September 6th, 1915

- In writing to Generals Rawlinson (of IV Corps) and Gough (of I Corps) today about their roles in the forthcoming offensive in France, Haig does not hold back in explaining why the attack will be undertaken: they had been 'forced . . . to abandon their defensive attitude' by the 'losses incurred by the Russians.'  Not exactly a rousing call to arms.

- On the Eastern Front, the northern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army pushes through the Russian position at Podkamien, and forces the southern wing of the Russian 8th Army to fall back to the Ikwa River.  As this advance is occurring, the Russians undertake their first major counteroffensive to the south today when elements of the Russian XI Corps advance this afternoon out of bridgeheads they had maintained on the west bank of the Sereth River just west of Trombowla.  The advance strikes the inner wings of Südarmee (to the north) and the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army at a moment when the attention of their commanders are on attacks about to be launched elsewhere.  On the southern wing of Südarmee, the Russians are able to push into the poorly-constructed defences of the Austro-Hungarian 55th Division, and counterattacks by the corps' reserve are unable to restore the situation.  Just to the south the Russians are able to break through between the Austro-Hungarian 131st Brigade and 7th Division at Janow.

The Russian counteroffensive along the Sereth River, Sept. 6th to 8th, 1915.

- With the approval of his government, Lieutenant-Colonel Ganchev signs the military convention at Pless by which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria agree to a five-year defensive treaty and the latter pledges to enter the war on the side of the former.  For the campaign against Serbia, Germany and Austria-Hungary agree to commit six divisions each to an offensive against Serbia within thirty days, while Bulgaria will join the offensive within thirty-five days with four divisions.  In return Bulgaria is promised Macedonia and additional Serbian territory east of the Morava River, and further should either Greece or Romania enter the war on the side of the Entente Bulgaria will be entitled to recover those lands lost in the Second Balkan War.  The Germans agree to loan Bulgaria 200 million francs, while the latter agree to permit unimpeded transport of war material through Bulgarian territory to the Ottoman Empire.  Finally, on the insistence of the Bulgarian government the convention stipulates that General Mackensen will be in overall command of the invasion of Serbia, a term as pleasing to Falkenhayn as it is upsetting to Conrad.  Given the state of the Austro-Hungarian army and its abject failure in 1914 to conquer Serbia despite three separate offensives, it is entirely understandable that the Bulgarians want a German general to command the combined operation.  Conrad naturally sees this (quite correctly) as an affront, given Austria-Hungary's view of the Balkans as falling within its sphere of influence, but he is in no position to object.  It is also worth noting that on the German side the convention was negotiated and signed entirely by Falkenhayn and his staff - at no point was the civilian government of Germany involved in the decision, reflecting the growing power of the German army to dictate war policy within Germany.

September 4th, 1915

- Just three days after the German ambassador in Washington delivered the Arabic Pledge to not attack passenger ships without warning, the German submarine U24, which had sunk Lusitania in May, torpedoes and sinks the British liner Hesperian off the coast of Ireland without warning.  Though Americans were aboard, none were among the thirty-two passengers who drown.  Nevertheless, the American government sees the sinking as flagrantly defying the Arabic Pledge, and demand further assurances that similar attacks will no longer occur.

The British liner Hesperian, torpedoed and sunk today by the German submarine U24 off Ireland.

- After two revisions, General d'Urbal of 10th Army submits today a plan to Foch that is acceptable to the commander of the Army Group of the North.  Along the thirty-two kilometre stretch of the line held by 10th Army will be deployed six corps, four of which are to make the primary attack north of Arras, and two a supporting attack south of the city.

- On the Eastern Front the German 8th Army captures the fortress of Grodno, between Vilna and Bialystok.  Further south, Austro-Hungarian forces have been battering against the Russian defensives along the Sereth River to no avail; in just four days of marching and combat, the Austro-Hungarian IV, XIX, and V Corps have suffered eight thousand casualties.  Moreover, supply problems bedevil the Austro-Hungarian formations, who report being short of ammunition and food.  Finally, dysentery and stomach flu claim numerous victims in the terrible conditions.

September 1st, 1915

- Kitchener issues orders today for the Indian Corps in France to remain part of the British Expeditionary Force through the next winter.  Though concerns have been expressed in some quarters regarding the ability of the Indian soldier to cope with the cold and miserable conditions of a Flemish winter, Kitchener understands that the Indian Corps have shown themselves capable of operating under such conditions just as well as the British divisions they fight alongside. There were also worries about the losses suffered by the Indian Corps since its arrival in France in October 1914 could be adequately replaced, but since the summer a steady stream of recruits had replenished the Meerut and Lahore Divisions.  Of the three thousand replacements who arrived in July, General James Willcocks, the commander of the Indian Corps, wrote that they were 'very good . . . some of them quite exceptionally so, and I feel years younger now as I see these fine fellows joining the ranks.'

- Upon the instructions of Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, the German ambassador to the United States delivers a note containing what becomes known as the Arabic Pledge to Secretary of State Robert Lansing.  Based on the decision of the conference at Pless on August 26th in response to the sinking of Arabic, the Germans pledge that no passenger ship of any nationality will be attacked without warning, and that adequate provisions will be made for the survival of passengers and crew.

- Joffre remains under pressure from government ministers to dispatch several divisions from the Western Front to the Near East, and seizes on a staff study suggesting that the operations proposed by General Sarrail would require eight divisions.  He writes today that such a substantial reduction in French strength on the Western Front would have 'disastrous consequences.'  Moreover, he questions the entire premise of undertaking operations to relieve the British position on Gallipoli:

It is the British who have led us to the Dardanelles.  In reality halting the offensive will be a British defeat.  Tomorrow, if we send reinforcements and assume command, we will find ourselves, in case of failure, facing a French disaster.

- For several days the Austro-Hungarian 2nd and 7th Armies, as well as Südarmee, have launched assault after assault on the Russian lines along the Strypa River.  Though in places they have managed to win some ground, it has come at great cost - the Austro-Hungarian Corps, for instance, has lost over five thousand men in just two days of fighting.  Today the Russian 11th and 9th Armies pull back from their lines along the Strypa River, though this is not due to any defeat they have suffered but rather due to the threat of envelopment from the north due to the advance of the north wing of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army through Lutsk.  Brussilov's 8th Army, meanwhile, takes up its new defensive line today along the Putilowka, covering Rovno, and south to the hills west of Dubno.

August 26th, 1915

- Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg convenes a conference at Pless today to discuss the diplomatic crisis that has ensued from the sinking of the passenger liner Arabic on the 19th.  He argues that there is no point arguing over whether the Americans ought to be outraged or not; the fact is they are, and that war is possible if decisive action is not taken.  His position that the Americans must be appeased by restricting submarine warfare is supported by Falkenhayn, who hopes that the United States can be kept out of the war.  Only the naval officers present insist that unrestricted submarine warfare must be allowed to continue, and that any concessions to the Americans would constitute pandering.  The navy is overruled, and Wilhelm II authorized Bethmann-Hollweg to conclude a diplomatic agreement with the Americans that defers to the latter's wishes regarding submarine warfare.  Admiral Bachmann, chief of the naval staff, asks to be relieved rather than execute a policy he disagrees with, and he is replaced by Admiral Hennig von Holtzendorff, a personal friend of the Chancellor and a skeptic of the ability of unrestricted submarine warfare to bring Britain to its knees.

- On the Eastern Front the German 12th Army finally manages to capture the Russian fortress of Osowiec today, which had repulsed prior assaults.  For several weeks it had served as a northern 'hinge' for the Russian retreat from Poland.  With the Russian armies to the south having pulled back behind the line of the fortress, Osowiec has served its purpose, and the Russians have withdrawn eastwards.

To the south, the fortress of Brest-Litovsk is also seized today; in the predawn hours advance elements of the German 11th Army pierce the inner fortifications and reach the Bug River, where they find the highway bridge in flames, set alight by the retreating Russians.  Despite their best efforts, however, vast quantities of food and supplies fall into German hands with the capture of Brest-Litovsk, including once again a significant stockpile of artillery shells that could have been put to much better use by the armies in the field.  The Russian forces on both flanks of the fortress also retreat, and 11th Army and the Army of the Bug make significant progress today, with the Guard, X Reserve, and XXII Reserve Corps reaching the line Rudka-Pruska northeast of Brest-Litovsk this evening.

German soldiers outside the burning citadel at Brest-Litovsk.

The Eastern Front after the fall of Brest-Litovsk, Aug. 26th, 1915.

- The second phase of Conrad's offensive opens today with the advance of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army southeast from the line Kowel-Vladimir-Volynski.  Though the pace of the advance is slowed by the vast swamps of the region, which require foot-bridges to cross, the Austro-Hungarians are able to make encouraging progress against light opposition from Russian cavalry.  General Ivanov of Southwest Front, however, had not been ignorant of the potential threat to his northern flank with the withdrawal of 13th Army to the northeast, and had instructed General Brusilov of 8th Army to stretch his northern wing back from the Bug River to cover Lutsk, and the latter had deployed four cavalry divisions to screen his exposed flank.  The Russians have also used the two months of relative quiet along this stretch of the front to reinforce their battered divisions, and their average combat strength has risen from four to seven thousand.  The new recruits, however, are dreadfully inexperienced, and many lack rifles.

- British and French officials confer at Duala today regarding the campaign in German Kamerun, and decide on a joint thrust to Jaunde after the end of the rainy season (October in the east and November in the west).

May 23rd, 1915

- Though Prime Minister Salandra has long desired Italian entry into the war on the side of the Entente, he has kept knowledge of the timing of a declaration of war a closely guarded secret; notably, the armed forces have not been informed when war is to commence.  Indeed, for several weeks the heads of the army and navy have been pleading with Salandra for information on when war is expected to begin, but to no avail.  Only at noon today does the naval general staff learn that hostilities will commence at midnight, and only through an informal telephone call from an official at the foreign ministry.  Meanwhile, at 430pm Salandra officially notifies the minister of war that the declaration of war is about to be handed to the Austro-Hungarian government.  Salandra's reasoning has been to avoid any preparatory measure that might allow Austria-Hungary to argue that Italy had committed an act of aggression prior to a declaration of war.  In practice, however, it leads to the astonishing situation where the Italian government has known for four weeks that Italy is going to enter the war, but the armed forces are actually unprepared to commence hostilities when the day comes.

Meanwhile, this morning Foreign Minister Sonnino learns that the Italian ambassador in Vienna never received yesterday's telegram containing the declaration of war, and confesses to his fellow ministers that it all likelihood it was intercepted and deciphered by the Austro-Hungarians.  A second telegram is thus dispatched at 2pm, and two hours later the ambassador formally presents it to the Austro-Hungarian government, informing it that hostilities will commence as of midnight.

Crucially, the Italian government very deliberately decides not to declare war on Germany today, in part at least to avoid Germany sending significant forces to fight on the Italian frontier.  Nor does Italy declare war on the Ottoman Empire; indeed, diplomatic relations remain intact and the Ottoman embassy in Rome remains open, providing a perfect base for espionage against Italy.  This means that Italy does not actually fulfill the requirement of the Treaty of London to go to war against all enemies of the Entente, a very great irony considering how much bluster will issue forth from Italian representatives later in the war and afterwards regarding faithful adherence to the agreement.

Notably, Germany does not declare war on Italy either.  It prefers to leave open the possibility of Italian goods entering Germany through neutral Switzerland, as occurred during the period of Italian neutrality, and thus leave open a path around the British naval blockade.  The Germans also feared that a declaration of war against Italy might trigger Romania to enter the war on the side of the Entente.  Unsurprisingly this decision is unpopular in Vienna, but it is equally unsurprising that Austro-Hungarian displeasure is of no great concern to the Germans.

- Enver Pasha dispatches a message to the German government today, requesting the arrival of German submarines in the eastern Mediterranean to attack the Entente fleet off the Dardanelles.  The appeal is unnecessary - German submarines are about to make their presence felt it dramatic fashion.

- For the past two weeks, the landing party of the German light cruiser Emden have been travelling along the Hedjaz railway.  At numerous stops they have been met by German and Ottoman officials, as well as cheering crowds.  They have obtained new clothing for the first time in six months, and during a stop at Aleppo received mail from home.  This afternoon their train pulls into the station at Haider Pasha, the Asiatic terminus of the Hedjaz railway across from Constantinople.  Now attired in dress uniforms, the sailors disembark and stand in formation before Admiral Souchon and his staff.  Their journey is complete when First Officer Mücke lowers his sword before Souchon and states: 'I report the landing squad from the Emden, five officers, seven petty officers, and thirty men strong.'

After a six month journey that has taken them from the Dutch East Indies through Arabia, punctuated by a series of adventures and near-mishaps that could hardly have been invented if they had not actually happened, the landing party has managed against all odds to evade capture and return to the fight.  Moreover, the saga of the landing party has captured the attention of the world: in the midst of the hellish stalemate and impersonal slaughter of the Western Front, their voyage has shown that scope for heroism and adventure remain even in the darkest war in human history.  Even beyond Germany, Mücke's leadership is celebrated, and the British press, ever willing to celebrate the underdog, applauds the exploits of the landing party.

May 5th, 1915

- After two weeks of fighting, the Germans manage to recapture the craters of Hill 60 southeast of Ypres after a gas attack today, retaking the last bit of ground lost to the initial British attack on April 17th.

- For a fourth consecutive day the German 11th Army is able to secure significant gains in west Galicia.  Though the progress of VI and Guards Corps is somewhat slowed by the resistance of the Russian III Caucasian Corps, X Corps encounters only sporadic opposition and is able to seize Zmigrod, cross the Wistoka River, and advance almost to Dulka while securing bridgeheads over the Jasiolka River.  The two Russian corps to the south are at great risk of encirclement; indeed, the reployment area to which XXIV Corps was ordered just yesterday has today been occupied by the Germans.  General Dimitriev of 3rd Army issues new orders for a further retreat today, with both XXIV and XII Corps to pull back east of Dulka to reform some semblance of a coherent line east of the Wislok River.  They are now pursued by the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army, which leaves its trenches in the Carpathians to advance northwards.

Further north, Dimitriev orders IX Corps, opposite the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, is to pull back to the Wistoka River at Pilzna.  Though the Austro-Hungarian attack has made less progress, IX Corps finds that its southern flank has been uncovered by the German advance, and must fall back.

Dimitriev's superiors, however, did not share his concerns: General Ivanov of South-West Front was confident that the meagre reserves arriving at the front would be sufficient to avoid a breakthrough, and this evening Grand Duke Nicholas, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian army, wires Dimitriev: 'The arrival of the celebrated III Caucasian Corps and other reinforcements guarantees that you will be able to do everything necessary to restore a favourable situation.'  Or not, as the case may be.

- The rumours of the Treaty of London have reached Berlin, where they prompt another attempt to win the Italians back to neutrality.  After applying suitable pressure to the Austro-Hungarian government, Ambassador Bülow meets with Foreign Minister Sonnino at 1130am to present new concessions, which include all of the Trentino inhabited by Italians, boundary adjustments along the Isonzo River, a measure of autonomy for Trieste, and an Austro-Hungarian statement of disinterest in Albania.  Sonnino receives the proposals politely, but of course has no intention whatsoever of negotiating, having already committed to the Entente.

- The last units of the British 42nd Division departs Egypt today, bound for the Gallipoli campaign.

April 1st, 1915

- The German industrialist Walther Rathenau resigns today as head of Kriegsrohstoffsamt (KRA), the government agency overseeing the allocation of raw materials in the German war economy.  While the resignation is in part a reflection that the KRA is now fully functioning, and he is able to ensure the appointment of his hand-picked successor, Major Joseph Koeth, as his replacement, Rathenau has also been dogged by criticism of the KRA, both that he has utilized his position to benefit his own corporation (AEG) and more generally has prioritized large firms over small ones, while the KRA has been accused of facilitating profiteering.  The range of criticisms reflects ongoing tensions within the German war economy, balanced between profits and patriotism.

- Over the first months of the war, the aerial combat that has occurred has been undertaken by pilots firing pistols or observers firing light guns.  Such methods leave much to be desired, and make the shooting down of an aircraft a relatively rare event.  Mounting machine guns facing forward would allow the pilot to aim and fire while still flying his aircraft, though at the expense of shooting off his own propeller.  Both sides have been striving to develop a mechanism that would allow a machine-gun to fire through a propeller with no success.

One alternative, however, is to protect the propeller itself so that it is not damaged when hit by a bullet, and for several months French pilot Roland Garros, along with his mechanic Jules Hue, have been developing an armoured propeller that would allow a Hotchkiss machine gun to fire forward in his Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft.  He has been assigned to the squadron MS26 at Dunkirk, and today, flying his specially-modified Moraine, which includes channeled deflectors, Garros shoots down his first German aircraft using his forward-firing machine gun.

The French Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft.

- In the Carpathians the situation continues to deteriorate for the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army; this morning the Russians force the right wing of XVIII Corps to fall back into the Wetlinka valley.  At 2pm the commander of 2nd Army concludes that the only way to avoid disaster is to retreat behind the main crest of the mountains, yielding to the Russians the Uszok Pass but taking up new defensive positions to the south.  Not surprisingly, both 3rd Army to the west and Conrad at army headquarters objects, but the reality on the ground is that 2nd Army cannot hold its current position, and further attempts to do so would court disaster.

- Meanwhile the Chiefs of Staff of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies are also concerned regarding the diplomatic situation with Italy.  While Falkenhayn continues to urge his counterpart to pressure the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Ministry to offer concessions, Conrad rejects the suggestion.  In his opinion, giving territory to Italy now will only whet Italy's appetite, and increase, not decrease, the likelihood of an Italian attack in the long run.

- As the small German caravan makes its way across the desert towards Djidda, the reassurances of the Ottoman escorts given the previous evening are shown to be false.  Instead of a few dozen robbers, Emden's landing party is suddenly attacked just after dawn by several hundred Arabs, firing from all sides.  The Germans shelter behind their camels, which become the primary target as several continue to stand, while most of their Ottoman escorts flee the battlefield.  The machine guns they are able to employ, however, goes some way towards evening the odds.  Under cover of machine gun fire, the Germans charge the Arabs, who initially scatter.  Attempting to regroup, First Officer Mücke orders the caravan to reform and move towards the sea, where at least one flank would be covered.  The Arabs, however, will not be so easily dissuaded from the attack, and as soon as the caravan moves again it comes under fire, and the rear guard has to frequently halt and set up their machine gun to disperse the attackers.  When the Arabs briefly cease firing to parley, the Germans entrench, using everything from camel saddles to sacks of rice, and Mücke refuses the Arabs' demand to hand over all guns, ammunition, camels, food, and water in exchange for safe passage.  Firing continues into the evening, and by nightfall Seaman Rademacher and Lieutenant Schmidt have been killed, and another seaman wounded.

February 27th, 1915

- French attacks in Champagne force the Germans today to abandon the key defensive position at Ferme de Beauséjour.  However, the Germans remain in control of the Mesnil Knob position overlooking Ferme de Beauséjour, which allows them to pour continuous fire into the French infantry.

- The arrival of Russian reinforcements north of the Narew River has forced the German units under Gallwitz onto the defensive, and for the past several days a series of increasingly desperate Russian attacks have threatened to overwhelm the Germans.  Due to rifle and ammunition shortages, it was standard practice in the Russian army for reserve forces to not have rifles of their own, instead being expected to be armed either before being sent into battle or to pick up rifles on the battlefield left by the fallen.  In the pitched fighting around Prasnysz, there was no time to arm the Russian reserves before they were thrown into battle, which meant they attacked armed only with bayonets and handheld bombs.  In the face of German infantry fire, the Russians had to close to the range at which they could throw their bombs, and then charge for hand-to-hand combat.  It was fighting more appropriate to medieval Europe than the 20th-century, but the Russian numerical superiority gave these attacks a weight they lacked in firepower.  Gradually the Germans have fallen back in the face of repeated almost-suicidal enemy charges, and to avoid being overrun Gallwitz orders a retreat from Prasnysz today.  Five thousand German soldiers are made prisoner, and the German retreat ends any hope of reaching the Narew and achieving a great strategic success.  Gallwitz's forces retreat to the lines from which they had advanced five days earlier, restoring the status quo in the line between the German 8th and 9th Armies.

- In thick fog and heavy snow, the Austro-Hungarian offensive in the Carpathians begins.  The first phase of the operation is an attack today by XIX Corps, on 2nd Army's left, towards Baligrod.  Subsequently, X Corps of 3rd Army to the west, and XVIII and V Corps of 2nd Army to the east, are to join the advance, in expectation that the initial fighting of XIX Corps will break the Russian line.  However, though XIX corps has been reinforced and has a numerical superiority in infantry over the Russians opposite, its attack suffers from the almost complete absence of artillery support, the result of bad weather hindering both the deployment of artillery pieces and the accurate spotting of shellfire.  When combined with the effect the terrible weather has on the infantry themselves, XIX Corps makes little headway.

- The German government continues to believe that Austria-Hungary should offer territorial concessions to Italy to induce it maintain its neutrality in the war, and the ongoing failure to break the Russian lines in the Carpathians and relieve Przemysl has heightened anxiety in Berlin.  In an effort to persuade the Austro-Hungarian government, the Prussian council of ministers agrees today that border adjustments in Silesia can be made as compensation for territory surrendered to the Italians.

February 22nd, 1915

- The French undertake renewed attacks in Champagne today, but fail to make any headway, and the commanders of the German VIII and VIII Reserve Corps opposite believe that the attacks aim merely to cover the failure of the main French offensive.

- Dutch neutrality is seen by the German army as a potential threat, as opposed to one of the last links between Germany and the global economy.  In particular, the army is concerned that the British might invade the Netherlands to outflank the German position in Belgium - a concern undoubtedly based in the knowledge that such a violation of Dutch neutrality is precisely the sort of thing the German General Staff would advocate if the positions were reversed.  4th Army, responsible for the front in Belgium along the Channel coast, has been tasked with developing a contingency plan should such a British invasion occur.  Today, 4th Army HQ informs OHL that if needed two marine brigades, the Guard Cavalry Division, a mixed infantry brigade, and a number of battalions of rear echelon troops will concentrate on the Dutch frontier to oppose a British landing.

- The revised instructions to U-boat captains regarding which targets to fire upon and how they are to determine a vessel's identity have been sufficient to overcome the remaining concerns of the Kaiser, and as such unrestricted submarine warfare begins today against Britain.

- In Augustow Forest, the remnants of the Russian XX Corps surrender, with twelve thousand soldiers marching into German captivity.  Of the rest of the Russian 10th Army, though III Siberian, III, and XXVI Corps have escaped eastwards, they have suffered heavy casualties and rendered combat-ineffective.  Ludendorff claims the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes to be another Tannenburg, but in practice the victory is not on the same scale.  The Russian 10th Army has lost 'only' 56 000 casualties over the past few weeks of fighting, and though battered and weakened at least still exists, in contrast to the fate of 2nd Army at Tannenburg.

A German machine-gun position during the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes.

The German victory over the Russian 10th Army, however, has not secured to the Germans any broader strategic consequences.  Ludendorff had hoped that victory here would threaten to outflank the Russian position in central Poland, and in consequence the Russians would pull back over the Vistula.  However, the German advance has simply formed a large salient from East Prussia to the Niemen River.  To the north the Russians remain in control of the fortress at Kovno, a threat to the German 10th Army's left flank.  To the south, much of the strength of the German 8th Army has been drawn into a siege of the fortress at Osowiec, where the rivers and marshes, combined with a skilled Russian defence, have prevented the Germans from bringing their siege artillery fully to bear on the fortress' walls.  Finally, today the Russian 12th Army finally begins its delayed advance to the west of Osowiec, and though the German 8th Army is able to contain the Russians, the Germans find themselves pinned into defensive positions, incapable of threatening anyone's flanks.

- To the west, the gap between the German 8th Army near the East Prussian frontier and the German 9th Army on the line of the Bzura River is covered by a scratch force under the command of General Max von Gallwitz.  With the forces to the east stalemated, Gallwitz launches an offensive today, advancing southeast towards the town of Prasnysz with elements of I Reserve and XVII Reserve Corps and 3rd Infantry Division.  Their ultimate objective is the Narew River, and by securing a crossing they hope to outflank the Russian line west of Warsaw and force the enemy to abandon the city.

The German advance towards Prasnysz, February 22nd, 1915.

- With the Boer Rebellion effectively crushed, Prime Minister Botha of South Africa turns his attention to the invasion of German South-West Africa.  Today he lands at Walvis Bay, assumes command over the South African force that occupied Swakopmund on January 13th, and orders an advance inland towards Windhoek along the railway (destroyed by the Germans) connecting the two towns.  Botha views the march to Windhoek, the German colonial capital, as strategically decisive, severing German communications between the north and south of the colony.  However, to prevent a German withdrawal from the south to concentrate against his column he has also ordered offensives from Lüdertiz and across the Orange River.

- The mutiny of soldiers from the 5th Light Infantry battalion at Singapore ends today, as British forces, with assistance from Russian, French, and Japanese sailors, round up the last of the mutineers who had fled to the jungle.  Next will come courts-martial to pass judgement on the one hundred and twenty-six mutineers who have been captured.

February 9th, 1915

- A meeting of the War Council in London today includes discussion regarding Entente strategy on the Western Front, and communications from Joffre regarding the role he desires the British to play.  While desiring to cooperate and coordinate with their French ally, they are not inclined to, as Churchill remarks, give the French the 'last word' on the employment of the British Expeditionary Force.

- In Germany OHL submits a recommendation to the Prussian War Ministry today to establish a chief of field aviation (Feldflugchef) who would have authority over all aerial matters, including the coordination of airplane production.

- In East Prussia the full weight of the advancing German 10th Army falls upon two Russian cavalry divisions screening the northern flank of the Russian 10th Army.  The Russian divisions simply disintegrate, and the attack of the Germans continues unimpeded.

January 10th, 1915

- Admiral Pohl, Chief of the Naval Staff, telegraphs Admiral Ingenohl of the High Seas Fleet to inform the latter of a conference held three days earlier with Wilhelm II.  While the Kaiser had reiterated his restrictions on the movement of the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet, he did make one important concession - at Pohl's urging, Wilhelm approves the use of naval Zeppelins to bombard the docks of London and the English coast.  This action has long been urged by many in the German navy as a means to strike back at the hated English foe.  Even this authorization, however, is limited - Zeppelins are not permitted to bomb the centre of London, as the Kaiser fears the accidental deaths of his English regal cousins.  Planning now begins for the first Zeppelin raids on Britain.

- Germany and Austria-Hungary agree today to the Treaty of Posen, by which they divide up the occupied part of Russian Poland between them.  Reflecting the balance of power within the alliance, it is Germany that is assigned the more productive Polish lands.

- In the Caucasus the Russian II Turkestan Corps goes on the offensive against the Ottoman XI Corps opposite, sending 1500 soldiers through the mountains around the Ottoman left to outflank them.

December 28th, 1914

- In Britain the primary decision-making body regarding the conduct of the war is the War Council, comprised of Prime Minister Asquith, relevant Cabinet ministers, and the service chiefs.  The secretary of the War Council is Colonel Maurice Hankey, whose position gives him more influence over British strategy than most generals.  Today he circulates to some of the members of the War Council a memorandum on the future conduct of the war he had begun to draft two days earlier, and this 'Boxing Day Memorandum' is notable on two accounts.  First, he wonders whether British strength is best concentrated on the Western Front, or whether they should look elsewhere, especially in terms of where British seapower can most usefully be employed.  One of the alternatives Hankey mentions is against the Ottoman Empire, either along the Syrian coast or, significantly, against the Dardanelles.  Second, Hankey has been in communication with Colonel Ernest Swinton, formerly an Assistant Secretary under Hankey and now the official war correspondent on the Western Front.  Swinton had learnt before the war of an American firm that produced farm tractors with caterpillar treads, and while at the front had come to wonder whether a vehicle so-equipped could have military applications.  Swinton passed the suggestion to Hankey, and Hankey has included it in his Boxing Day Memorandum, proposing the following machine:

Numbers of large heavy rollers, themselves bullet proof, propelled from behind by motor-engines, geared very low, the driving wheel fitted with a caterpillar driving gear to grip the ground, the driver's seat armoured and a Maxim gun fitted.  The object of this device would be to rol down the barbed wire by sheer weight, to give some cover to men creeping up behind and to support the advance with machine gun fire. 

This proposal contains the core elements of what will become the tank, and Hankey's circulation of this suggestion is one of the first steps in its development.

- The German occupation of most of Belgium and northeastern France has meant that a significant amount of industrial resources, including everything from coal mines to locomotives to river barges, is now under German control.  The exploitation of these resources, however, has been problematic.  As a KRA report of today notes, nobody knows who actually owns these resources, which makes coordinating their exploitation next to impossible.  Private businesses in Germany proper want to secure a share of the booty for themselves, while alternatively not wanting utilization of these resources by KRA and other state agencies to, for example, drive down the price of coal in Germany.  The exploitation of the occupied territories is far from a straightforward proposition, a theme that will recur in other lands conquered by Germany and ensure that it never receives the full economic benefit from its conquests.

- In German Kamerun the French column that occupied Baturi on December 9th has advanced westward to Bertua, but over the past few days has been halted in a series of engagements with German forces.

October 1st, 1914

- Three German corps - from south to north the Guard, IV, and I Bavarian Reserve - arrive east of Arras today, and encounter Maud-huy's forces still preparing for their own offensive.  Rupprecht's objective is to fix Maud-huy's forces in front of Arras while outflanking them to the north.

- Though his artillery is progressing as expected in the destruction of the Belgian forts south of Antwerp, General Bessler believes that the fall of Antwerp needs to be hastened - he does not want the British or French to either reinforce the city or, of greater concern, push forces from the west against his eastern flank.  Thus at 4pm today assaults are ordered by German infantry on the southern forts, and by nightfall the ruins of Fort Wavre are in German hands, though resistance continues elsewhere.  At midnight the British military representative at Antwerp sends a telegram to his government emphasizing the seriousness of the situation and stating that the arrival of even a small detachment of British forces would raise Belgian morale.

- The German 8th Army is attacked heavily by the pursuing Russian armies as it pulls back to the German border.  Rennenkampf's strategy is to pin the Germans with his centre and right, while attempting to outflank with his left.  The latter, having advanced through difficult woods for several days, seizes the town of Augustow today, which threatens to turn the southern flank of the German 8th Army.  For a brief moment, victory beckons for the Russians.

- As Germany becomes increasingly isolated from the world market by the British naval blockade, perhaps the most important industrial shortage was fixed nitrogen, produced from saltpetre, vital not only for the production of explosives but also for agricultural fertilizers key to the maintenance of Germany's domestic food supply.  Pre-war, saltpetre had been imported from Chile, but this supply was interrupted by the war, and there was no available alternative.  Thus, if Germany wanted to be able to fight a war of any significant duration, it was essential to develop processes to produce artificial fixed nitrogen.  Today, Emil Fischer, Germany's leading chemist, discusses the issue at the War Ministry, where he explains two recently developed methods for producing nitrogen - lime nitrogen, a byproduct of gasworks and coking plants, and synthesized ammonia.  Both methods had evolved out of Germany's chemical industry, which was the most advanced in the world, and Fischer's meeting will jump-start the production of artifical nitrogen, illustrative of the vital links between the academic community, industry, and the military in the conduct of modern war.  As a result of this relationship, Germany will produce two and a half times as much nitrogen in wartime as it had produced in peacetime - the war will not be lost for a lack of explosives.

August 26th, 1914

- In line with his General Instruction No. 2, Joffre establishes the new 6th Army, to be formed at Amiens and commanded by General Michel-Joseph Maunoury.  It will initially consist of VII Corps, drawn from Alsace, and two reserve divisions currently fighting in Lorraine.  As lead elements of these units detrain at Amiens, the Army of Lorraine, briefly established to cover the offensive into the Ardennes, and the Army of Alsace, are stood down, their remaining units assigned to neighbouring armies.

The situation on the Western Front, Aug. 26th, 1914

- Joffre travels to BEF headquarters today, summoning Generals Lanrezac and d'Amade to meet them as well.  Joffre needs the BEF to remain in the Entente line, retreating on level with 5th Army, but Joffre is hamstrung by the fact that he cannot give orders to Sir John French - indeed, as a Field Marshal the latter technically outranks the former.  Thus Joffre must try to use persuasion.

The meeting, however, is a complete disaster.  French begins by listing all of the ways in which the armies of France have let himself and the British down, ending with Lanrezac's retreat of 5th Army on the 23rd.  Lanrezac, for his part, has had enough of British equivocations, and contributes little beyond shrugs of contempt and icy stares; the commanders of the two adjacent armies refuse to directly speak to one another.  Joffre discovers that the British commander has not even read his General Instruction No. 2 yet - though his staff had received it, they had not yet translated it to him.  Joffre attempts to patiently outline his requirements of the BEF, but is unable to extract any promise from Sir John French.  The meeting breaks up without result.

- The gloom at BEF headquarters is matched by the events on the battlefield today.  Early this morning, elements of Haig's I Corps skirmishes with parts of the German 1st Army, both attempting to bed down in the same small French village.  The fighting breaks off quickly, but the normally cool Haig temporarily loses his nerve, informing Sir John French that I Corps is under major attack..  The news rattles BEF headquarters - French's chief of staff faints, and he himself orders I Corps to undertake a precipitate retreat.  Crucially, the direction of I Corps' retreat will cause it to be separated from II Corps by the Oise River.

More serious is the plight of II Corps to the left at Le Cateau.  Reconnaissance by the BEF's lone cavalry division under General Edmund Allenby discovers just after midnight that units of the German 1st Army are close enough to attack II Corps first thing in the morning.  When informed at 2am, General Smith-Dorrien consults his divisional commanders, who declare that their forces are too tired and disorganized to undertake a nighttime retreat.  Smith-Dorrien thus decides that II Corps will remain and fight the Germans until they can withdraw.

Opposite II Corps are two corps of the German 1st Army.  Two further German corps attempted to turn II Corps left flank, but were blocked by the actions of General d'Amade's forces and the redeployed French cavalry under General Sordet.  The battle thus consists largely of frontal German assaults on the British positions, coupled with heavy artillery fire.  Though the Germans suffer significant casualties, superior numbers and artillery take their toll - II Corps loses eight thousand men and thirty-eight guns.  However, from 5pm onwards II Corps is able to successfully disengage from the battle and resume the retreat.  The Battle of Le Cateau is a tactical German victory, but once again the British have managed to retire before being enveloped.  The Entente forces are being defeated and pushed back, but not destroyed.

The top part of the map gives the Battle of Le Cateau, Aug. 26th, 1914, and the bottom half gives the Battle of Guise
(also known as the Battle of St. Quentin), Aug. 29th, 1914.

- For several weeks discussion has occurred among Government ministers in France regarding bringing in leading figures from opposition parties to sit on the Council of Ministers, in order to give the Government a broader base of support and make real Poincarè's commitment to a Sacred Union.  A reconstruction also gives an opportunity to assign blame for the initial defeats on a retiring minister.  In this case, War Minister Adolphe Messimy is the natural culprit, seen as responsible for the conduct of the war, and criticized for excessively optimistic communiques.  When asked to Messimy, though, Messimy refuses, resulting in Premier Viviani having to tender the resignation of the entire Council of Ministers, to allow for the creation of a new Council without Messimy.  Infuriated at his treatment, Messimy leaves for the front as a Major of Reserves, and is replaced as War Minister by Alexandre Millerand.

- In East Prussia Ludendorff has a momentarily attack of nerves when reports reach him that elements of the Russian 1st Army are moving southwest.  He fears being attacked in the flank by the Russian 1st Army while the operation against 2nd Army is still underway, and wonders if it should be cancelled.  It is in this type of situation that Hindenburg shines.  Nothing can shake his confidence and self-belief - he had agreed to Ludendorff's plan, so it would be seen through, and that was that.  He reassures Ludendorff that the reported movement is merely a few cavalry units, and the latter's equilibrium is restored.

XVII and I Reserve Corps arrive on the battlefield today, to the east of XX Corps.  Before them is the Russian VI Corps, guarding the right flank of the Russian 2nd Army.  When the two German corps attack, the Russians are caught completely by surprise - earlier reconnaissance reports of troop movements to the north had been explained as Russian, not German, units.  The Russian corps commander suffers a nervous breakdown, five thousand casualties were suffered, and by nightfall VI Corps was retreating in utter disarray.  2nd Army's right flank was no longer protected.

On the other side of the battlefield, General François again delays attacking the Russian I Corps before him.  Ludendorff personally visits the headquarters of I Corps, insisting that General François carry out his orders.  As his artillery arrives this evening, François agrees to attack tomorrow morning.

- Ludendorff is informed by a staff officer at OHL that two corps are being transferred from the Western to the Eastern Front.  Ludendorff is astonished - he is well aware of the intricate and detailing planning that has gone into the German invasion of France through Belgium, and can barely comprehend how these plans could be disrupted by a subtraction of forces before France has been decisively defeated.  He informs OHL that the reinforcements are not needed and in any case would not arrive before the decisive battle already underway.  Ludendorff's objections are brushed aside, and the redeployment continues.

- In the Baltic Sea, the German light cruiser Magdeburg runs aground just off the entrance to the Gulf of Finland.  Though the ship was destroyed by the Germans, the Russians manage to recover a copy of the German naval codebook, a vital seizure that will in time allow the British to begin to break German codes regarding naval operations.

- The Russian 5th Army, marching southwest towards Austro-Hungarian Galicia in aid of the Russian 4th Army, begins to collide with elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, advancing northwards, opening the Battle of Zamość-Komarów.  One corps on the Russian right brushes past an enemy corps, suffers heavy artillery fire, and retreats northwards in disarray, Austro-Hungarians in pursuit.

To the south, however, the campaign is going against Austria-Hungary.  General Rudolf von Brudermann, commanding 3rd Army east of Lemberg, believes there is only a small Russian force before him, and advances.  He collides into the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies on the Zlota Lipa River and, significantly outnumbered, suffers a sharp defeat, some of the Austro-Hungarian divisions suffering up to two-thirds casualties.  Brudermann's army is able to withdraw to the Gnipa Lipa River.

- A congress of the Nationalist Party, the chief opposition party in South Africa, is held in Pretoria.  The Nationalists reflect the position of the more anti-British portion of the Boer population, and some of its leaders have considered rebellion.  However, the congress endorses a position of neutrality, being pro-South African instead of either pro-British or pro-German - its leader J. B. M. Hertzog believes that remaining out of the war will allow South Africa to benefit from whomever wins in Europe, while choosing sides runs the risk of defeat.

- The German foreign office has assembled a mission of fifteen people to send to Afghanistan, to encourage the Emir to invade British India.  The mission includes Wilhelm Wassmuss, a Persian-speaker experienced with the tribes of the region.  The mission arrives at Constantinople disguised as a travelling circus - the Ottomans are not impressed.

August 23rd, 1914

- The French 5th Army fights a desperate battle for survival, as crises mount by the hour.  The roads were choked with Belgian refugees, making rapid redeployment of units impossible.  At noon news arrived that the Belgians were evacuating Namur, which was to fall to the Germans later in the day.  The German 2nd Army launches a series of ferocious attacks which push elements of 5th Army southwards, while during the day the full force of the German 3rd Army is felt, as it seizes river crossings on the Meuse and directly threatens 5th Army's right flank.  Bits of news arriving by telegram of action elsewhere on the frontiers suggest the Germans are gaining all along the line, leaving him without any support.  He sees his worst nightmares coming true before his eyes - 5th Army trapped and annihilated between the two German armies, leaving France completely exposed to the German invasion of the north.  Lanrezac feels that the survival of 5th Army is essential to the survival of France itself.  At 930pm, Lanrezac informs Joffre that he has given the order to retreat.

As bad as the days events have been for 5th Army, they could have gone much worse.  General Bülow of the German 2nd Army had instructed General Hausen of 3rd Army to attack directly westwards across the Meuse, in support of his own push from the north.  Hausen complied with Bülow's order, instead of with a directive from OHL to move southwest towards Givet.  Had 3rd Army attempted OHL's manoeuvre instead, they would have been able to advance into the French 5th Army's rear, cutting its line of retreat and forcing its destruction.  By attacking frontally, Lanrezac's army is able to escape.

- When the commanders of the 3rd and 4th Armies report this morning on the devastating results of the prior day's fighting, Joffre at first cannot believe it.  So much has been invested in Plan XVII, in the notion that French infantry with sufficient elan can sweep all before them, that he can hardly comprehend that the attacks have failed.  Joffre orders both armies to resume the offensive.  As both armies struggle to resume the attack, German counter-attacks worsen the situation.  Just after noon, V Corps of 3rd Army is driven back eight miles, and to avoid envelopment the rest of 3rd Army retires the same distance.  To the north, the battered Colonial Corps of 4th Army withdraws from Neufchâteau at 5am, uncovering the flank of XII Corps which is also forced to retreat.  By the end of the day, all but two corps of 3rd and 4th armies have been driven back to the line from which they had started their offensive.

- The only decent news for the French comes from Lorraine where, despite its mauling, the French 2nd Army has managed to extricate itself and form a strong defensive line west of the Meurthe River, its northern flank anchored at Nancy and its southern linked to 1st Army.

- This evening, as the terrible news from along the front accumulates, Joffre struggles to understand the magnitude of what has transpired.  In a telegram to the War Minister, he suggests that he has been only 'momentarily checked' and that the offensive will be resumed.  The reality is that the French army has been defeated.  All of its pre-war planning and training, its emphasis on morale and infantry assaults, its unyielding faith in elan and the offensive, has been for nought.  In four days fighting, from Rupprecht's counterattack on the 20th to Lanrezac's order to retreat this evening, Plan XVII has disastrously miscarried.  Over those four days, the French army has suffered more than 140 000 casualties, and is now in retreat.

- As the French army endures a series of defeats, the British Expeditionary Force sees its first fighting of the campaign.  Acceding to Lanrezac's request, the BEF holds the line of the Mons Canal.  They are significantly outnumbered - the German 1st Army bearing down on them has four corps and three cavalry divisions, to the BEF's two corps.  Further, Smith-Dorrien's II Corps, on the left of the line, bears the brunt of the fighting, while Haig's I Corps on the right is not attacked at all.  Balancing the numbers are the quality of the British soldiers.  While the BEF is pitifully small compared to the armies of the Continental powers, it is also the only army composed of long-service regulars, instead of conscripts.  These are men who have made soldiering their profession - they train constantly, with a particular emphasis on rapid and accurate rifle fire.  Further, experience in the Boer War taught the British army the crucial importance of entrenchment and rifle accuracy.  Together this means the BEF is able to punch above its weight despite being heavily outnumbered.

The battle opens at 9am when German artillery begin firing on the British entrenchments south of the canal, followed shortly by infantry attacks.  Kluck's orders to maintain contact with 2nd Army to the east means he is unable to stretch his army westward to find and turn the BEF's flank.  As a result, 1st Army spends the day throwing itself at the British in frontal attacks.  Further, the attacks come in piecemail - 1st Army is still in marching formation, strung out along the Belgian road network, and is unable to concentrate when they stumble across the British.  Two corps of 1st Army never even engage the enemy today.  The German infantry who do enter the battle find themselves under intense rifle fire of such accuracy and frequency that some regiments report being halted by machine-gun fire instead.  By afternoon sections of the British line are being painfully forced back from the canal line, but the BEF is able to execute an orderly withdrawal to a second line of prepared entrenchments.  The Germans, for their part, are too exhausted to give chase.

German infantry advance towards Mons in the dense formations that made
them such easy targets for the British regulars, Aug. 23rd, 1914.

As evening falls, the soldiers of the BEF take satisfaction in having blunted a major German attack.  Though the British have suffered 1600 casualties, German casualties have been approximately 5000.  Further, a day has been lost for 1st Army, which has the furthest to travel.  Sir John French and his staff plan for a second day of fighting at Mons, continuing to cover the left flank of the French army.

- At 4am, the train carrying Ludendorff stops at Hanover station, where Hindenburg boards.  It is the first time the two men have met.  On the train Ludendorff explains the orders he has already issued, and Hindenburg approves, setting the pattern of the relationship between the two men.  Later today they arrive at 8th Army headquarters in East Prussia.  Meanwhile, I Corps completes its entrainment, an operation that has required precise coordination between five different railway stations.  The corps now begins its movement to the south to face the Russian 2nd Army.

- Russian operations in East Prussia reflect a fundamental misunderstanding of the strategic situation.  Zhilinskii at North-West Front, as well as both Rennenkampf (1st Army) and Samsonov (2nd Army) believe that the Germans have been beaten, and are withdrawing behind the Vistula River.  Thus Zhilinskii's top priority is to hurry the advance of 2nd Army, so it can cut off the German 8th Army before it can extract itself from East Prussia.  To achieve this, one corps of 2nd Army is left in Poland to cover the western flank, and a second corps is detailed to the Masurian Lakes to cover the eastern flank.  This reduces the strength of 2nd Army to three corps as its advance continues.

Meanwhile, Rennenkampf is in no hurry to advance westwards.  Indeed, he fears that a rapid advance to allow 1st Army to catch up to the Germans would result in another German defeat that hastens their withdrawal from East Prussia before 2nd Army can close the trap.  Thus, though 1st Army begins to move today, its progress is extremely slow, and its cavalry is completely unable to discern that the German 8th Army is no longer in front of them - indeed, there is only a single German cavalry division left.  Moreover, Rennenkampf directs 1st Army northwestward towards the major German fortress of Königsberg in order to lay siege and potentially trap a portion of the German 8th Army he believes may have retreated there.  This movement draws 1st Army even further away from 2nd Army, leaving the latter increasingly exposed.

- The first major encounter on the Galician frontier begins today when the Russian 4th Army, advancing south, runs into the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army, moving north, in the Battle of Kraśnik.  In the pitched battle near the San River just inside Russian territory, it is the Austro-Hungarians who draw first blood.  Russian cavalry had completely failed to find the approaching enemy, and the corps of 4th Army were strung out and unable to provide mutual assistance.  One Russian corps is badly mauled, one of its divisions losing half its strength.  The Russians, however, do not view the Austro-Hungarian 1st Army as part of an invasion of Russian Poland, but rather the northern flank of the expected Austro-Hungarian concentration around Lemberg.  Pre-war expectations thus sow confusion among the Russian command structure.  In particular, there is no awareness that a second Austro-Hungarian army - 4th - is also advancing north on 1st Army's eastern flank.

- Their ultimatum having expired, Japan declares war on Germany. Japan feels no special attachment to the cause of the Entente - their war aims are limited to the Pacific, and indeed would have been equally pleased if Germany had acceded to Japanese demands peacefully.  As it is, Japan begins preparations for a campaign against Tsingtao.

August 20th, 1914

- The German 1st Army occupies Brussels today, while the Belgian army completes its retirement into the fortified camp of Antwerp.

Belgian soldiers during the retreat to Antwerp, Aug. 20th, 1914.
And yes, those are dogs pulling machine guns.

- The concentration of the British Expeditionary Force at Maubeuge is completed today, and the two British corps begin to advance northeast.  Meanwhile, in London, the British Cabinet has authorized the deployment of the fifth British infantry division to the Continent.

- The French 5th Army completes its advance to the Sambre and Meuse Rivers.  Its defensive position resembles an inverted 'V', with the Belgian forts at Namur at the point.  Just to the north, cavalry units belonging to 5th Army engage in small skirmishes with German cavalry.

- At 830pm Joffre issues orders for 3rd and 4th Army to attack tomorrow.  The latter will advance northeast towards Neufchâteau while the former will move against Arlon.  To protect the advance against a German counterattack from Metz, Joffre has formed a portion of 3rd Army into a separate Army of Lorraine to cover the southern flank of the attack.  This is to be the main assault of Plan XVII - a strike north of Metz-Thionville which will crush the centre of the German line.  While Joffre is aware that the Germans are advancing through Belgium, he still does not see it as the focal point of the German campaign.  Indeed, he believes that the Germans have reduced their forces opposite 3rd and 4th Armies to strengthen the German right, which will increase the odds of French success tomorrow.  He has also instructed the commanders of 3rd and 4th Armies to make no preparatory movements, so as to not tip off the Germans to the advance and cause them to stop moving forces into Belgium.

- Even as Joffre is ordering the main French attack, the offensive in Lorraine is disintegrating.  There is a renewed attack today by the French 1st and 2nd Armies, the former in particular attempting to seize Morhange.  Advancing into prepared German defences, the French suffer horrendous losses.  Simultaneously, Prince Rupprecht's 6th Army launches the counterattack 'authorized' by OHL on the 18th.  This attack falls primarily against the two corps of 2nd Army to the south of XX Corps, whose successful advance had uncovered their flank.  Unlike the French attack, the German advance is successful - both French corps retire in disarray, and by nightfall 2nd Army is retreating back across the French border to the Meurhe River and the fortifications of Nancy.  2nd Army has also lost contact with 1st Army to the south, and in order to re-establish the line 1st Army, which has also suffered heavily, and the Army of Alsace are ordered to fall back.

- In the early morning hours, the German I Corps under General François attacks the northern flank of the Russian 1st Army, and is a shattering success - one Russian division suffers 60% casualties.  The rest of the attack by 8th Army, however, has a very different outcome.  XVII Corps, under General August von Mackensen, and I Reserve Corps, under General Otto von Below, arrive on the battlefield only in the late morning, and the Russians facing them have been forewarned by I Corps' attack.  Devastating artillery fire is poured onto XVII Corps, which suffers eight thousand casualties in two hours.  An entire division breaks and retreats in disarray.  I Reserve Corps, attacking to the south of XVII Corps, is similarly repulsed, and with XVII Corps in retreat, has no choice but to retreat as well.  At 6pm 8th Army commander General Prittwitz calls François and informs him that despite his local success, I Corps must retreat.  Though it is not an overwhelming one, the Russians have won the Battle of Gumbinnen.

The defeat provokes a crisis of confidence in Prittwitz.  He sees his strategy - attacking each Russian army separately - in tatters.  8th Army is already in retreat, and the Russian 2nd Army will be able to advance northwards unmolested.  Indeed, the Russian 2nd Army is already to the west of the German 8th Army, and Prittwitz concludes that a hasty withdrawal behind the Vistula River is required.  This would abandon the entirety of East Prussia to the Russians, and his subordinates, François included, are appalled.  When Prittwitz informs Moltke this evening of his decision, the latter is aghast - such a precipitate retreat might allow the Russians to threaten Berlin.  Moltke instructs his staff to contact 8th Army's corps commanders directly, to learn their impressions of the situation.

There is one saving grave to come out of the Battle of Gumbinnen for the Germans - General Rennenkampf does not order his 1st Army to pursue.  Though victorious, his army is exhausted and supplies are dangerously low.  Instead, 1st Army is to rest and recover from the battle.  In this are the seeds of the German revival.

- Conrad orders IV Corps to abandon the Sabac bridgehead as a preliminary to its transfer to Galicia.  The order is countermanded by Potiorek, who believes the bridgehead is necessary to the preservation of 5th Army.  Meanwhile, other elements of 2nd Army only today begin the transfer by rail to the Russian front, while 6th Army is finally in position to begin its offensive across the Drina River.

- Lord Kitchener persuades the British Cabinet to reject an alliance offer from Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, fearing that such a move would increase the probability of the Ottoman Empire joining the war on the side of Germany.  Kitchener views this issue primarily through the lens of the Empire - his concern is avoiding an Ottoman offensive against Egypt.

August 19th, 1914

- The German 1st Army crosses the Gette River in Belgium today, and find that the Belgian army has retreated in the night.  The Germans are furious that the Belgians have escaped destruction.  Perhaps not coincidentally, the village of Aerschot, between Brussels and the Gette River, suffers the first mass execution - 150 civilians are rounded up and shot.

- The French Army of Alsace, operating between 1st Army and the Swiss border, recaptures Mulhouse today.  However, its commander, General Paul-Marie Pau, is suspicious of the combat effectiveness of the reserve divisions, and otherwise restricts his activity to securing the Vosges, despite the fact that he is directly opposed by only four German Landwehr divisions.  Pau's inactivity allows the German 7th Army to threaten the right flank of the French 1st Army, which pulls the latter southward to cover the threat.  This in turn further draws the French 1st Army away from the French 2nd Army.

- Still ten miles east of Gumbinnen, François argues to Prittwitz that the Russian 1st Army should be attacked again - the Russians were disorganized by their advance and prior fighting, insisted François.  Prittwitz knew that initiating battle east of the Angerapp would mean abandoning the defensive positions the Germans had established there.  On the other hand, the Germans had intercepted a message from General Paul von Rennenkampf, commander of the Russian 1st Army, to one of his corps commanders, ordering that the army will rest on the 20th to bring up supplies and restore cohesion.  Prittwitz worries that if the Russian 1st Army delays its advance to the Angerapp, there will not be enough time to defeat them and redeploy southwestwards against the Russian 2nd Army.  Prittwitz decides instead to attack along the lines suggested by François - his corps will attack tomorrow morning, while the two and a half corps along the Angerapp will march east to join.

- The main Austro-Hungarian offensive against Russia begins today, with 1st and 4th Armies advancing north from Galicia into Russian Poland, in the direction of Lublin and Cholm.  Conrad's plan, to the extent that he has one, is to cut off the western portion of Russian Poland, isolating and destroying the Russian armies there.  In this maneouver he had hoped to be joined by a German force advancing south from East Prussia as the other half of the pincer.  Moltke has since disabused Conrad of this notion, yet Conrad persists with this operation.  Moreover, the position of 1st and 4th Armies will worsen the further north they go.  The Galician frontier resembles a half moon, and its length expands as the front moves into Russia.  Thus the flanks of 1st and 4th Armies, and in particular the right flank of 4th Army, arrayed to the east of 1st Army, will be exposed.  To the south, 3rd Army and whatever elements of 2nd Army that arrive are undertake an 'active defense' of the eastern portion of Galicia.  In practice, the commander of 3rd Army interprets this as a full advance into Russia.  This leaves 3rd Army even more exposed than 1st and 4th Armies, with the added complication that its lesser size makes it much less capable of meeting whatever Russian resistance it encounters.

- In response to the defeat suffered on the night of the 16th, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 5th Army orders VIII Corps to retreat behind the Drina River.  While a necessary decision in light of the losses of VIII Corps - one division alone had lost a third of its strength on the 16th - it leaves the other corps of 5th Army - XIII Corps - unsupported in Serbian territory.

With the growing realization of the failure of 5th Army's offensive, Potiorek's constant demands of Conrad to allow more substantial use to be made of 2nd Army bears limited fruit - Conrad agrees to temporarily transfer IV Corps to 5th Army, and the unit launches an attack from the Sabac bridgehead against the Serbian 2nd Army.  The offensive makes some headway, but just as the Serbs appear about to give way, Conrad orders the effort called off, to allow for transfer of the corps to Galicia.

August 17th, 1914

- Today the advance of the 1st and 2nd German Armies through Belgium is in full motion - 1st Army is attacking the lines of the main Belgian army along the Gette River, fifteen miles east of Brussels, while elements of 2nd Army are crossing the Meuse River at Huy in the direction of Namur and 3rd Army is moving west towards Dinant and Givet.  King Albert and Premier de Brouqueville in Brussels discuss the plight of the Belgian army.  Both believe that the main German advance is coming through Belgium, and to date no significant military assistance has been forthcoming from their allies, Joffre still insisting that the German effort in Belgium was a 'screen' for operations elsewhere.  The Belgian army alone can hardly withstand the Germans; remaining at their current positions would only ensure their ultimate destruction.  This evening the Belgian king takes the decision to abandon the capital.

Operations in Northern France and Belgium, Aug. 17th to Aug. 26th, 1914.

- The commander of II Corps of the British Expeditionary Force, Lieutenant General James Grierson, drops dead this morning on a train near Amiens of heart failure.  Field Marshal French is shocked by the sudden death of his good friend, compounded by Kitchener's refusal to agree to French's preferred replacement.  Instead, Kitchener sends out General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, whom French dislikes.  Both corps of the BEF are now under opinionated generals (I Corps being led by General Sir Douglas Haig) disinclined to defer to the wishes of their commanding officer.

- Field Marshal Sir John French meets with General Charles Lanrezac of the French 5th Army at the latter's headquarters today.  As the BEF is to slid into the Entente line to the left of 5th Army, a good working relationship between the two commanders is essential.  Instead, the meeting reflects the suspicion both hold for the other; in particular, Lanrezac places no faith in the BEF.  He feels that the main German force is about to descend on his position, and 5th Army is all that stands between France and annihilation.  Instead of receiving support from Joffre, however, the only aid he is to receive is the tiny British force.  He feels French does not understand the gravity of the situation, an impression confirmed when the British commander states, as he did to the French President, that his force will not be ready for action until the 24th.  When French asks if the Germans are crossing the Meuse, Lanrezac's peevish response is that the Germans have come to the Meuse to fish.  Neither general is willing to place their cavalry under the direction of the other.  In a report later submitted by Lanrezac to Joffre, the former reported that the British cavalry cannot be counted upon for anything, and that British unfamiliarity with French roads could cause widespread confusion in the case of a retreat.  It is the first time that Lanrezac has mentioned the possibility of retreat, and reflects his anxiety that his army will be insufficient to stop the German steamroller.  Joffre, for his part, is unimpressed.

- The French advance into Lorraine continues.  In the face of heavy casualties, XX Corps, commanded by General Ferdinand Foch and part of 2nd Army, seizes a portion of the heights near Morhange.  The success of XX Corps, though, disrupts the plans of General Édouard de Curières Castelnau, 2nd Army commander.  Castelnau had wanted XX Corps, on the left flank of his army, to act as a pivot, around which the other corps to the south would turn.  With XX Corps now the furthest into German territory, the left flank of Castelnau's two centre corps is now uncovered.

- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force is completed in the Channel ports today.

- As the Russian 1st Army has been the first to cross into East Prussia, General Prittwitz, commander of the German 8th Army, has decided that it will need to be defeated first, before redeployment southwest to meet the impending invasion of the Russian 2nd Army.  Prittwitz leaves one corps in the south to screen the Russian 2nd Army, and moves his other three and a half corps against the Russian 1st Army.  The plan is to fight the Russians along the Angerapp River, well behind the border, on the belief that the longer the Russians have to march, the more exhausted and out of supply they will become.

Prittwitz's plan, however, does not account for the insubordination of one of his corps commanders, General Hermann von François, whose I Corps was drawn from East Prussia.  François and his soldiers did not want to yield an inch of their 'home' territory to the Russians, and I Corps had consequently deployed farther east than the rest of 8th Army, and had begin skirmishing with the Russian 1st Army as soon as it crossed the border on the 15th.  Today I Corps engaged the Russians at Stallupönnen, twenty miles to the east of Gumbinnen and the Angerapp, despite a direct order from Prittwitz to François.  I Corps' attack disrupted the advance of the Russian 1st Army and forced the Russian 27th Division to retire in disarray.  Having achieved a tactical success, François shadows the Russians as they lumber westward, continuing to skirmish.

Operations in East Prussia, Aug. 17th to 23rd, 1914.

- Britain and France establish the Commission Internationale de Revitaillement to co-ordinate Entente purchase of munitions and other supplies from neutral countries, and thereby keep down prices.

August 16th, 1914

- Fort Loncin, the last surviving Belgian fort near Liège, comes under bombardment from a Krupp 420 mortar firing from within the town itself.  One shell penetrates the concrete and explodes in the fort's magazine, detonating the ammunition stores and blowing up the fort from the inside.  With the destruction of Fort Loncin, all Belgian resistance at Liège has come to an end.  It has taken the Germans twelve days from the moment they crossed the Belgian frontier to clear the forts.  For their efforts General Emmich and Ludendorff are awarded the Pour le Mérite, Germany's highest military honour.  Nevertheless, the Liège forts have served their purpose - overall, the advance of the German 1st and 2nd Armies has been delayed by several days.  In the context of the Schlieffen Plan, such delay is of the gravest importance.

Fort Loncin after its destruction on Aug. 16th, 1914.

- Today the shipment of the British Expeditionary Force reaches its peak, as thousands of soldiers cross the Channel.  Throughout this process, the German navy has made no effort whatsoever to interdict the British ships.  Doing so would require sending the navy into the narrows of the Strait of Dover, where they would be susceptible to mines, subject to submarine attacks, and could potentially have their avenue of retreat cut off by the Grand Fleet sailing south from Scapa Flow.  Perhaps more importantly, however, the Germans do not feel that stopping the BEF from arriving in France is of particular importance.  By continental standards, the BEF is pitifully small - four infantry divisions plus cavalry, in comparison to the seven entire armies the Germans have in the West.  It is felt that the BEF is too small to make a decisive difference, and once the Schlieffen Plan is successfully executed it can be dealt with easily.  Yet another assumption of the German General Staff that will be upset by events.

- Moltke and the Supreme German Command (OHL in German), the headquarters of the German army in the war, relocates from Berlin to Coblenz on the Rhine River today.  It is still eighty miles from the frontlines, and Moltke lacks information about the progress of the fighting.  Wireless communications are inconsistent at best - the Eiffel Tower is being used to jam German signals.  Telephone communication is also problematic - as the German armies advance, the telephone lines are broken and only irregularly repaired.  The best method of communication is for junior officers, acquainted with Moltke's views, to be dispatched from headquarters to subordinate commands.  For an operation that requires such precision as the Schlieffen Plan, this is hardly an ideal system of administration.

One communication that does get through to OHL today is from Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, commander of 6th Army.  He is responsible for the defense of the German left, the actions of 7th Army conforming to his orders.  For two days he has been gradually retreating in the face of the French offensive in Lorraine, though inflicting heavy casualties on the French.  As per the Schlieffen Plan, this is the essential task of the German left, to draw in the French and make it more difficult to respond to the advance through Belgium.  Rupprecht, however, does not appreciate being assigned such a mundane task.  Instead, he yearns to go on the attack and win glory on the battlefield.  Further, a strong attack will pin the French forces in Lorraine, preventing them from redeploying against the German right moving through Belgium.  However, he makes an even more tantalizing argument to Moltke and OHL.  A successful German counterattack in Lorraine could open the way for an advance into France itself, and ultimately achieve the great goal of almost every general since Hannibal - a second Cannae.  If the German right and left wings can break through, they can surround the entire French army and annihilate it.  It is a major break from the Schlieffen Plan, and will necessitate committing forces to 6th and 7th Armies that might be more profitably utilized in Belgium.

Moltke, whose confidence has never really recovered from the Kaiser's rebuke on August 1st, is chronically indecisive.  Does he seize an opportunity on the battlefield, or does he rigidly adhere to the war plan developed and refined over the past decade?  A staff officer is sent by Moltke to Rupprecht's headquarters, but discussion solves nothing, and the question remains undecided.

- Field Marshall Sir John French meets General Joseph Joffre at the latter's headquarters for the first time since the outbreak of war.  Neither particularly likes the other - French disdains Joffre's plebeian background, while Joffre feels the British commander is too concerned with his own army's fate, and insufficiently attuned to the needs of the broader campaign.  Joffre insists that the BEF needs to be prepared to go into action to the left of Lanrazac's 5th Army by August 21st at the latest.  In contrast to his discussion with President Poincarè, today French says he will do his best.  When the British commander requests that French cavalry, to be deployed on the BEF's left flank, be put under his control, Joffre refuses - the British are here to aid the French army, not command it, and the French commander is hardly interested in delegating authority to his own subordinates, let alone the British.

- A surprise night counterattack by Serbian forces savages VIII Corps of the Austro-Hungarian Army, throwing it into retreat.

- The arrival of Goeben and Breslau at the Dardanelles six days ago has created the issue of what, exactly, should be done with the two ships.  As the Ottoman Empire is still neutral, combatant ships are supposed to be interned, but there is no chance of this being acceptable to Admiral Souchon.  Instead, the German ambassador suggested that the ships be 'sold' to the Ottomans, a solution quickly seized upon by the Ottoman government.  Not only would this resolve the status of the ships, but it would also appear as compensation provided by the Germans to the Ottomans for the seizure of the latter's dreadnoughts under construction in Britain.  Today, in a formal ceremony the German flag is lowered from the ships, replaced by the Ottoman flag, and the ships are re-christened Jawus Sultan Selim (ex-Goeben) and Midilli (ex-Breslau).  The British ambassador can only protest feebly.  The British have been hoist on their own petard - having seized the Ottoman dreadnoughts, they can hardly complain about the Ottomans 'purchasing' replacement vessels.  In practice, the 'sale' is a fiction.  The ships remain manned by German sailors (though now in fezzes) and commanded by Admiral Souchon, the latter loyal to Berlin over Constantinople.  It is another step of the Ottoman Empire into the orbit of Germany.

Meanwhile, a meeting between the German military mission in the Ottoman Empire and Enver Pasha discuss possible Ottoman operations in the event of their entry into the war.  An offensive against Egypt receives the most emphasis, while amphibious operations in the Black Sea, backed by Goeben and Breslau, are also canvassed.

August 15th, 1914

- Joffre issues Special Instruction No. 10 at 7pm this evening, regarding the operations of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Armies.  The first two are to concentrate on the forthcoming offensive through the Ardennes, while 5th Army is to have one corps facing northeast to support the advance.  The rest of 5th Army, however, is to advance northwards into the triangle between the Meuse and Sambre Rivers, south of Namur, to cover the northern flank of the French line against German forces moving through Belgium.  It is the first acknowledgement by Joffre that the German invasion of Belgium necessitates alterations to Plan XVII, and reflects both intelligence indications from Belgium and the pressure of General Lanrazac of 5th Army.  However, Joffre's focus remains on the offensives undertaken by 1st through 4th Armies - he still believes that few Germans will move west of the Meuse, and indeed welcomes the notion of a strong German right wing, as he believes it means the centre at the Ardennes will be weakened, where the main French attack will shortly commence.

- The advance of the French 1st and 2nd Armies continues into Lorraine.  The Germans continue to fall back as planned, which gives the impression to the French commanders that their tactics and strategy are working.  However, there are indications that not all is well.  When the Germans do stand and fight, the French infantry take terrible losses, while German artillery are causing additional casualties.  The 2nd Army commander reports that defended positions require extensive artillery bombardment - this contrasts with pre-war doctrine, which believes that superior French morale and elan can defeat any defending force.  However, the continued German retreat ensures that no reassessment of tactics occurs.

- Field Marshal Sir John French meets French President Raymond Poincarè in Paris today.  The British general, unable to speak more than a few words of French, informs the French President that the British Expeditionary Force will not be prepared for action until August 24th.  French is taking Kitchener's instructions to heart - wanting to ensure the preservation of his command, he does not wish to risk it in battle until it is fully prepared and unless it is necessary.  Poincarè is horrified - he fears the BEF will not be able to take the field in time.

- The Russian advance into East Prussia begins today when 1st Army crosses the border.  The Russians aim to make a virtue of the delayed advance of 2nd Army, which will not reach the German frontier until August 20th.  Advancing westwards north of the Masurian Lakes, the objective of 1st Army is to force the Germans to battle, and pin them on their front, after which 2nd Army, advancing northwards west of the Masurian Lakes, will attack the Germans on their flank and roll them up.  The plan has several significant flaws.  First, in their haste to attack Germany as quickly as possible to aid their French allies, the Russian armies are advancing without adequate supply.  Second, there is an almost complete lack of communication between the commanders of the two armies and front headquarters, ensuring that each army operates largely in the dark regarding the location and intentions of the other.  Finally, what communications do take place are transmitted in the clear, giving the Germans a vital insight into their enemy's intentions.

- Conrad has his last audience with Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna today before his departure for the fortress of Przemysl in Galicia, where he will establish his headquarters.  The Emperor's final words were 'God willing, all will go well, but even if it all goes wrong, I'll see it through.'  Not exactly the most inspiring words on the eve of titanic battles that may decide the fate of Austria-Hungary.

- The entirety of Austro-Hungarian cavalry assigned to Galicia crosses over the Russian frontier in an effort to ascertain the dispositions of the Russian army.  In this task they fail completely.  When Russians were encountered, the cavalry dismounted to fight, eliminating their mobility, and in such fights failed to penetrate the Russian screens and thus missed the bulk of the Russian forces.  Moreover, the Austro-Hungarians wore a saddle best suited for the parade ground, but which on campaign rubbed the backs of their horses raw.  Half of the cavalry strength of the Austro-Hungarian army has vanished before the main fighting has even begun.

- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army finally crosses the Drina River in strength, and advances southeast, where it runs into the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies.  The Serbs are entrenched in excellent defensive positions among the rough terrain; Austro-Hungarian soldiers, badly-supplied and poorly-equipped for mountain warfare, advance uphill in blistering heat and under constant fire from Serbian soldiers and guerrillas.  5th Army is unable to make any headway, held up on the Cer plateau, and takes heavy losses.

- Japan submits an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it turn over its Chinese base at Tsingtao or face war.  The Germans are given seven days to respond.  Japan has been an ally of Britain since 1902, but the ultimatum makes no reference to the alliance.  Instead, the Japanese government has decided to join the war in pursuit of its own objectives, independent of the war in Europe.  Their primary goal is the seizure of Tsingtao, and secondly the conquest of further German colonies in the Pacific.  Japan has no intention whatsoever of getting involved in the fighting in Europe itself.  The British, for their part, appreciate that a Japanese entry into the war will ensure Entente naval supremacy in the Far East, but are wary of Japan's wider goals in China and the Pacific, where they may conflict with not only British interests but those of Australia and New Zealand.

- A small German detachment seizes today the village of Taveta, southeast of Mount Kilimanjaro just inside British East Africa, and an important assembly point for any British advance into German East Africa.