hands, severely dislocating the French economy and only partially ameliorated by the aid of its allies. The occupation of a significant portion of the country also propels Joffre and the French army to continue to emphasize the offensive, now deemed essential to liberating their countrymen. The situation is even worse for Belgium - only a tiny western corner of the country remains free, and is about to become the scene of the first in a series of devastating battles. For the Germans, despite the fact that they stand on enemy soil, the very continuation of the war itself reflects failure during the past five weeks. The failure on the Marne has not been redeemed by success since, and the fear of having to fight a sustained war of attrition compels Falkenhayn to commit his reserves to the battle in Flanders, one last throw of the dice to end the war before Christmas.
- As the First Battle of Ypres dawns, the Entente remain focused on the offensive. Foch's plan is for an offensive between Ypres and Nieuport driving east, dividing the German III Reserve Corps on the coast from the German army to the south, and by advancing to Ghent turn the northern flank of the German army. Though Foch was the commander of French forces in the north, he had no authority whatsoever over either the Belgians or the British - at best he could try to persuade. Generally speaking, both King Albert of the Belgians and Sir John French of the BEF shared the strategic focus on the offensive, though the former knew his Belgians were in no shape to attack. The British Field Marshal, for his part, issues orders to General Haig that I Corps, newly arrived at Hazebrouck, is to billet tonight near Ypres in preparation for an offensive via Thourout to capture Bruges in the days ahead.For the past five weeks, both sides have thrown forces northward from the Aisne, trying to outflank the other. Indeed, the popular name for this period of the war is something of a misnomer - they were not racing for the sea, but rather racing to outflank the other. However, all such attempts failed, for a whole range of reasons - railways allowed for rapid redeployment of forces; trenches freed up units to move north, the machine gun allowed for even small forces to hold up larger enemy formations until reinforcements arrived, etc. The result of the failure of either to outflank the other has been the extension of the front line roughly north from Noyon to the English Channel, a line which will become increasingly static as both sides dig in.
In a strategic sense as well, neither the Germans or the Entente can feel satisfied with the result of the Race to the Sea. For the French, the northeastern portion of their country, which included almost 75% of prewar coal production and over 60% of prewar steel production, now lies in enemy hands, severely dislocating the French economy and only partially ameliorated by the aid of its allies. The occupation of a significant portion of the country also propels Joffre and the French army to continue to emphasize the offensive, now deemed essential to liberating their countrymen. The situation is even worse for Belgium - only a tiny western corner of the country remains free, and is about to become the scene of the first in a series of devastating battles. For the Germans, despite the fact that they stand on enemy soil, the very continuation of the war itself reflects failure during the past five weeks. The failure on the Marne has not been redeemed by success since, and the fear of having to fight a sustained war of attrition compels Falkenhayn to commit his reserves to the battle in Flanders, one last throw of the dice to end the war before Christmas.
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| The resulting front line after the Race to the Sea. |
Despite their intentions, however, it is the Germans who will determine the pace of the First Battle of Ypres - in light of the scale of the German forces advancing westward, Sir John French's orders to Haig today are little more than fantasy. Over the course of the day, the four new reserve corps of 4th Army enter the fight. South of III Reserve Corps arrives XXII Reserve Corps, and they co-ordinate a fierce attack on the French marines defending Dixmude, pushing the forward posts of the latter back into the town itself, which also comes under a sustained German bombardment. Next in line comes XXIII Reserve Corps, which spends the day pushing westward advance elements of French territorial and cavalry units and closing up to Houthhulst Forest. To its right XXVI Reserve Corps occupies Roulers at 5pm, after a day of desperate house-to-house fighting against the cavalry of General de Mitry. Finally, southernmost is XXVII Reserve Corps, which encounters the British 3rd Cavalry Division. The British are forced to retreat through Passchendaele to Poelcappelle and Zonnebeke (again names which had not yet earned their present reputation), which in turn pulls back the northern flank of the British 7th Division - though the latter had been ordered to capture Menin today, they find themselves at nightfall three miles behind where they started the day.
- Near La Bassée, a battalion of the Royal Irish Regiment secures the village of Le Pilly on Aubers Ridge, suffering two hundred casualties to do so. The attack was launched in support of an unsuccessful French assault towards the town of Fournes.
- In Britain there has been a scramble to increase armaments production of all kinds, in response to Kitchener's plans for a massive expansion of the army. As of today, the War Office has issued orders for 781 000 rifles, to be produced by July 1st, 1915. The scale of the problem facing the British, however, can be seen in how the peacetime reserve of field guns was deemed sufficient to arm five divisions in addition to the BEF - in contrast, Kitchener's New Armies project to include at least fifty new divisions. Such was the armaments shortage at home that some of the new volunteers begin their training with broomsticks instead of rifles.
Friday, October 10, 2014
October 10th, 1914
- The orders for the British II Corps is to advance to cover Béthune, placing it on the left flank of the French 10th Army. By today, II Corps is in the area Diéval-Pernes between St. Pol and Béthune, with 2nd Cavalry Division to its north and 1st Cavalry Division, having just arrived today, to its south. To the east, two French cavalry corps have prevented the German I and II Cavalry Corps from advancing beyond a line Béthune-Armentières.
- In Germany the four reserve corps destined to form the core of the new 4th Army begin to entrain for the front.
- This morning German forces begin to occupy Antwerp. They are surprised by how few prisoners they take - all that remained of the Belgian defenders were the Military Governor, his staff officer, and a few stragglers in the surviving forts. To the end of the siege the Germans had expected to capture the entire Belgian army at Antwerp, and so the realization that it has escaped mars the German victory.
In Britain the fall of Antwerp leads to sharp criticism being directed at Winston Churchill by the press. Not only is he, by virtue of his 'trip' to Antwerp, the most prominent minister associated with the defeat at Antwerp, and in particular the loss of several thousand men from the Naval Brigades, but his judgement is questioned regarding his presence at Antwerp at all, seen as an amateur interfering with army operations in the field and that he had cast aside his responsibilities as First Lord of the Admiralty to do so. There is an undertone of distrust regarding Churchill, whether he can sufficiently restrain his famous enthusiasm for whatever catches his fancy at the moment.
- A conference is held today at Ostend between King Albert, General Pau, the representative of Joffre, and General Rawlinson. The conclusion is that the present position around Ghent cannot be held for long, considering that the nearest significant Entente force is the BEF beginning to arrive west of Lille, and that retreat is necessary. Given the battered state of the Belgian army, King Albert wonders if they should not withdraw behind the front lines to southwest of Calais, to allow for rest and recovery.
By nightfall most of the Belgian army has pulled back towards Ostend while the British and French remain at Ghent to cover the withdrawal. The Germans to the east, however, do not immediately move on Ghent, instead turning eastward in the belief that there is still a substantial Belgian force at Antwerp that needs to be contained.
- In Poland the initial plan regarding the Russian offensive was that the armies committed to the operation - the 2nd, 5th, 4th, and 9th, arrayed north to south from Warsaw to Sandomir - would be prepared to advance today. Mud and supply shortages, however, have delayed their redeployment, and some units have yet to arrive along the east bank of the Vistula River. General Ivanov, in command of the offensive, is concerned by the German and Austro-Hungarian advance, and does not wish to engage the enemy until his armies are at full strength. Grand Duke Nicholas, however, is eager to attack, wanting the armies to cross the Vistula immediately. However, he has no direct line of communication with Ivanov today, so cannot influence the latter's operations.
- King Carol I of Romania dies today, and is succeeded by his nephew Ferdinand I, who is more favourably inclined to the Entente, and who also is willing to give greater leeway to Prime Minister Ion Bratianu, whose primary foreign policy aim is the acquisition of Austro-Hungarian Transylvania.
- In Austria-Hungary a decree is published today authorizing the Austrian Board of Trade to direct the flow of raw materials and organize industrial production in support of the war effort. While the decree is a step forward in mobilizing the economy for war, it also reflects a key hindrance to the Austro-Hungarian war effort - the decree applies only to the Austrian portion of the empire, as the Hungarian portion insists on controlling its own wartime economy. The lack of co-ordination between the two halves of Austria-Hungary is demonstrative of the extent to which the divisions of peacetime persist into the war itself.
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| The advance of British units in Flanders to October 15th, 1914 |
- In Germany the four reserve corps destined to form the core of the new 4th Army begin to entrain for the front.
- This morning German forces begin to occupy Antwerp. They are surprised by how few prisoners they take - all that remained of the Belgian defenders were the Military Governor, his staff officer, and a few stragglers in the surviving forts. To the end of the siege the Germans had expected to capture the entire Belgian army at Antwerp, and so the realization that it has escaped mars the German victory.
In Britain the fall of Antwerp leads to sharp criticism being directed at Winston Churchill by the press. Not only is he, by virtue of his 'trip' to Antwerp, the most prominent minister associated with the defeat at Antwerp, and in particular the loss of several thousand men from the Naval Brigades, but his judgement is questioned regarding his presence at Antwerp at all, seen as an amateur interfering with army operations in the field and that he had cast aside his responsibilities as First Lord of the Admiralty to do so. There is an undertone of distrust regarding Churchill, whether he can sufficiently restrain his famous enthusiasm for whatever catches his fancy at the moment.
- A conference is held today at Ostend between King Albert, General Pau, the representative of Joffre, and General Rawlinson. The conclusion is that the present position around Ghent cannot be held for long, considering that the nearest significant Entente force is the BEF beginning to arrive west of Lille, and that retreat is necessary. Given the battered state of the Belgian army, King Albert wonders if they should not withdraw behind the front lines to southwest of Calais, to allow for rest and recovery.
By nightfall most of the Belgian army has pulled back towards Ostend while the British and French remain at Ghent to cover the withdrawal. The Germans to the east, however, do not immediately move on Ghent, instead turning eastward in the belief that there is still a substantial Belgian force at Antwerp that needs to be contained.
- In Poland the initial plan regarding the Russian offensive was that the armies committed to the operation - the 2nd, 5th, 4th, and 9th, arrayed north to south from Warsaw to Sandomir - would be prepared to advance today. Mud and supply shortages, however, have delayed their redeployment, and some units have yet to arrive along the east bank of the Vistula River. General Ivanov, in command of the offensive, is concerned by the German and Austro-Hungarian advance, and does not wish to engage the enemy until his armies are at full strength. Grand Duke Nicholas, however, is eager to attack, wanting the armies to cross the Vistula immediately. However, he has no direct line of communication with Ivanov today, so cannot influence the latter's operations.
- King Carol I of Romania dies today, and is succeeded by his nephew Ferdinand I, who is more favourably inclined to the Entente, and who also is willing to give greater leeway to Prime Minister Ion Bratianu, whose primary foreign policy aim is the acquisition of Austro-Hungarian Transylvania.
- In Austria-Hungary a decree is published today authorizing the Austrian Board of Trade to direct the flow of raw materials and organize industrial production in support of the war effort. While the decree is a step forward in mobilizing the economy for war, it also reflects a key hindrance to the Austro-Hungarian war effort - the decree applies only to the Austrian portion of the empire, as the Hungarian portion insists on controlling its own wartime economy. The lack of co-ordination between the two halves of Austria-Hungary is demonstrative of the extent to which the divisions of peacetime persist into the war itself.
Sunday, September 21, 2014
September 21st, 1914
- After yesterday's failed attacks, General Heeringen of the German 7th Army orders another push by VII Reserve Corps against the British positions opposite. The corps commander, however, refuses, replying that 'the daily repetition of attack orders could not obtain any success.' Indeed, full-scale offensive actions by either side have petered out, and the front line becomes increasingly static. This does not mean there is no fighting - skirmishes occur regularly, and artillery fire is near constant - but there is a growing recognition that neither side is able to break through the enemy lines, which have not shifted to a significant degree since September 14th. Thus though fighting continues along the Aisne, the Battle of the Aisne, in terms of efforts to break through the enemy positions, has effectively come to a end.
- Today Joffre orders Foch to postpone further attacks by 9th Army, and that artillery fire should be limited. The French army is starting to experience a shortage of artillery shells, a crisis that will in time afflict all of the major combatants. In each case, peacetime estimates of the number of shells an artillery piece would use prove to be significantly wide of the mark. For the French, each of their approximately three thousand 75mm guns began the war with 1244 shells each. All of this starting ammunition has been fired off by today - the very effectiveness of the '75s' results in more and more requests from the infantry for additional fire support. The current daily production of 75mm shells, however, is only twenty thousand, or between six or seven shells per gun. Such a paltry amount could easily be shot off even when major operations were not underway, so the only way Joffre could stockpile shell reserves for major attacks was to reduce artillery fire at other times.
- The German 8th Army reaches the Niemen River today at three points - near Kovno, near Miroslav, and north of Grodno. However, the Russian 1st Army has been able to cross to the east bank of the river, and has had time to prepare defenses.
- In Galicia, Conrad orders a further retreat, ordering his armies falling back to the Dunajec River, a tributary of the Vistula River. Here the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th armies are to entrench, with 1st Army being detached to co-operate with the German 9th Army assembling to the north. The pursuing Russian armies today isolate the Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl, and the 150 000 defenders find themselves under siege. Otherwise, however, the advance of the Russians is slowing to a halt - September rains have turned the roads into mud, making rapid movement impossible. Further, the Russian armies are increasingly crippled by supply shortages - there are few railways connecting Galicia with Russia, meaning supplies have to be shipped by horse and cart.
Thus the retreating Austro-Hungarian armies are granted a brief reprieve from Russian pressure. However, the damage has been done - out of 1.8 million soldiers mobilized at the beginning of August, over 400 000 have become casualties in the fighting in Galicia alone. Moreover, casualties have been heaviest among the German regiments that constitute not only the elite but also the most loyal units of the Austro-Hungarian army. These losses cannot be replaced, and increasingly the army has to rely on the non-German regiments whose loyalty is always in doubt. Finally, many regiments have lost their pre-war junior officers, for whom the rank and file felt a sense of comradeship - replacement officers, unknown and often speaking only German, increase the sense of alienation among the masses of soldiers. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian army can never completely recover the strength lost in the Galician battles over the first two months of the war. Conversely, though the Russians have suffered heavy casualties - over a quarter of a million - their massive manpower reserves mean they can absorb far greater losses than the Austro-Hungarian armies could ever hope to.
- In the South Pacific the German East Asiatic Squadron approaches Bora Bora in the Society Islands, owned by France. Admiral Spee hopes to reprovision from the island, and though Bora Bora is undefended, he would much prefer to acquire food and supplies without force - if attacked, the French islanders might prefer hiding or burning supplies rather than see them seized by Germans. He thus attempts another ruse - his ships will simply act as if they are not Germans. Flying no identifying flags, the squadron leisurely approaches Bora Bora, where they are met offshore by several French officers. Spee ensures that the French officers interact only with German sailors who themselves speak French or British, and imply that they are a British squadron patrolling the Pacific. The French officers are completely fooled - they gladly offer supplies to the German ships, who pay in cash. Further, under subtle prodding, they discuss the port defences at Papeete, vital information for the Germans as it is their next target in their journey towards South America. As they depart, the French fire a salute from one of the antiquated cannons on the island; the cheeky response of the squadron is to raise the German ensign before disappearing over the horizon.
- As the British begin to formalize their naval blockade of Germany, a crucial question is what to do with neutral-flagged ships in the North Sea, whose cargo may be destined for Germany either directly or indirectly (unloaded at a neutral port and shipped overland to Germany). The desire to halt all trade with Germany needs to be balanced with the opinion of neutral countries, especially the United States, as Britain depends on foreign trade, especially of foodstuffs, for its economy. Today the British government publishes an expansion of its contraband list of items that will be seized if found on a neutral ship. Among the goods that will now be seized are rubber, magnetic iron ore, copper, and glycerine, all important components of munitions production.
- The finance minister of France today requests that the Banque de France, the country's national bank, advance a further 3.1 billion francs to support the war effort. By effectively printing more money, without having to acquire equivalent gold reserves, it gives the French government flexibility to meet the monetary demands of war, but creates inflationary pressure.
- Today Joffre orders Foch to postpone further attacks by 9th Army, and that artillery fire should be limited. The French army is starting to experience a shortage of artillery shells, a crisis that will in time afflict all of the major combatants. In each case, peacetime estimates of the number of shells an artillery piece would use prove to be significantly wide of the mark. For the French, each of their approximately three thousand 75mm guns began the war with 1244 shells each. All of this starting ammunition has been fired off by today - the very effectiveness of the '75s' results in more and more requests from the infantry for additional fire support. The current daily production of 75mm shells, however, is only twenty thousand, or between six or seven shells per gun. Such a paltry amount could easily be shot off even when major operations were not underway, so the only way Joffre could stockpile shell reserves for major attacks was to reduce artillery fire at other times.
- The German 8th Army reaches the Niemen River today at three points - near Kovno, near Miroslav, and north of Grodno. However, the Russian 1st Army has been able to cross to the east bank of the river, and has had time to prepare defenses.
- In Galicia, Conrad orders a further retreat, ordering his armies falling back to the Dunajec River, a tributary of the Vistula River. Here the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th armies are to entrench, with 1st Army being detached to co-operate with the German 9th Army assembling to the north. The pursuing Russian armies today isolate the Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl, and the 150 000 defenders find themselves under siege. Otherwise, however, the advance of the Russians is slowing to a halt - September rains have turned the roads into mud, making rapid movement impossible. Further, the Russian armies are increasingly crippled by supply shortages - there are few railways connecting Galicia with Russia, meaning supplies have to be shipped by horse and cart.
Thus the retreating Austro-Hungarian armies are granted a brief reprieve from Russian pressure. However, the damage has been done - out of 1.8 million soldiers mobilized at the beginning of August, over 400 000 have become casualties in the fighting in Galicia alone. Moreover, casualties have been heaviest among the German regiments that constitute not only the elite but also the most loyal units of the Austro-Hungarian army. These losses cannot be replaced, and increasingly the army has to rely on the non-German regiments whose loyalty is always in doubt. Finally, many regiments have lost their pre-war junior officers, for whom the rank and file felt a sense of comradeship - replacement officers, unknown and often speaking only German, increase the sense of alienation among the masses of soldiers. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian army can never completely recover the strength lost in the Galician battles over the first two months of the war. Conversely, though the Russians have suffered heavy casualties - over a quarter of a million - their massive manpower reserves mean they can absorb far greater losses than the Austro-Hungarian armies could ever hope to.
- In the South Pacific the German East Asiatic Squadron approaches Bora Bora in the Society Islands, owned by France. Admiral Spee hopes to reprovision from the island, and though Bora Bora is undefended, he would much prefer to acquire food and supplies without force - if attacked, the French islanders might prefer hiding or burning supplies rather than see them seized by Germans. He thus attempts another ruse - his ships will simply act as if they are not Germans. Flying no identifying flags, the squadron leisurely approaches Bora Bora, where they are met offshore by several French officers. Spee ensures that the French officers interact only with German sailors who themselves speak French or British, and imply that they are a British squadron patrolling the Pacific. The French officers are completely fooled - they gladly offer supplies to the German ships, who pay in cash. Further, under subtle prodding, they discuss the port defences at Papeete, vital information for the Germans as it is their next target in their journey towards South America. As they depart, the French fire a salute from one of the antiquated cannons on the island; the cheeky response of the squadron is to raise the German ensign before disappearing over the horizon.
- As the British begin to formalize their naval blockade of Germany, a crucial question is what to do with neutral-flagged ships in the North Sea, whose cargo may be destined for Germany either directly or indirectly (unloaded at a neutral port and shipped overland to Germany). The desire to halt all trade with Germany needs to be balanced with the opinion of neutral countries, especially the United States, as Britain depends on foreign trade, especially of foodstuffs, for its economy. Today the British government publishes an expansion of its contraband list of items that will be seized if found on a neutral ship. Among the goods that will now be seized are rubber, magnetic iron ore, copper, and glycerine, all important components of munitions production.
- The finance minister of France today requests that the Banque de France, the country's national bank, advance a further 3.1 billion francs to support the war effort. By effectively printing more money, without having to acquire equivalent gold reserves, it gives the French government flexibility to meet the monetary demands of war, but creates inflationary pressure.
Sunday, August 17, 2014
August 17th, 1914
- Today the advance of the 1st and 2nd German Armies through Belgium is in full motion - 1st Army is attacking the lines of the main Belgian army along the Gette River, fifteen miles east of Brussels, while elements of 2nd Army are crossing the Meuse River at Huy in the direction of Namur and 3rd Army is moving west towards Dinant and Givet. King Albert and Premier de Brouqueville in Brussels discuss the plight of the Belgian army. Both believe that the main German advance is coming through Belgium, and to date no significant military assistance has been forthcoming from their allies, Joffre still insisting that the German effort in Belgium was a 'screen' for operations elsewhere. The Belgian army alone can hardly withstand the Germans; remaining at their current positions would only ensure their ultimate destruction. This evening the Belgian king takes the decision to abandon the capital.
- The commander of II Corps of the British Expeditionary Force, Lieutenant General James Grierson, drops dead this morning on a train near Amiens of heart failure. Field Marshal French is shocked by the sudden death of his good friend, compounded by Kitchener's refusal to agree to French's preferred replacement. Instead, Kitchener sends out General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, whom French dislikes. Both corps of the BEF are now under opinionated generals (I Corps being led by General Sir Douglas Haig) disinclined to defer to the wishes of their commanding officer.
- Field Marshal Sir John French meets with General Charles Lanrezac of the French 5th Army at the latter's headquarters today. As the BEF is to slid into the Entente line to the left of 5th Army, a good working relationship between the two commanders is essential. Instead, the meeting reflects the suspicion both hold for the other; in particular, Lanrezac places no faith in the BEF. He feels that the main German force is about to descend on his position, and 5th Army is all that stands between France and annihilation. Instead of receiving support from Joffre, however, the only aid he is to receive is the tiny British force. He feels French does not understand the gravity of the situation, an impression confirmed when the British commander states, as he did to the French President, that his force will not be ready for action until the 24th. When French asks if the Germans are crossing the Meuse, Lanrezac's peevish response is that the Germans have come to the Meuse to fish. Neither general is willing to place their cavalry under the direction of the other. In a report later submitted by Lanrezac to Joffre, the former reported that the British cavalry cannot be counted upon for anything, and that British unfamiliarity with French roads could cause widespread confusion in the case of a retreat. It is the first time that Lanrezac has mentioned the possibility of retreat, and reflects his anxiety that his army will be insufficient to stop the German steamroller. Joffre, for his part, is unimpressed.
- The French advance into Lorraine continues. In the face of heavy casualties, XX Corps, commanded by General Ferdinand Foch and part of 2nd Army, seizes a portion of the heights near Morhange. The success of XX Corps, though, disrupts the plans of General Édouard de Curières Castelnau, 2nd Army commander. Castelnau had wanted XX Corps, on the left flank of his army, to act as a pivot, around which the other corps to the south would turn. With XX Corps now the furthest into German territory, the left flank of Castelnau's two centre corps is now uncovered.
- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force is completed in the Channel ports today.
- As the Russian 1st Army has been the first to cross into East Prussia, General Prittwitz, commander of the German 8th Army, has decided that it will need to be defeated first, before redeployment southwest to meet the impending invasion of the Russian 2nd Army. Prittwitz leaves one corps in the south to screen the Russian 2nd Army, and moves his other three and a half corps against the Russian 1st Army. The plan is to fight the Russians along the Angerapp River, well behind the border, on the belief that the longer the Russians have to march, the more exhausted and out of supply they will become.
Prittwitz's plan, however, does not account for the insubordination of one of his corps commanders, General Hermann von François, whose I Corps was drawn from East Prussia. François and his soldiers did not want to yield an inch of their 'home' territory to the Russians, and I Corps had consequently deployed farther east than the rest of 8th Army, and had begin skirmishing with the Russian 1st Army as soon as it crossed the border on the 15th. Today I Corps engaged the Russians at Stallupönnen, twenty miles to the east of Gumbinnen and the Angerapp, despite a direct order from Prittwitz to François. I Corps' attack disrupted the advance of the Russian 1st Army and forced the Russian 27th Division to retire in disarray. Having achieved a tactical success, François shadows the Russians as they lumber westward, continuing to skirmish.
- Britain and France establish the Commission Internationale de Revitaillement to co-ordinate Entente purchase of munitions and other supplies from neutral countries, and thereby keep down prices.
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| Operations in Northern France and Belgium, Aug. 17th to Aug. 26th, 1914. |
- The commander of II Corps of the British Expeditionary Force, Lieutenant General James Grierson, drops dead this morning on a train near Amiens of heart failure. Field Marshal French is shocked by the sudden death of his good friend, compounded by Kitchener's refusal to agree to French's preferred replacement. Instead, Kitchener sends out General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, whom French dislikes. Both corps of the BEF are now under opinionated generals (I Corps being led by General Sir Douglas Haig) disinclined to defer to the wishes of their commanding officer.
- Field Marshal Sir John French meets with General Charles Lanrezac of the French 5th Army at the latter's headquarters today. As the BEF is to slid into the Entente line to the left of 5th Army, a good working relationship between the two commanders is essential. Instead, the meeting reflects the suspicion both hold for the other; in particular, Lanrezac places no faith in the BEF. He feels that the main German force is about to descend on his position, and 5th Army is all that stands between France and annihilation. Instead of receiving support from Joffre, however, the only aid he is to receive is the tiny British force. He feels French does not understand the gravity of the situation, an impression confirmed when the British commander states, as he did to the French President, that his force will not be ready for action until the 24th. When French asks if the Germans are crossing the Meuse, Lanrezac's peevish response is that the Germans have come to the Meuse to fish. Neither general is willing to place their cavalry under the direction of the other. In a report later submitted by Lanrezac to Joffre, the former reported that the British cavalry cannot be counted upon for anything, and that British unfamiliarity with French roads could cause widespread confusion in the case of a retreat. It is the first time that Lanrezac has mentioned the possibility of retreat, and reflects his anxiety that his army will be insufficient to stop the German steamroller. Joffre, for his part, is unimpressed.
- The French advance into Lorraine continues. In the face of heavy casualties, XX Corps, commanded by General Ferdinand Foch and part of 2nd Army, seizes a portion of the heights near Morhange. The success of XX Corps, though, disrupts the plans of General Édouard de Curières Castelnau, 2nd Army commander. Castelnau had wanted XX Corps, on the left flank of his army, to act as a pivot, around which the other corps to the south would turn. With XX Corps now the furthest into German territory, the left flank of Castelnau's two centre corps is now uncovered.
- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force is completed in the Channel ports today.
- As the Russian 1st Army has been the first to cross into East Prussia, General Prittwitz, commander of the German 8th Army, has decided that it will need to be defeated first, before redeployment southwest to meet the impending invasion of the Russian 2nd Army. Prittwitz leaves one corps in the south to screen the Russian 2nd Army, and moves his other three and a half corps against the Russian 1st Army. The plan is to fight the Russians along the Angerapp River, well behind the border, on the belief that the longer the Russians have to march, the more exhausted and out of supply they will become.
Prittwitz's plan, however, does not account for the insubordination of one of his corps commanders, General Hermann von François, whose I Corps was drawn from East Prussia. François and his soldiers did not want to yield an inch of their 'home' territory to the Russians, and I Corps had consequently deployed farther east than the rest of 8th Army, and had begin skirmishing with the Russian 1st Army as soon as it crossed the border on the 15th. Today I Corps engaged the Russians at Stallupönnen, twenty miles to the east of Gumbinnen and the Angerapp, despite a direct order from Prittwitz to François. I Corps' attack disrupted the advance of the Russian 1st Army and forced the Russian 27th Division to retire in disarray. Having achieved a tactical success, François shadows the Russians as they lumber westward, continuing to skirmish.
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| Operations in East Prussia, Aug. 17th to 23rd, 1914. |
- Britain and France establish the Commission Internationale de Revitaillement to co-ordinate Entente purchase of munitions and other supplies from neutral countries, and thereby keep down prices.
Saturday, August 09, 2014
August 9th, 1914
- Today the Royal Navy sinks its first German U-boat of the war. As anti-submarine weapons do not exist as of yet, the light cruiser Birmingham attacks the submarine U-15 by ramming it. Sliced in half, the submarine sinks quickly, and all hands are lost.
- German industrialist Walther Rathenau meets today with War Minister General Erich von Falkenhayn. Rathenau's initial concern is the exploitation of Belgian industry, but he also has concerns about the German economy as a whole if, as he suspects, the war will be lengthy. In a memorandum he submits to Falkenhayn, he suggests the creation of an organization to manage to the appropriation and distribution of raw materials, in order to ensure German industry was operating as efficiently as possible, and that factories producing the essentials of war - steel, ammunition, etc. - have priority on the raw materials they need. Falkenhayn is convinced, and establishes the Kriegsrohstoffsamt (KRA) under Rathenau's leadership. The KRA will play a vital role in managing the wartime German economy, especially in the face of shortages caused by the Entente naval blockade.
- At dawn, Goeben and Breslau arrive at the harbour of Denusa, meeting their collier. The two German ships attach themselves to either side of collier, and begin transferring coal as rapidly as possibly, sailors shoveling nonstop throughout the day and into the night. At 9pm, the wireless room on Goeben report the first faint signals from approaching British warships.
- This morning, German units sent from Strasbourg begin a counterattack against the French force that has occupied Mulhouse.
- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force begins at ports in southern England. Eighty thousand infantrymen and twelve thousand cavalrymen are destined for Le Havre and other nearby French ports.
- Two Krupp 420 mortars have been readied at Essen for use, and tonight are loaded on freight cars for transportation towards Liège.
- German industrialist Walther Rathenau meets today with War Minister General Erich von Falkenhayn. Rathenau's initial concern is the exploitation of Belgian industry, but he also has concerns about the German economy as a whole if, as he suspects, the war will be lengthy. In a memorandum he submits to Falkenhayn, he suggests the creation of an organization to manage to the appropriation and distribution of raw materials, in order to ensure German industry was operating as efficiently as possible, and that factories producing the essentials of war - steel, ammunition, etc. - have priority on the raw materials they need. Falkenhayn is convinced, and establishes the Kriegsrohstoffsamt (KRA) under Rathenau's leadership. The KRA will play a vital role in managing the wartime German economy, especially in the face of shortages caused by the Entente naval blockade.
- At dawn, Goeben and Breslau arrive at the harbour of Denusa, meeting their collier. The two German ships attach themselves to either side of collier, and begin transferring coal as rapidly as possibly, sailors shoveling nonstop throughout the day and into the night. At 9pm, the wireless room on Goeben report the first faint signals from approaching British warships.
- This morning, German units sent from Strasbourg begin a counterattack against the French force that has occupied Mulhouse.
- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force begins at ports in southern England. Eighty thousand infantrymen and twelve thousand cavalrymen are destined for Le Havre and other nearby French ports.
- Two Krupp 420 mortars have been readied at Essen for use, and tonight are loaded on freight cars for transportation towards Liège.
Friday, August 08, 2014
August 8th, 1914
- The economic impact of the outbreak of war has reached the neutral United States, as Europeans withdraw funds from American banks. As a result, by today the gold reserves of the New York banks have declined by $43 million.
- Two British cruisers appear off Dar es Salaam in German East Africa, and proceed to bombard the harbour. The governor, Heinrich Schnee, proclams Dar es Salaam an open city, knowing it cannot be defended. The tiny German garrison destroys the wireless station and retreat inland.
- Mulhouse is captured by elements of the French VII Corps at 3pm, the French force having encountered no strong German resistance. Thousands of Alsatians greet VII Corps with cheers of 'Vive la France!', while the news is met with joyous celebration in France.
- As Goeben and Breslau sail among the Greek islands, Admiral Souchon orders his collier to meet him at Denusa, a remote island on the far side of the Aegean. Meanwhile, the British battlecruisers finally leave Malta and begin to sail eastwards after the German pair. Admiral Sir Archibald Berkeley Milne, commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet, still believes that the ultimate intention of the Germans is to double back and attack the conveys, so he is in no rush to catch up to Goeben and Breslau. He has no idea that the Dardanelles is a possible destination for the ships.
- French General Joffre issues his General Instructions No. 1 today, outlining his plan for the campaign. In line with Plan XVII, 1st and 2nd Armies will attack into Lorraine south of the Metz-Thionville fortified zone, while 3rd and 4th Armies will attack through the Ardennes north of Metz-Thionville. The objective of the offensive is the destruction of the German armies. The plan rests on the assumption that the German army is concentrated in Luxembourg and Metz-Thionville. The German invasion of Belgium, meanwhile, is dismissed as a comparatively secondary operation.
- The French 1st Army seizes several passes in the Vosges, in order to protect its flank for its imminent offensive under General Instructions No. 1.
- Ludendorff returns from Liège to 2nd Army headquarters, reporting on the seizure of the town. As the surrounding forts continue to resist, he argues that special siege artillery will be needed to ensure their destruction. The Germans have two types of such guns - several Skoda 305 mortars are on loan from Austria-Hungary, and Krupp is frantically finishing construction of its Krupp 420 mortars at its factory in Essen. These mortars are the largest land guns in history, and only they can fire shells of sufficient size (12-inch for the Skodas and 16.5 inch for the Krupps) to penetrate the thick concrete of the Belgian forts at Liège.
- Two British cruisers appear off Dar es Salaam in German East Africa, and proceed to bombard the harbour. The governor, Heinrich Schnee, proclams Dar es Salaam an open city, knowing it cannot be defended. The tiny German garrison destroys the wireless station and retreat inland.
- Mulhouse is captured by elements of the French VII Corps at 3pm, the French force having encountered no strong German resistance. Thousands of Alsatians greet VII Corps with cheers of 'Vive la France!', while the news is met with joyous celebration in France.
- As Goeben and Breslau sail among the Greek islands, Admiral Souchon orders his collier to meet him at Denusa, a remote island on the far side of the Aegean. Meanwhile, the British battlecruisers finally leave Malta and begin to sail eastwards after the German pair. Admiral Sir Archibald Berkeley Milne, commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet, still believes that the ultimate intention of the Germans is to double back and attack the conveys, so he is in no rush to catch up to Goeben and Breslau. He has no idea that the Dardanelles is a possible destination for the ships.
- French General Joffre issues his General Instructions No. 1 today, outlining his plan for the campaign. In line with Plan XVII, 1st and 2nd Armies will attack into Lorraine south of the Metz-Thionville fortified zone, while 3rd and 4th Armies will attack through the Ardennes north of Metz-Thionville. The objective of the offensive is the destruction of the German armies. The plan rests on the assumption that the German army is concentrated in Luxembourg and Metz-Thionville. The German invasion of Belgium, meanwhile, is dismissed as a comparatively secondary operation.
- The French 1st Army seizes several passes in the Vosges, in order to protect its flank for its imminent offensive under General Instructions No. 1.
- Ludendorff returns from Liège to 2nd Army headquarters, reporting on the seizure of the town. As the surrounding forts continue to resist, he argues that special siege artillery will be needed to ensure their destruction. The Germans have two types of such guns - several Skoda 305 mortars are on loan from Austria-Hungary, and Krupp is frantically finishing construction of its Krupp 420 mortars at its factory in Essen. These mortars are the largest land guns in history, and only they can fire shells of sufficient size (12-inch for the Skodas and 16.5 inch for the Krupps) to penetrate the thick concrete of the Belgian forts at Liège.
Tuesday, August 05, 2014
August 5th, 1914
- At dawn, Goeben and Breslau arrive at the Italian post of Messina on Sicily in order to replenish their stock of coal. The Italian authorities, however, emphasizing the neutrality of Italy in the war, inform Admiral Souchon that his ships may remain in harbour for only 24 hours. As the German sailors desperately shovel coal as quickly as possible, the British light cruiser Gloucester watches the southern exit of the Messina Strait, while the battlecruisers Inflexible and Indefatigable are to the northwest of Sicily, covering the French troop transports.
- General Radomir Putnik, Chief of Staff of the Serbian Army, arrives at his headquarters today. He had actually been in Budapest when Austria-Hungary issued its declaration of war, but in an act of chivalry he was not detained and was permitted to return to Serbia. In another remarkable episode, Putnik had with him the only set of keys to open a safe in his office which contained the only copy of Serbia's mobilization plan. In his absence, his staff had to dynamite open the safe before they could begin to mobilize.
- Austria-Hungary today declares war on Russia. The delay speaks to the extent to which the war had already bypassed one of its initiators.
- Representatives of twenty-one London commercial banks meet to discuss the economic fallout from the advent of war. They calculate that they are owed £60 million by firms in Germany and Austria-Hungary, debts that they will be unable to collect.
- In Austria-Hungary, finance ministers and the central bank agree that the country's gold reserves will be allotted solely for state and military use, and that foreign payments will be halted to prevent a currency drain.
- In France, the central bank advances to the government 2.9 billion francs in new notes to finance the war efforts, raising the value of the notes in circulation by almost a third. With convertability from notes to gold suspended, the central bank can increase the money supply almost at will.
- In Britain, a meeting of the War Council is held to discuss the deployment of the British Expeditionary Force, consisting of all six regular divisions of the British Army. The members of the Council include civilian ministers and leading figures in the army - among the former is Asquith, Grey, and Churchill, and the latter includes Field Marshal Sir John French, commander of the BEF, and Kitchener in his new role as Secretary of State for War. The meeting is a shambles. The official mobilization plan for the BEF is that it is to be deployed to France as soon as possible, assembling at the French fortress of Maubeuge on the Belgian frontier. As he had no part of developing the mobilization plan, Kitchener feels no responsibility to ensure its implementation. He argues that Maubeuge is far too forward, risking their early destruction of the Germans move through Belgium in force. Instead, the BEF should assemble at Amiens, far to the rear. Other generals are appalled - General Sir Henry Wilson, author and driving force behind the pre-war mobilization plan, and who would become Deputy Chief of Staff of the BEF, felt Amiens would leave the BEF too far away from the fighting to make any difference. Sir John French, meanwhile, suggests that instead of France the BEF should go to Antwerp in Belgium - if the war is about aiding Belgium, shouldn't the BEF land in Belgium to help directly? Moreover, there are suggestions, particular from the civilian ministers, that some of the divisions of the BEF be held back, out of fear of German invasion. Churchill and the Navy says this is preposterous, but the fear remains.
Kitchener also astonishes the Council when he declares that the war will last three years and require the mobilization of millions of soldiers into seventy divisions. Everyone else, believing the war will be over in months, not years, is flabbergasted. Here is Kitchener, on his first day in office, declaring that everyone else's perceptions of how the war will play out are completely out-of-touch. Many, instead, believe Kitchener is the one out-of-touch. Kitchener is doubtful of sending the BEF to France at all - better to use the trained regulars of the BEF, especially the non-commissioned officers, as a nucleus of a massively-expanded British Army.
The meeting breaks up without agreement. It is often said that no plan survives contact with the enemy - in this case, the British plan does not survive contact with Kitchener.
- In Belgium General Emmich's brigades launch the first major attack on the four easternmost forts at Liège. Repeated assaults are broken up, German soldiers mowed down by the fort's machine guns before they could reach the forts themselves. The fighting is a preview of what the Western Front will become in the years ahead. By nightfall the Germans have suffered heavy casualties without seizing any of the forts. Morale among the Germans has been shaken as Emmich orders another assault for the next morning.
- Moltke writes this day that 'Our advance in Belgium is certainly brutal, but we are fighting for our lives and all who get in the way must take the consequences.' These ominous words reflect how the German army will deal with civilians, especially in Belgium, who are suspected of resisting the German advance. As German units move into Belgium, they are constantly on the lookout for francs-tireurs - the name given to civilians and partisans who sniped at Prussian soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1. Furthermore, the Germans are outraged that the Belgians dare resist - they know they cannot win, so why not step aside and allow the Germans to move as they please? The combination of these two attitudes is lethal during the German invasion of Belgium. Official orders come down from the generals in charge of the advance that all resistance by civilians must be dealt with using the harshest means possible, and soldiers came to see such francs-tireurs around every corner. There was a deliberate policy to 'frighten' the Belgian population into submission. Any civilian caught with a firearm was liable for summary execution. Further, if any village or town was suspected of harbouring civilian resisters, innocent civilians, including women and children, would be executed and the village burnt to the ground, in order to 'make an example' of those who resisted. In reality, there is no evidence of any widespread resistance by the Belgian population - indeed, the Belgian government had told its people to hand in their guns to the nearest authorities before the Germans arrived. Already, six hostages has been shot at Warsage and the village of Battice burnt to the ground. These are merely the first steps of what will come to be known around the world as the 'Rape of Belgium'.
- General Radomir Putnik, Chief of Staff of the Serbian Army, arrives at his headquarters today. He had actually been in Budapest when Austria-Hungary issued its declaration of war, but in an act of chivalry he was not detained and was permitted to return to Serbia. In another remarkable episode, Putnik had with him the only set of keys to open a safe in his office which contained the only copy of Serbia's mobilization plan. In his absence, his staff had to dynamite open the safe before they could begin to mobilize.
- Austria-Hungary today declares war on Russia. The delay speaks to the extent to which the war had already bypassed one of its initiators.
- Representatives of twenty-one London commercial banks meet to discuss the economic fallout from the advent of war. They calculate that they are owed £60 million by firms in Germany and Austria-Hungary, debts that they will be unable to collect.
- In Austria-Hungary, finance ministers and the central bank agree that the country's gold reserves will be allotted solely for state and military use, and that foreign payments will be halted to prevent a currency drain.
- In France, the central bank advances to the government 2.9 billion francs in new notes to finance the war efforts, raising the value of the notes in circulation by almost a third. With convertability from notes to gold suspended, the central bank can increase the money supply almost at will.
- In Britain, a meeting of the War Council is held to discuss the deployment of the British Expeditionary Force, consisting of all six regular divisions of the British Army. The members of the Council include civilian ministers and leading figures in the army - among the former is Asquith, Grey, and Churchill, and the latter includes Field Marshal Sir John French, commander of the BEF, and Kitchener in his new role as Secretary of State for War. The meeting is a shambles. The official mobilization plan for the BEF is that it is to be deployed to France as soon as possible, assembling at the French fortress of Maubeuge on the Belgian frontier. As he had no part of developing the mobilization plan, Kitchener feels no responsibility to ensure its implementation. He argues that Maubeuge is far too forward, risking their early destruction of the Germans move through Belgium in force. Instead, the BEF should assemble at Amiens, far to the rear. Other generals are appalled - General Sir Henry Wilson, author and driving force behind the pre-war mobilization plan, and who would become Deputy Chief of Staff of the BEF, felt Amiens would leave the BEF too far away from the fighting to make any difference. Sir John French, meanwhile, suggests that instead of France the BEF should go to Antwerp in Belgium - if the war is about aiding Belgium, shouldn't the BEF land in Belgium to help directly? Moreover, there are suggestions, particular from the civilian ministers, that some of the divisions of the BEF be held back, out of fear of German invasion. Churchill and the Navy says this is preposterous, but the fear remains.
Kitchener also astonishes the Council when he declares that the war will last three years and require the mobilization of millions of soldiers into seventy divisions. Everyone else, believing the war will be over in months, not years, is flabbergasted. Here is Kitchener, on his first day in office, declaring that everyone else's perceptions of how the war will play out are completely out-of-touch. Many, instead, believe Kitchener is the one out-of-touch. Kitchener is doubtful of sending the BEF to France at all - better to use the trained regulars of the BEF, especially the non-commissioned officers, as a nucleus of a massively-expanded British Army.
The meeting breaks up without agreement. It is often said that no plan survives contact with the enemy - in this case, the British plan does not survive contact with Kitchener.
- In Belgium General Emmich's brigades launch the first major attack on the four easternmost forts at Liège. Repeated assaults are broken up, German soldiers mowed down by the fort's machine guns before they could reach the forts themselves. The fighting is a preview of what the Western Front will become in the years ahead. By nightfall the Germans have suffered heavy casualties without seizing any of the forts. Morale among the Germans has been shaken as Emmich orders another assault for the next morning.
- Moltke writes this day that 'Our advance in Belgium is certainly brutal, but we are fighting for our lives and all who get in the way must take the consequences.' These ominous words reflect how the German army will deal with civilians, especially in Belgium, who are suspected of resisting the German advance. As German units move into Belgium, they are constantly on the lookout for francs-tireurs - the name given to civilians and partisans who sniped at Prussian soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1. Furthermore, the Germans are outraged that the Belgians dare resist - they know they cannot win, so why not step aside and allow the Germans to move as they please? The combination of these two attitudes is lethal during the German invasion of Belgium. Official orders come down from the generals in charge of the advance that all resistance by civilians must be dealt with using the harshest means possible, and soldiers came to see such francs-tireurs around every corner. There was a deliberate policy to 'frighten' the Belgian population into submission. Any civilian caught with a firearm was liable for summary execution. Further, if any village or town was suspected of harbouring civilian resisters, innocent civilians, including women and children, would be executed and the village burnt to the ground, in order to 'make an example' of those who resisted. In reality, there is no evidence of any widespread resistance by the Belgian population - indeed, the Belgian government had told its people to hand in their guns to the nearest authorities before the Germans arrived. Already, six hostages has been shot at Warsage and the village of Battice burnt to the ground. These are merely the first steps of what will come to be known around the world as the 'Rape of Belgium'.
Monday, August 04, 2014
August 4th, 1914
- At 4am, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe receives orders from the Admiralty to take command of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet as Commander-in-Chief. The Grand Fleet is the strongest naval force in the world, consisting of dreadnoughts, battlecruisers, and supporting vessels, and is based at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys. As its commander, Jellicoe's role is the most important in the Royal Navy. The Grand Fleet is essential to the survival of Great Britain - should its ships be sunk, the Germans would be able to easily blockade the country and, since Britain must import food, force starvation and surrender within weeks. Thus, as Churchill says of Jellicoe, he is 'the only man on either side who can lose the war in an afternoon.' Jellicoe is acutely aware of the pressure and responsibilities of his role. He sees it as his task not to destroy the German navy, but to preserve the Grand Fleet. The status quo is satisfactory for Britain - merely by existing, the Grand Fleet is able to blockade Germany, as no German ships can possible sail through the Channel or out of the North Sea east of Scapa Flow without interception by the Royal Navy. Thus Jellicoe does not seek battle with the Germans merely for the sake of battle, as he knows that victory in such a battle will not substantially change the status quo, but defeat can end the war.
- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations. The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army). It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan. On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army). The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany. The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain. For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance. For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine. Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory. Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.
- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force. The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion. Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside. This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen. As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.
- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège. Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable. For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies. Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.
- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside. Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich. This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles. Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown. When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders. By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.
- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany. When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war. At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum. The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.
- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly. The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality. He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.' Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.
- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!' At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers. Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort. At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.
- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber). He concludes:
Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies. It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.
- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War. The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis. For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable. The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660. When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent. Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence. What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages. He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa. His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had. It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.
- In a statement to a private meeting of bankers and businessmen Lloyd George reassures them that it will be 'business as usual' regarding the economy - government intervention will be minimized, so there is no need for panic or hasty withdrawal of funds. The slogan will become famous as a description of the British approach to the wartime economy in the early stages of the conflict, but right from the start some 'unusual' measures were being taken. This day also sees the British government taking over the management of the nation's railways, to ensure efficient distribution of war material and food. Railway owners were only the first to see how 'unusual' the economy could become in wartime.
- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification. They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area. This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France. At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd. Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment. Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.
The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente. With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau. The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers. Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am. Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other. After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward. The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire. Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go. Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships. By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon. By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared. The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm. Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.
- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call. Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'. Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm. When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.
- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations. The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army). It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan. On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army). The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany. The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain. For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance. For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine. Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory. Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.
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| French and German deployments on the Western Front at the start of the war. |
- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force. The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion. Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside. This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen. As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.
- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège. Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable. For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies. Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.
- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside. Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich. This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles. Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown. When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders. By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.
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| The Liège forts and the initial German advance, Aug. 4th, 1914. |
- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany. When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war. At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum. The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.
- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly. The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality. He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.' Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.
- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!' At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers. Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort. At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.
- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber). He concludes:
In the war which is beginning, France will have Right on her side, the eternal power of which cannot with impunity be disregarded by nations any more than by individuals. She will be heroically defended by all her sons; nothing will break their sacred union before the enemy; today they are joined together as brothers in a common indignation against the aggressor, and in a common patriotic faith. She is faithfully helped by Russia, her ally ; she is supported by the loyal friendship of Great Britain. And already from every part of the civilised world sympathy and good wishes are coming to her. For today once again she stands before the universe for Liberty, Justice, and Reason. Haut les coeurs et vive la France!
Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies. It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.
- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War. The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis. For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable. The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660. When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent. Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence. What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages. He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa. His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had. It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.
 |
| The face of Kitchener, with its distinctive moustache, would be ubiquitous on recruiting posters throughout Britain. |
- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification. They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area. This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France. At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd. Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment. Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.
The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente. With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau. The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers. Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am. Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other. After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward. The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire. Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go. Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships. By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon. By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared. The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm. Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.
- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call. Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'. Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm. When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.
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| Crowds outside Buckingham Palace cheer the declaration of war against Germany. |
Thursday, July 31, 2014
July 31st, 1914
- This morning the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister receives a copy of the telegram from Moltke to Conrad sent the prior afternoon, urging the Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff to mobilize against Russia. When compared to the conflicting message from Bethmann-Hollweg pleading for mediation, Berchtold exclaims 'How odd! Who runs the government: Moltke or Bethmann?' He takes the message from Moltke as the more definitive statement, and in agreement with Conrad submits a request to Emperor Franz Joseph for mobilization against Russia. The Emperor agrees shortly after noon and the proclamation is published immediately. Notably, however, mobilization against Russia will not commence until August 4th - the Railway Department has informed Conrad that with 2nd Army being deployed against Serbia, the delay is necessary to avoid logistical chaos. Under pressure from Moltke, Conrad then requests that 2nd Army be redeployed to the Russian frontier. The Railway Department states unequivocally that this is impossible - deviation from the mobilization plan is impossible, and since 2nd Army has begun deployment to the Serbian frontier, the only option is for it to complete its arrival in full in the south, as only then can transportation be arranged to send it back north against the Russians. Hardly an auspicious beginning to the war for Austria-Hungary. This debacle emphasizes the central role played by the intricate mobilization plans of each of the Great Powers - since the plans require the precise movement of thousands of trains over limited stretches of tracks, with schedules down to the minute, any deviation invites a logistical nightmare.
- At 1020am a telegram arrives in Berlin from the German Ambassador in St. Petersburg announcing Russian mobilization. Moltke's arguments for the necessity of German mobilization in response are now overwhelming, and Bethmann-Hollweg now accepts that war is unavoidable. At 1pm the 'State of Danger of War' is declared, a measure to prepare for mobilization. Shortly after 3pm, an ultimatum is sent to St. Petersburg demanding a definitive statement by noon tomorrow that Russia is cancelling mobilization against both Germany and Austria-Hungary, or Germany will mobilize as well. A similar ultimatum is sent simultaneously to Paris, requiring a declaration within eighteen hours of French neutrality in a Russo-German war, and that the French fortresses at Verdun and Toul be occupied by German forces as a guarantee of French neutrality. Both ultimatums contain the phrase 'mobilization means war.'
- At the same time in Paris, Joseph Joffre, the Command-in-Chief of the French Army, is increasingly concerned about developments. His greatest fear is Germany mobilizing before France, leading to a repeat of the French catastrophe of 1870. To the Minister of War he states the case for French mobilization:
Meanwhile, the French socialist leader and pacifist Jean Jaurés is assassinated this evening as he sits in a Parisian café. When the French cabinet is informed at 9pm, there is momentary panic. Jaurés, a leading figure in international socialism, had long opposed measures in peacetime to expand conscription in France, while he had advocated the policy of a general strike by socialists and trade unions to prevent the outbreak of war if it appeared imminent. In the Cabinet this evening, there is a fear that the left may react to the assassination by riots and strikes. Some suggest that Carnet B be invoked, which would arrest a list of 2501 known socialists, anarchists, pacifists, and others. Fearing that such a widespread operation might invoke precisely the civil unrest they hope to avoid, the Cabinet decides against Carnet B. The reaction of the French public to Jaurés' assassination justifies the faith placed by the government in the people. Though there is widespread mourning at the murder, there are no major protests, no attempts to use the assassination to argue against French participation in the European war. It is one of the first indications that the left, stridently anti-war in peacetime, will lose their nerve when confronted with an actual war.
- The approach to war and the imminent collapse of international trade has provoked a severe economic crisis. Stock prices have dropped sharply while interest rates have shot upwards, the latter undertaken by national banks to stop investors from withdrawing deposits. It has a limited impact - in France, 1.5 billion francs have been withdrawn from the nation's banks over the prior four days. Ultimately, the choice is taken this day to stop trading at the Berlin, Paris, and London stock exchanges, to avoid a meltdown. The closure of the London stock exchange is particularly shocking - London is the financial heart of the global economy, and none of the crises of the 19th-century had forced such a drastic step. On the same day, Lord Nathaniel Rothschild, English head of perhaps the richest banking family in the world, writes to the editor of the Times begging for the paper's articles to preach the necessity of avoiding war. Rothschild's views are reflective of the banking community as a whole. After the war, it will be a common refrain that the conflict was fought to enrich capitalists and bankers. Nothing could be further from the truth - international finance is absolutely terrified, pleading with politicians to stop the relentless march to war. They believe that no modern economy could survive more than a few months of a European-wide war, and that the inevitable result will be financial ruin. Their fears, of course, are misplaced - each of the combatants prove willing to resort to economic measures that the bankers had never dreamt of.
- In Italy, the Council of Ministers votes to remain neutral in the coming European conflict. Though a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, there are also strong anti-Hapsburg sentiment in Italy, seeking the acquisition of Trentino, Tyrol, Trieste, and the Adriatic coast from their nominal allies. This decision comes as a complete surprise to the Italian Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna, who had been appointed to the post only two days earlier, and had sought permission to dispatch Italian forces to support the Germans along the Rhine even as the Council of Ministers was deciding to renege on their treaty obligations.
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| The mobilization plan of Austria-Hungary, giving the two possible destinations for 2nd Army. |
- At 1020am a telegram arrives in Berlin from the German Ambassador in St. Petersburg announcing Russian mobilization. Moltke's arguments for the necessity of German mobilization in response are now overwhelming, and Bethmann-Hollweg now accepts that war is unavoidable. At 1pm the 'State of Danger of War' is declared, a measure to prepare for mobilization. Shortly after 3pm, an ultimatum is sent to St. Petersburg demanding a definitive statement by noon tomorrow that Russia is cancelling mobilization against both Germany and Austria-Hungary, or Germany will mobilize as well. A similar ultimatum is sent simultaneously to Paris, requiring a declaration within eighteen hours of French neutrality in a Russo-German war, and that the French fortresses at Verdun and Toul be occupied by German forces as a guarantee of French neutrality. Both ultimatums contain the phrase 'mobilization means war.'
- At the same time in Paris, Joseph Joffre, the Command-in-Chief of the French Army, is increasingly concerned about developments. His greatest fear is Germany mobilizing before France, leading to a repeat of the French catastrophe of 1870. To the Minister of War he states the case for French mobilization:
It is absolutely necessary for the government to understand that, starting with this evening, and delay of twenty-four hours in calling up our reservists and issuing orders prescribing covering operations, will have as its result the withdrawal of our concentration points by from fifteen to twenty-five kilometres for each day of delay; in other words, the abandonment of just that much of our territory. The Commander-in-Chief must decline to accept this responsibility.Thus was laid out the inescapable logic of mobilization in the summer of 1914 - once one power mobilized, all must follow or risk defeat and occupation. No government could withstand such pressure once applied, and none did.
Meanwhile, the French socialist leader and pacifist Jean Jaurés is assassinated this evening as he sits in a Parisian café. When the French cabinet is informed at 9pm, there is momentary panic. Jaurés, a leading figure in international socialism, had long opposed measures in peacetime to expand conscription in France, while he had advocated the policy of a general strike by socialists and trade unions to prevent the outbreak of war if it appeared imminent. In the Cabinet this evening, there is a fear that the left may react to the assassination by riots and strikes. Some suggest that Carnet B be invoked, which would arrest a list of 2501 known socialists, anarchists, pacifists, and others. Fearing that such a widespread operation might invoke precisely the civil unrest they hope to avoid, the Cabinet decides against Carnet B. The reaction of the French public to Jaurés' assassination justifies the faith placed by the government in the people. Though there is widespread mourning at the murder, there are no major protests, no attempts to use the assassination to argue against French participation in the European war. It is one of the first indications that the left, stridently anti-war in peacetime, will lose their nerve when confronted with an actual war.
- The approach to war and the imminent collapse of international trade has provoked a severe economic crisis. Stock prices have dropped sharply while interest rates have shot upwards, the latter undertaken by national banks to stop investors from withdrawing deposits. It has a limited impact - in France, 1.5 billion francs have been withdrawn from the nation's banks over the prior four days. Ultimately, the choice is taken this day to stop trading at the Berlin, Paris, and London stock exchanges, to avoid a meltdown. The closure of the London stock exchange is particularly shocking - London is the financial heart of the global economy, and none of the crises of the 19th-century had forced such a drastic step. On the same day, Lord Nathaniel Rothschild, English head of perhaps the richest banking family in the world, writes to the editor of the Times begging for the paper's articles to preach the necessity of avoiding war. Rothschild's views are reflective of the banking community as a whole. After the war, it will be a common refrain that the conflict was fought to enrich capitalists and bankers. Nothing could be further from the truth - international finance is absolutely terrified, pleading with politicians to stop the relentless march to war. They believe that no modern economy could survive more than a few months of a European-wide war, and that the inevitable result will be financial ruin. Their fears, of course, are misplaced - each of the combatants prove willing to resort to economic measures that the bankers had never dreamt of.
- In Italy, the Council of Ministers votes to remain neutral in the coming European conflict. Though a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, there are also strong anti-Hapsburg sentiment in Italy, seeking the acquisition of Trentino, Tyrol, Trieste, and the Adriatic coast from their nominal allies. This decision comes as a complete surprise to the Italian Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna, who had been appointed to the post only two days earlier, and had sought permission to dispatch Italian forces to support the Germans along the Rhine even as the Council of Ministers was deciding to renege on their treaty obligations.
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