- President Poincaré, Premier Viviani, and Minister of War Millerand visit Joffre at the latter's headquarters, where they press Joffre to transfer four divisions to General Sarrail's new Army of the Near East. The French commander-in-chief refuses, saying that nothing can be spared until the completion of the upcoming autumn offensive, and opposes making military decisions to please whom he refers to as 'a factious general.'
- In central Poland, while the German 9th Army crosses the Liwiec River, the units under Woyrsch's command is forced to launch a determined attack on the Russian positions to the east of Lukow, in order to dislodge the enemy and resume the advance. Though the Russians are pushed back, they are able to retain cohesion and establish a new defensive position on the line Misie-Hadynow. To the south, the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army finds itself now advancing almost due east as the Russian salient collapses, and like its German counterparts to the east finds itself being squeezed; today XIV Corps is pulled from the line.
- The German submarine UB14, patrolling the route between Alexandria and the Dardanelles, torpedoes the British transport Royal Edward, which sinks with the loss of nine hundred lives.
Showing posts with label Poincarè. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Poincarè. Show all posts
Thursday, August 13, 2015
Tuesday, June 23, 2015
June 23rd, 1915
- Given the growing concerns in political circles regarding the management of the war effort, President Poincaré, Premier Viviani, and Minister of War Millerand attend a meeting today between Joffre and his army commanders. When they criticize Joffre for failing to deliver the promised breakthrough in Artois, Joffre denies ever having made such a pledge in the first place, a statement that does not go over well with the politicians. As the meeting progresses the government leaders observe that while there may be differences in the timing and location of future French offensives (Foch wants only a brief delay before attacking again, while Castlenau and Dubail argue for several months), all of the military chiefs accept the basic premise that France must continue offensive operations. Standing on the defensive, it is suggested, would simply expose the French army to incessant German attacks, and it is a moral necessity to liberate the territories occupied by the enemy as quickly as possible.
- With the fall of Lemberg yesterday, General Mackensen issues orders for the next phase of the offensive. With the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army on its left, the German 11th Army is to advance northwards in pursuit of the retreating Russians. To allow time for adequate munitions and supplies to be stockpiled, the operation is scheduled to begin on the 26th. Meanwhile, in an effort to lessen pressure on the Eastern Front, the Russian government today asks Serbia to undertake an invasion of Syrmia.
- The Italian army begins its first set-piece offensive operation today along the Isonzo River on the eastern edge of the Italian Front. The Italian VII and X Corps of 3rd Army is to seize the plateau between Montafalcone and Sagrado, while II Corps of 2nd Army to the north is to seize Monte Kuk. The plan, as devised by Cadorna, calls for a methodical artillery bombardment to precede the advance of the infantry, and accordingly the Italian artillery opens fire early this morning and fires throughout the day. The Italian bombardment, however, suffers from several deficiencies. First, there is a lack of medium and heavy artillery pieces, needed to destroy fixed defensive positions. Second, the Italian army suffers from a distinct shortage of artillery shells, limiting the intensity of the bombardment. Finally, the Italians have no concept of how to conduct a bombardment effectively; instead of concentrating their fire on particular positions, the Italians attempt to blanket the enemy areas with shells. The result is that the artillery is nowhere near strong or effective enough to significantly disrupt the Austro-Hungarian defence. This evening 3rd Army sends small parties forward to test the effectiveness of the bombardment, and discover that the enemy positions are completely intact. The only ground the Italian army is able to seize today is that which is voluntarily abandoned by Austro-Hungarian advance guards as they pull back to their main defensive positions. It is an inauspicious beginning entirely in line with how the war will progress for the Italians along the Isonzo River.
- In German East Africa a British force crosses Lake Victoria and raids the village of Bukoba, on the western shore in the northwestern corner of the German colony. As the village is undefended, the British are able to seize Bukoba and destroy its wireless station, the target of the raid. The expedition was also undertaken to give the colonial force something constructive to do, given that the war to this point in eastern Africa has consisted of inaction interspersed with humiliating defeats. Indeed, Bukoba becomes an outlet for the frustrations of the war to date, as looting and rape is both widespread and at least implicitly sanctioned. As it turns out, by destroying the wireless station the British deny themselves the station's transmissions which had been regularly intercepted. Overall, a thoroughly pointless 'victory'.
- With the fall of Lemberg yesterday, General Mackensen issues orders for the next phase of the offensive. With the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army on its left, the German 11th Army is to advance northwards in pursuit of the retreating Russians. To allow time for adequate munitions and supplies to be stockpiled, the operation is scheduled to begin on the 26th. Meanwhile, in an effort to lessen pressure on the Eastern Front, the Russian government today asks Serbia to undertake an invasion of Syrmia.
- The Italian army begins its first set-piece offensive operation today along the Isonzo River on the eastern edge of the Italian Front. The Italian VII and X Corps of 3rd Army is to seize the plateau between Montafalcone and Sagrado, while II Corps of 2nd Army to the north is to seize Monte Kuk. The plan, as devised by Cadorna, calls for a methodical artillery bombardment to precede the advance of the infantry, and accordingly the Italian artillery opens fire early this morning and fires throughout the day. The Italian bombardment, however, suffers from several deficiencies. First, there is a lack of medium and heavy artillery pieces, needed to destroy fixed defensive positions. Second, the Italian army suffers from a distinct shortage of artillery shells, limiting the intensity of the bombardment. Finally, the Italians have no concept of how to conduct a bombardment effectively; instead of concentrating their fire on particular positions, the Italians attempt to blanket the enemy areas with shells. The result is that the artillery is nowhere near strong or effective enough to significantly disrupt the Austro-Hungarian defence. This evening 3rd Army sends small parties forward to test the effectiveness of the bombardment, and discover that the enemy positions are completely intact. The only ground the Italian army is able to seize today is that which is voluntarily abandoned by Austro-Hungarian advance guards as they pull back to their main defensive positions. It is an inauspicious beginning entirely in line with how the war will progress for the Italians along the Isonzo River.
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| The Italian front along the Isonzo River, June 23rd, 1915. |
- In German East Africa a British force crosses Lake Victoria and raids the village of Bukoba, on the western shore in the northwestern corner of the German colony. As the village is undefended, the British are able to seize Bukoba and destroy its wireless station, the target of the raid. The expedition was also undertaken to give the colonial force something constructive to do, given that the war to this point in eastern Africa has consisted of inaction interspersed with humiliating defeats. Indeed, Bukoba becomes an outlet for the frustrations of the war to date, as looting and rape is both widespread and at least implicitly sanctioned. As it turns out, by destroying the wireless station the British deny themselves the station's transmissions which had been regularly intercepted. Overall, a thoroughly pointless 'victory'.
Monday, April 27, 2015
April 27th, 1915
- At Ypres the commander of the German XXVI Corps decides that there are too few gas cylinders available for immediate use, and thus calls off further offensive operations for the time being until additional gas cylinders can be installed. Though occasional British and French counterattacks occur (accomplishing nothing), a pause ensues in the 2nd Battle of Ypres.
- The northern end of the Eastern Front has been comparatively quiet over the past few months, in contrast to the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes just to the south and the terrible fighting in the Carpathians beyond. Falkenhayn, however, has issued orders for OberOst to conduct diversionary operations prior to 11th Army's attack at Gorlice-Tarnow, and Ludendorff has decided that the most substantial of these operations is to occur here. Three cavalry divisions - 3rd, 6th, and Bavarian - are to spearhead the advance, supported by 6th, 36th, and 78th Reserve Division. These forces have been formed into Army Group Lauenstein, named for its commander, General Otto von Lauenstein. Their objective is the conquest of Courland, a sparsely populated region west of Riga and north of the Niemen River. Here, with an almost complete lack of infrastructure, the front has been sparsely held by both sides, and the Russian defence is anchored around strong-points scattered about ten miles apart. The lack of defence in depth gives space for cavalry to operate, and when the German advance begins today both 3rd and Bavarian Cavalry Divisions in particular are able to make rapid progress into the gaps in the Russian line.
- General Ivanov of South-West Front submits his plan to Russian army headquarters today for a resumption of offensive operations in the Carpathians. He intends to insert 11th Army between 8th and 9th Armies, and advance along the line Turka-Nagy-Verecke. Grand Duke Nicholas insists on several changes to Ivanov's plan, including the deploying of XXXIII Corps closer to the front. Ivanov complies, and states that the attack will be scheduled to begin May 3rd. As it turns out, a day too late.
- The negotiations that led to the Treaty of London between Italy, Britain, France, and Russia, as well as the signing ceremony yesterday, were undertaken in secret. However, the French delegation in particular has leaked like a sieve, news of the agreement spreading from cabinet members to friends and journalists - indeed, the dressmaker to the wife of President Poincaré is even in on the secret. Thus it is little surprise that the French newspaper Le Temps announces today that 'the London negotiations have virtually terminated in an accord.' Nothing like giving the enemy four weeks' notice of an impending declaration of war.
Meanwhile, reverberations from the Treaty of London ripple across Europe. In Serbia the national parliament debates rumours of the agreement amidst concerns that Serbia's allies have sold out its interests in yielding to Italy's territorial demands along the Adriatic coast. The most Premier Nikola Pašić can say is that he has no information on the matter, which hardly reassures the parliamentary deputies, and criticism mounts that he has failed to defend Serbian interests.
- On the Austro-Hungarian side of the frontier with Italy, construction begins on the defensive line along the Isonzo River, which will be much-utilized in the years to come.
- On the Asiatic shore of the Dardanelles, the French evacuation from Kum Kale is completed before daybreak. French casualties for the two days of fighting amount to 780, and while Ottoman losses were greater, the landing did not otherwise impact the course of the fighting on Gallipoli. At Cape Helles, General Hunter-Weston had hoped that the French reinforcements ordered yesterday by General Hamilton to land at X Beach would arrive before noon today, allowing for a general advance towards the village of Krithia and the heights at Achi Baba, which was supposed to have been captured on the first day of the operation. However, a shortage of steamboats delay the landing, which in turn forces a postponement of the advance until tomorrow.
As the Gallipoli operation is already significantly behind schedule, General Hamilton concludes that reinforcements will be necessary to secure control of the peninsula. Late this evening he sends a message to Lord Kitchener asking for 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, currently in Egypt defending the Suez Canal, to be reassigned to his command, which the Secretary of War enthusiastically endorses. On the other side, German General Liman Sanders, commander of the Ottoman 5th Army tasked with defending Gallipoli, has been rushing forces to meet the Entente landings. By this evening all of the Ottoman forces that had been defending the beaches near Bulair on the northern end of the peninsula have been sent southwards. Reinforcements are also en route from the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, and two fresh divisions - 15th and 16th - have departed Constantinople for the front. Closer to the front than Entente reinforcements, and able to arrive without having to co-ordinate shipping, the Ottomans are able to get new forces to the lines on Gallipoli faster than the British and French.
- After a reconnaissance of Qurna and conferring with officers there, General Townshend reports to General Nixon that the latter's original plan for an attack north of Qurna via a tactical outflanking maneouver was not feasible due to the flooded terrain. Instead, Townshend suggests advance through Ahwaz, which would force the Ottomans out of their position to avoid encirclement. Such an operation, however, would require traversing Persian territory, which does not endear it to Nixon.
- The northern end of the Eastern Front has been comparatively quiet over the past few months, in contrast to the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes just to the south and the terrible fighting in the Carpathians beyond. Falkenhayn, however, has issued orders for OberOst to conduct diversionary operations prior to 11th Army's attack at Gorlice-Tarnow, and Ludendorff has decided that the most substantial of these operations is to occur here. Three cavalry divisions - 3rd, 6th, and Bavarian - are to spearhead the advance, supported by 6th, 36th, and 78th Reserve Division. These forces have been formed into Army Group Lauenstein, named for its commander, General Otto von Lauenstein. Their objective is the conquest of Courland, a sparsely populated region west of Riga and north of the Niemen River. Here, with an almost complete lack of infrastructure, the front has been sparsely held by both sides, and the Russian defence is anchored around strong-points scattered about ten miles apart. The lack of defence in depth gives space for cavalry to operate, and when the German advance begins today both 3rd and Bavarian Cavalry Divisions in particular are able to make rapid progress into the gaps in the Russian line.
- General Ivanov of South-West Front submits his plan to Russian army headquarters today for a resumption of offensive operations in the Carpathians. He intends to insert 11th Army between 8th and 9th Armies, and advance along the line Turka-Nagy-Verecke. Grand Duke Nicholas insists on several changes to Ivanov's plan, including the deploying of XXXIII Corps closer to the front. Ivanov complies, and states that the attack will be scheduled to begin May 3rd. As it turns out, a day too late.
- The negotiations that led to the Treaty of London between Italy, Britain, France, and Russia, as well as the signing ceremony yesterday, were undertaken in secret. However, the French delegation in particular has leaked like a sieve, news of the agreement spreading from cabinet members to friends and journalists - indeed, the dressmaker to the wife of President Poincaré is even in on the secret. Thus it is little surprise that the French newspaper Le Temps announces today that 'the London negotiations have virtually terminated in an accord.' Nothing like giving the enemy four weeks' notice of an impending declaration of war.
Meanwhile, reverberations from the Treaty of London ripple across Europe. In Serbia the national parliament debates rumours of the agreement amidst concerns that Serbia's allies have sold out its interests in yielding to Italy's territorial demands along the Adriatic coast. The most Premier Nikola Pašić can say is that he has no information on the matter, which hardly reassures the parliamentary deputies, and criticism mounts that he has failed to defend Serbian interests.
- On the Austro-Hungarian side of the frontier with Italy, construction begins on the defensive line along the Isonzo River, which will be much-utilized in the years to come.
- On the Asiatic shore of the Dardanelles, the French evacuation from Kum Kale is completed before daybreak. French casualties for the two days of fighting amount to 780, and while Ottoman losses were greater, the landing did not otherwise impact the course of the fighting on Gallipoli. At Cape Helles, General Hunter-Weston had hoped that the French reinforcements ordered yesterday by General Hamilton to land at X Beach would arrive before noon today, allowing for a general advance towards the village of Krithia and the heights at Achi Baba, which was supposed to have been captured on the first day of the operation. However, a shortage of steamboats delay the landing, which in turn forces a postponement of the advance until tomorrow.
As the Gallipoli operation is already significantly behind schedule, General Hamilton concludes that reinforcements will be necessary to secure control of the peninsula. Late this evening he sends a message to Lord Kitchener asking for 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, currently in Egypt defending the Suez Canal, to be reassigned to his command, which the Secretary of War enthusiastically endorses. On the other side, German General Liman Sanders, commander of the Ottoman 5th Army tasked with defending Gallipoli, has been rushing forces to meet the Entente landings. By this evening all of the Ottoman forces that had been defending the beaches near Bulair on the northern end of the peninsula have been sent southwards. Reinforcements are also en route from the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, and two fresh divisions - 15th and 16th - have departed Constantinople for the front. Closer to the front than Entente reinforcements, and able to arrive without having to co-ordinate shipping, the Ottomans are able to get new forces to the lines on Gallipoli faster than the British and French.
- After a reconnaissance of Qurna and conferring with officers there, General Townshend reports to General Nixon that the latter's original plan for an attack north of Qurna via a tactical outflanking maneouver was not feasible due to the flooded terrain. Instead, Townshend suggests advance through Ahwaz, which would force the Ottomans out of their position to avoid encirclement. Such an operation, however, would require traversing Persian territory, which does not endear it to Nixon.
Wednesday, January 07, 2015
January 7th, 1915
- Joffre meets today with President Poincaré and the French Council of Ministers today, and when operations in the Balkans are discussed, he voices his adamant opposition. For the Commander-in-Chief, the decisive theatre of the war is and always will be the Western Front - any transfer of units from France to elsewhere risks disaster in the homeland, while victory in the war necessitates the defeat of Germany, France's strongest opponent, whose army is massed in occupied Belgium and France. Victory can only come by crushing the German army, and since the German army is on the Western Front, that is where the war must be fought. Joffre also highlights the logistical difficulties of deploying and supplying a large force in the Balkans; as he emphasizes, the Serbs have difficulties keeping their army of only a hundred thousand supplied. When the Minister of War supports Joffre's objections, the Balkans operation is set aside - the prestige of the victor of the Marne is still sufficient to ensure that he is able to dictate grand strategy to the politicians who are, at least nominally, his masters.
- In a circular to the German armies on the Western Front, Falkenhayn observes that Entente offensives have been directing artillery fire behind the first German trench line to prevent them from bringing up additional infantry to the front during infantry attacks. To combat this, Falkenhayn emphasizes the importance of constructing protective trenches behind the first line of defence to provide cover for infantry during enemy bombardments. This reflects the continued learning process on the Western Front, as both attackers and defenders adapt to trench warfare and a new tactic implemented by one side leads to a counter-tactic devised by the other in a constant struggle for supremacy between the offensive and defensive.
- Conrad replies to Falkenhayn's message of yesterday, arguing that there is nothing that Austria-Hungary could provide that would satisfy Italy's appetite, writes that the 'entire political situation particularly in the East and in the Balkans is entirely dependent on the military situation with Russia. Without a decisive success against Russia, even a major success in Serbia will be ineffective.'
- The German merchant steamer Choising, carrying the landing party from Emden, arrives today at the Straits of Perim between the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa, where the Red Sea empties into the Indian Ocean. The steamer has had an uneventful journey across the Indian Ocean, only sighting other merchant ships along the way, and now the German crew seeks to enter the Red Sea, in order reach Ottoman territory. Choising waits until sunset before entering the Straits, in order to avoid any British patrol ships in the narrows.
- In a circular to the German armies on the Western Front, Falkenhayn observes that Entente offensives have been directing artillery fire behind the first German trench line to prevent them from bringing up additional infantry to the front during infantry attacks. To combat this, Falkenhayn emphasizes the importance of constructing protective trenches behind the first line of defence to provide cover for infantry during enemy bombardments. This reflects the continued learning process on the Western Front, as both attackers and defenders adapt to trench warfare and a new tactic implemented by one side leads to a counter-tactic devised by the other in a constant struggle for supremacy between the offensive and defensive.
- Conrad replies to Falkenhayn's message of yesterday, arguing that there is nothing that Austria-Hungary could provide that would satisfy Italy's appetite, writes that the 'entire political situation particularly in the East and in the Balkans is entirely dependent on the military situation with Russia. Without a decisive success against Russia, even a major success in Serbia will be ineffective.'
- The German merchant steamer Choising, carrying the landing party from Emden, arrives today at the Straits of Perim between the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa, where the Red Sea empties into the Indian Ocean. The steamer has had an uneventful journey across the Indian Ocean, only sighting other merchant ships along the way, and now the German crew seeks to enter the Red Sea, in order reach Ottoman territory. Choising waits until sunset before entering the Straits, in order to avoid any British patrol ships in the narrows.
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| The southern Red Sea during the First World War. |
Thursday, January 01, 2015
January 1st, 1915
- French President Poincarè, Prime Minister Viviani, and Minister of Justice Aristide Briand meet this morning for breakfast to discuss French strategic options for 1915. Among the operations considered is the deployment of between four and five hundred thousand French soldiers to the Balkans, either to assist Serbia directly or more generally to threaten Austria-Hungary, via a landing either at Salonika in Greece or on the Adriatic coast. Proposals for such an undertaking have come from such leading army officers as General Franchet d'Espèrey and General Joseph Gallieni, who view operations in the Balkans as a means to break the deadlock on the Western Front.
- Eight pre-dreadnoughts of the British Channel Fleet are at sea in the pre-dawn hours this morning, having departed Sheerness yesterday evening. The eight are steaming in a straight line at moderate speed in the English Channel without a screen of destroyers. Not surprisingly, just after 3am two torpedoes strikes the pre-dreadnought Formidable, last in line, and only 201 of the more than 800-man crew are rescued in the rough weather. It is yet another example of the vulnerability of capital ships to submarine attack if the proper precautions are not taken.
- Falkenhayn and Conrad meet this morning at the Prussian War Ministry in Berlin to discuss the overall strategic direction of the war. Conrad argues that all offensive operations on the Western Front should be put on hold in order to concentrate on securing a decisive victory on the Eastern Front. To this end, reinforcements drawn from the Western Front, in addition to the four and a half German reserve corps now being formed, should be sent to the East. Falkenhayn rejects Conrad's suggestions out of hand; the German army, he asserts, is already outnumbered two to one in the West, and that when the new formations are ready for deployment in February, he will employ them on the Western Front. In the face of this fundamental disagreement, the meeting degenerates into mutual recriminations. Falkenhayn chastises the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army for continuing to retreat, arguing it has to stop and observes dismissively 'there can't be that many Russians facing you.' Conrad replies sharply that the German army began the war in the west with its own great retreat from the Marne. Such an observation, while correct, is hardly calculated to improve Falkenhayn's disposition; he dismisses Conrad's observation with the comment that it was an error ordered by his predecessor.
The meeting breaks for lunch having accomplished nothing, and in the afternoon they are joined by Ludendorff, who had been summoned to Berlin. While the latter supports the deployment of the new corps to the East, his proposal is to use them to undertake an offensive in East Prussia. Both Falkenhayn and Conrad oppose the suggestion, the former not wanting the corps on the Eastern Front at all and the latter believing an operation in East Prussia is too distant to affect the situation in Galicia, which is Conrad's preoccupation. By the end of the discussion, the most Falkenhayn is willing to concede is that a final decision on the deployment of the four and a half new corps does not need to be made for three weeks. The only concrete decision of note to come from the meeting is an offer by Ludendorff to place three or four German divisions, drawn from 9th Army, at the disposal of Conrad. Ludendorff believes that the failure of 9th Army in December to break through to Warsaw indicates that a decisive victory cannot be won here, and thus a portion of the German formations concentrated here can be better employed reinforcing the faltering Austro-Hungarians. Conrad, not surprisingly, enthusiastically accepts.
- Eight pre-dreadnoughts of the British Channel Fleet are at sea in the pre-dawn hours this morning, having departed Sheerness yesterday evening. The eight are steaming in a straight line at moderate speed in the English Channel without a screen of destroyers. Not surprisingly, just after 3am two torpedoes strikes the pre-dreadnought Formidable, last in line, and only 201 of the more than 800-man crew are rescued in the rough weather. It is yet another example of the vulnerability of capital ships to submarine attack if the proper precautions are not taken.
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| The British pre-dreadnought Formidable, sunk on New Year's Day, 1915. |
- Falkenhayn and Conrad meet this morning at the Prussian War Ministry in Berlin to discuss the overall strategic direction of the war. Conrad argues that all offensive operations on the Western Front should be put on hold in order to concentrate on securing a decisive victory on the Eastern Front. To this end, reinforcements drawn from the Western Front, in addition to the four and a half German reserve corps now being formed, should be sent to the East. Falkenhayn rejects Conrad's suggestions out of hand; the German army, he asserts, is already outnumbered two to one in the West, and that when the new formations are ready for deployment in February, he will employ them on the Western Front. In the face of this fundamental disagreement, the meeting degenerates into mutual recriminations. Falkenhayn chastises the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army for continuing to retreat, arguing it has to stop and observes dismissively 'there can't be that many Russians facing you.' Conrad replies sharply that the German army began the war in the west with its own great retreat from the Marne. Such an observation, while correct, is hardly calculated to improve Falkenhayn's disposition; he dismisses Conrad's observation with the comment that it was an error ordered by his predecessor.
The meeting breaks for lunch having accomplished nothing, and in the afternoon they are joined by Ludendorff, who had been summoned to Berlin. While the latter supports the deployment of the new corps to the East, his proposal is to use them to undertake an offensive in East Prussia. Both Falkenhayn and Conrad oppose the suggestion, the former not wanting the corps on the Eastern Front at all and the latter believing an operation in East Prussia is too distant to affect the situation in Galicia, which is Conrad's preoccupation. By the end of the discussion, the most Falkenhayn is willing to concede is that a final decision on the deployment of the four and a half new corps does not need to be made for three weeks. The only concrete decision of note to come from the meeting is an offer by Ludendorff to place three or four German divisions, drawn from 9th Army, at the disposal of Conrad. Ludendorff believes that the failure of 9th Army in December to break through to Warsaw indicates that a decisive victory cannot be won here, and thus a portion of the German formations concentrated here can be better employed reinforcing the faltering Austro-Hungarians. Conrad, not surprisingly, enthusiastically accepts.
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| The Eastern Front, January 1st, 1915. |
Saturday, November 01, 2014
November 1st, 1914
- Despite the ground gained yesterday east of Ypres, Army Group Fabeck failed to achieve the desired breakthrough. General Fabeck decides that while the offensive will continue, its focus will shift slightly. After failing to exploit the temporary breach in the British line at Gheluvelt yesterday, today's attacks will be launched between Messines and Wytschaete.
On the Entente side, the French plan three attacks, to be undertaken in large part to relieve the pressure on the British - the first from north of Wytschaete, the second from Zonnebeke, and the third a diversionary attack by the rest of IX Corps. Each of these attacks fail to accomplish anything today, but they also speak to the growing importance of French forces in the Ypres salient. The past two week have severely reduced the BEF's strength - of its eighty-four infantry battalions, nine have fewer than a hundred men, while another thirty-one have between one and two hundred. In comparison, a full battalion would have just over a thousand men. There are also very few reinforcements in Britain that can be sent immediately to the front - the only regular army units not yet in the fight are the battalions of 8th Division, assembling in Britain after being located around the Empire on the outbreak of war.
The main German attack begins at 1am by nine battalions of the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division. At Wytschaete the British are outnumbered twelve to one, and by 245am the village is in German hands. More importantly, as the battle continues German units begin to infiltrate between British positions on the ridge between Wytschaete and Messines, as the defenders here are too few to man an entire trench line at once. Those British soldiers who remain on the ridge at dawn realize they are in danger of encirclement, and pull back. By 735am the Germans are in possession of the middle part of the high ground. This outflanks the British defenders still clinging to the village of Messines itself, and they are ordered to retreat at 9am. The British fall back to the next line of high ground to the west, while shelling their former trenches at Messines to impede the German occupation of them. A British counterattack manages to re-enter Wytschaete later in the day, but otherwise the Entente line here has been pushed back. On the other hand, the German victory is merely a tactical one, as though the British retreat they are not routed, and a new defensive line stands in the Germans' way.
- Behind the front, Lord Kitchener is meeting President Poincarè, Joffre, and Foch at Dunkirk to discuss the course of the war. Kitchener informs them that there are no substantial British reinforcements available until the spring of 1915, as he will not send untrained men into battle. However, subsequently the size of the BEF will expand rapidly as the 'New Armies' of wartime volunteers come into the field. Also, know of the sometimes-testy relationship between Joffre and Sir John French, Kitchener offers to replace the latter with General Sir Ian Hamilton. Joffre declines, believing (ironically, given his own record) that changing the BEF's commander in the middle of a battle would not work out. Unfortunately for Kitchener, this offer very quickly reaches the ears of Field Marshal French, which earns Kitchener the enduring emnity of the latter.
- By today the German 9th Army has fallen back to the line from which it had started its advance into Poland just over a month ago. Despite Ludendorff's claims of success, and the generally confused nature of the fighting, the Battle of the Vistula River is a Russian victory - it can hardly be otherwise when the Germans were the attackers and they end the battle where they started. Nevertheless, the past month have shown the continuing logistical and command problems plaguing the Russian army - the attempt to pursue the retreating Germans has completely broken down, and today it is formally called off.
As for Falkenhayn, his attention remains firmly fixed on the Western Front, and is willing to leave matters on the Eastern Front in the hands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff. As such, Hindenburg is today appointed commander-in-chief of all German forces in the east, with Ludendorff as his chief of staff and the command to be known as Ober Ost. General Mackensen is also promoted to take command of 9th Army.
- With the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war almost inevitable after the events in the Black Sea, the Shah of Persia, its eastern neighbour, declares the neutrality of his state. The statement, however, is more theoretical than practical. Though Persia is nominally independent, both Britain and Russia have significant interests and influence within it. The newest dreadnoughts burn oil, not coal, and with the oilfields of southern Persia being a key source for the Admiralty, the British government controls them through owning a majority share of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. To the north, Russia already has five thousand soldiers garrisoning Persian Azerbaijan, seeing the endemic instability of the region as necessitating Russian control. The Shah himself is only 17 years old, and lacks an effective army to maintain internal order. Persian neutrality means little when major combatants sees their interests as necessitating intervention within its borders.
- At Coronel the British light cruiser Glasgow slips out of port at 915am, and meets the rest of Craddock's squadron just after 1pm. The four ships then spread out in a line, sailing north in search of the supposedly-isolated Leipzig. The German East Asiatic Squadron is doing much the same thing in pursuit of Glasgow, except moving south. At 420pm Leipzig and Glasgow sight each other, drawing both squadrons together.
Upon confirming the presence of the entire German East Asiatic Squadron, Craddock knows that his force is markedly inferior to the Germans. He decides, however, to fight - first, his armed merchant liner Otranto was not fast enough to escape; and second, he felt bound by the Admiralty's orders to engage the enemy. Craddock turns his squadron around so that both forces are sailing southwards, roughly parallel to each other. With the sun setting to the west, Craddock hopes to force an action when the sun is blinding the eyes of the German gunners, giving the British a window of opportunity. At 618pm Craddock aboard Good Hope signals the rest of his ships to follow him in closing with the Germans.
Spee, however, knows just as well as Craddock the impact the setting sun can have, and when the British ships turn to close the gap, he orders his ships to simply turn as well, maintaining the distance between the two squadrons. Thus the sun sets without a single ship being fired, and now all of the advantages are with the Germans - the British are now silhouetted against the twilight sky. At 650pm the Germans turn towards the British, and open fire at 704pm.
Craddock never had a chance. Despite the rough seas, the excellent marksmanship of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, honed to near-perfection in peacetime gunnery exercises, is immediately obvious. The third salvo of Scharnhorst strikes Good Hope, destroying one of its 9.2-inch guns, and henceforth the German armoured cruisers pour accurate and rapid fire on Good Hope and Monmouth. The British attempt to fire back, but most of their 6-inch shells fall short and the single 9.2-inch gun remaining operational on Good Hope can hardly hope to win the battle by itself. In less than an hour Good Hope is reduced to a flaming wreck, and having absorbed thirty-five hits from Scharnhorst, explodes and sinks at 750pm. Monmouth survives only an hour more, sinking at 858pm. As Spee's focus is naturally on the two largest opponents, both Glasgow and Otranto are able to make their escape in the night.
All aboard Good Hope and Monmouth, including Craddock, are lost. On the German side, only Gneisenau was hit even once by shells that exploded, and it suffered no serious damage and only three sailors were slightly wounded. Glasgow manages to warn Canopus sailing north with the squadron's colliers of the disaster, and the survivors escape southwards. The German East Asiatic Squadron has won a notable and completely-lopsided victory at the Battle of Coronel, the first significant defeat of British warships at the hands of the enemy for a century.
- As in Canada, the outbreak of war saw thousands of volunteers come forward in Australia and New Zealand. However, the continued presence of German cruisers in the Pacific and Indian Oceans required that the convoy carrying the volunteers be delayed until sufficient escorts could be assembled. Today, protected by British, Australian, and Japanese warships, thirty-eight transports carrying almost 21 000 Australian and just under 8500 New Zealand soldiers departs Australia today. Their destination is Egypt, where they will undergo training.
On the Entente side, the French plan three attacks, to be undertaken in large part to relieve the pressure on the British - the first from north of Wytschaete, the second from Zonnebeke, and the third a diversionary attack by the rest of IX Corps. Each of these attacks fail to accomplish anything today, but they also speak to the growing importance of French forces in the Ypres salient. The past two week have severely reduced the BEF's strength - of its eighty-four infantry battalions, nine have fewer than a hundred men, while another thirty-one have between one and two hundred. In comparison, a full battalion would have just over a thousand men. There are also very few reinforcements in Britain that can be sent immediately to the front - the only regular army units not yet in the fight are the battalions of 8th Division, assembling in Britain after being located around the Empire on the outbreak of war.
The main German attack begins at 1am by nine battalions of the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division. At Wytschaete the British are outnumbered twelve to one, and by 245am the village is in German hands. More importantly, as the battle continues German units begin to infiltrate between British positions on the ridge between Wytschaete and Messines, as the defenders here are too few to man an entire trench line at once. Those British soldiers who remain on the ridge at dawn realize they are in danger of encirclement, and pull back. By 735am the Germans are in possession of the middle part of the high ground. This outflanks the British defenders still clinging to the village of Messines itself, and they are ordered to retreat at 9am. The British fall back to the next line of high ground to the west, while shelling their former trenches at Messines to impede the German occupation of them. A British counterattack manages to re-enter Wytschaete later in the day, but otherwise the Entente line here has been pushed back. On the other hand, the German victory is merely a tactical one, as though the British retreat they are not routed, and a new defensive line stands in the Germans' way.
- The Kaiser arrives near the front today, visiting several cavalry divisions near Courtrai and Lille. The British intercept several messages regarding his journey, but misinterpret his itinerary to suggest that he will be much closer to the front. British artillery prepare an appropriate welcome at the villages where they think the Kaiser will be during the day.
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| The fighting around Ypres, November 1st to 4th, 1914. |
- Behind the front, Lord Kitchener is meeting President Poincarè, Joffre, and Foch at Dunkirk to discuss the course of the war. Kitchener informs them that there are no substantial British reinforcements available until the spring of 1915, as he will not send untrained men into battle. However, subsequently the size of the BEF will expand rapidly as the 'New Armies' of wartime volunteers come into the field. Also, know of the sometimes-testy relationship between Joffre and Sir John French, Kitchener offers to replace the latter with General Sir Ian Hamilton. Joffre declines, believing (ironically, given his own record) that changing the BEF's commander in the middle of a battle would not work out. Unfortunately for Kitchener, this offer very quickly reaches the ears of Field Marshal French, which earns Kitchener the enduring emnity of the latter.
- By today the German 9th Army has fallen back to the line from which it had started its advance into Poland just over a month ago. Despite Ludendorff's claims of success, and the generally confused nature of the fighting, the Battle of the Vistula River is a Russian victory - it can hardly be otherwise when the Germans were the attackers and they end the battle where they started. Nevertheless, the past month have shown the continuing logistical and command problems plaguing the Russian army - the attempt to pursue the retreating Germans has completely broken down, and today it is formally called off.
As for Falkenhayn, his attention remains firmly fixed on the Western Front, and is willing to leave matters on the Eastern Front in the hands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff. As such, Hindenburg is today appointed commander-in-chief of all German forces in the east, with Ludendorff as his chief of staff and the command to be known as Ober Ost. General Mackensen is also promoted to take command of 9th Army.
- With the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war almost inevitable after the events in the Black Sea, the Shah of Persia, its eastern neighbour, declares the neutrality of his state. The statement, however, is more theoretical than practical. Though Persia is nominally independent, both Britain and Russia have significant interests and influence within it. The newest dreadnoughts burn oil, not coal, and with the oilfields of southern Persia being a key source for the Admiralty, the British government controls them through owning a majority share of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. To the north, Russia already has five thousand soldiers garrisoning Persian Azerbaijan, seeing the endemic instability of the region as necessitating Russian control. The Shah himself is only 17 years old, and lacks an effective army to maintain internal order. Persian neutrality means little when major combatants sees their interests as necessitating intervention within its borders.
- At Coronel the British light cruiser Glasgow slips out of port at 915am, and meets the rest of Craddock's squadron just after 1pm. The four ships then spread out in a line, sailing north in search of the supposedly-isolated Leipzig. The German East Asiatic Squadron is doing much the same thing in pursuit of Glasgow, except moving south. At 420pm Leipzig and Glasgow sight each other, drawing both squadrons together.
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| The approach of the German East Asiatic Squadron to Chile and the Battle of Coronel, November 1st, 1914. |
Upon confirming the presence of the entire German East Asiatic Squadron, Craddock knows that his force is markedly inferior to the Germans. He decides, however, to fight - first, his armed merchant liner Otranto was not fast enough to escape; and second, he felt bound by the Admiralty's orders to engage the enemy. Craddock turns his squadron around so that both forces are sailing southwards, roughly parallel to each other. With the sun setting to the west, Craddock hopes to force an action when the sun is blinding the eyes of the German gunners, giving the British a window of opportunity. At 618pm Craddock aboard Good Hope signals the rest of his ships to follow him in closing with the Germans.
Spee, however, knows just as well as Craddock the impact the setting sun can have, and when the British ships turn to close the gap, he orders his ships to simply turn as well, maintaining the distance between the two squadrons. Thus the sun sets without a single ship being fired, and now all of the advantages are with the Germans - the British are now silhouetted against the twilight sky. At 650pm the Germans turn towards the British, and open fire at 704pm.
Craddock never had a chance. Despite the rough seas, the excellent marksmanship of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, honed to near-perfection in peacetime gunnery exercises, is immediately obvious. The third salvo of Scharnhorst strikes Good Hope, destroying one of its 9.2-inch guns, and henceforth the German armoured cruisers pour accurate and rapid fire on Good Hope and Monmouth. The British attempt to fire back, but most of their 6-inch shells fall short and the single 9.2-inch gun remaining operational on Good Hope can hardly hope to win the battle by itself. In less than an hour Good Hope is reduced to a flaming wreck, and having absorbed thirty-five hits from Scharnhorst, explodes and sinks at 750pm. Monmouth survives only an hour more, sinking at 858pm. As Spee's focus is naturally on the two largest opponents, both Glasgow and Otranto are able to make their escape in the night.
All aboard Good Hope and Monmouth, including Craddock, are lost. On the German side, only Gneisenau was hit even once by shells that exploded, and it suffered no serious damage and only three sailors were slightly wounded. Glasgow manages to warn Canopus sailing north with the squadron's colliers of the disaster, and the survivors escape southwards. The German East Asiatic Squadron has won a notable and completely-lopsided victory at the Battle of Coronel, the first significant defeat of British warships at the hands of the enemy for a century.
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| The Battle of Coronel, November 1st, 1914. |
- As in Canada, the outbreak of war saw thousands of volunteers come forward in Australia and New Zealand. However, the continued presence of German cruisers in the Pacific and Indian Oceans required that the convoy carrying the volunteers be delayed until sufficient escorts could be assembled. Today, protected by British, Australian, and Japanese warships, thirty-eight transports carrying almost 21 000 Australian and just under 8500 New Zealand soldiers departs Australia today. Their destination is Egypt, where they will undergo training.
Saturday, September 06, 2014
September 6th, 1914
- At dawn this morning, the Entente offensive begins, pitting 980 000 French and 100 000 British soldiers with 3000 guns against 750 000 Germans and 3300 guns between Verdun and Paris. Along the front, French armies that have been in retreat for almost two weeks turn and fall on their German pursuers. Joffre issues an appeal to the soldiers of the French army:
President Poincarè reads Joffre's appeal in Bordeaux, and well understands the stakes of the fight: 'We are going to play our part for all we are worth in what will be the greatest battle humanity has ever known.' Almost as soon as the appeal is issued, German soldiers of 4th Army come across the statement on captured French soldiers. It is immediately relayed to Moltke at OHL, which realizes that the fighting of yesterday by IV Reserve Corps is not a rearguard action, but is only one element of a major French counteroffensive all along the line. The Germans, as much as the French and British, now understand that the climactic battle is at hand.
- On the far west of the line, General Gronau's report of yesterday's fight against the French 6th Army prompts Kluck at 3am to order II Corps to march north to reinforce IV Reserve Corps along the Ourcq River. During the day, 6th Army launches a major assault against the two German corps, experiencing heavy losses while making no headway. The Germans suffer as well, however - after two days of combat IV Reserve Corps is on its last legs. The commander of II Corps telegrams Kluck at nightfall that further reinforcements are needed by 5am or the French will break through. In response, Kluck orders IV Corps to undertake a night march to the Ourcq. He has now pulled two corps out of his front line facing south in order to redirect them west to face the French advancing from Paris. For Joffre, his original plan - use 6th Army to turn the flank of the German 1st Army - has misfired.
- There are two remaining corps of the German 1st Army - III and IX - that are adjacent to 2nd Army and orientated south. Early this morning they are subject to heavy artillery bombardments from the French 5th Army opposite. Initially believed to be just another rearguard action, it quickly becomes apparent that the pursuer is now the pursued - 5th Army has turned and has gone over to the attack. From noon until nightfall, the three corps of 5th Army's left wing - I, III, and XVIII - fight the German III and IX Corps. Despite being outnumbered and completely surprised, the Germans counterattack to throw the French off-balance. The counterattack temporarily succeeds, but cannot halt the French completely - by the end of the day the three French corps have advanced five kilometres. Further, the two German corps suffer heavily in their effort to delay the French.
- In between the French 5th and 6th armies, the BEF this morning finally halts its retreat, and begins to advance. While Sir John French has agreed to participate in the French offensive, the caution and hesitancy he has shown over the past two weeks has not completely abandoned him. The movement of the BEF northward is extremely slow, worried about German ambushes. Though encountering no resistance, by nightfall the slow pace of the BEF advance leaves them still ten kilometres behind where Joffre wanted the BEF to be this morning.
- Further east, Joffre needs the French armies between 5th Army and Verdun to hold the line long enough to allow the counteroffensive to the west to succeed. On the eastern flank of 5th Army sits Foch's 9th Army, dug in on the southern side of the Marshes of St. Gond, which greatly restricted movement by large forces. Joffre's instructions to Foch was to protect the right flank of 5th Army while it attacked the German 2nd Army. Foch, as was his nature, believed the best way to do so was to attack. While his right is locked in artillery duels with the Germans, he orders his left - 42nd Division and the Moroccan Division, supported by IX Corps - to attack. They crash into the eastern flank of the German 2nd Army as they attempt to work their way around the western edges of the marsh. Bülow of 2nd Army insists on reinforcements from 3rd Army to the east, and the battle devolves into a stalemate.
- Beyond the French 9th Army sits 4th Army, while opposite is the German 4th Army. Duke Albrecht, commander of the German 4th Army, plans a major attack this morning to push back the French and relieve the pressure on the German 6th Army before Nancy. At dawn, however, a preemptive artillery attack by the French disrupts the Germans, and the attack bogs down without making significant progress. Duke Albrecht appeals to Hausen of 3rd Army to his west for support - thus 3rd Army today is pulled in opposite directions to support its neighbours, and combined with the day of rest Hausen gave his army yesterday it is unable to decisively influence the course of the battle today.
- In Lorraine the French 2nd Army continues to be battered by Rupprecht's offensive at Nancy. In response to Castlenau's telegram of yesterday, Joffre informs him today that the main counteroffensive has begun, and that he hoped 2nd Army could hold its position. However, he also states that a withdrawal would be acceptable to prevent a breakthrough.
- Even as the climactic battle rages, Joffre continues to purge the French army of officers he feels have failed to live up to his expectations. As of today, he has fired three army commanders, seven corps commanders, and thirty-four divisional commanders.
- One good piece of news for the Germans today is the surrender of the French fortress of Maubeuge, taking almost 33 000 prisoners and seizing 450 artillery pieces. The three brigades of VII Corps freed up by this surrender are now available to head south to the fighting along the Marne.
- In Galicia, the Russian 3rd and 8th armies attack the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd armies opposite. While the Russians make no headway, they fix the enemy forces on this front, rendering them unable to come to the aid of Austro-Hungarian armies to the north.
- Responding to Russian demands for an attack, the four divisions of the Serbian 1st Army cross the Sava River near Belgrade today and move into southern Hungary. The advance is primarily about making a political point - i.e. the weakness of Austria-Hungary - as opposed to any military objective, since the Serbs can hardly expect to occupy any significant amount of Austro-Hungarian territory for a prolonged period. The sortie does push Conrad to approve a second offensive against Serbia, which Potiorek has been calling for since his first failure in August.
- Since late August five columns of British and Imperial soldiers had been advancing from Nigeria into the German colony of Kamerun to the southeast. Each of these columns has been rebuffed, the last defeat coming today when the Cross River column is ambushed by the Germans, suffering 50% casualties, which include eight of eleven officers. This halts the British attempt to invade Kamerun by land fails, and the focus will turn instead to a naval landing. In Kamerun itself the British defeats have a decisive effect on morale. The Germans in Kamerun, as in other colonies, make use of askaris, or African soldiers, and for the first time they experienced victory over Europeans. Even if in service of another European colonial power, the legacy of Africans defeating Europeans is not to be underestimated.
Now, as the battle is joined on which the safety of the country depends, everyone must be reminded that this is no longer the time for looking back. Every effort must be made to attack and throw back the enemy. A unit which finds it impossible to advance must, regardless of cost, hold its ground and be killed on the spot rather than fall back. In the present circumstances no failure will be tolerated.
President Poincarè reads Joffre's appeal in Bordeaux, and well understands the stakes of the fight: 'We are going to play our part for all we are worth in what will be the greatest battle humanity has ever known.' Almost as soon as the appeal is issued, German soldiers of 4th Army come across the statement on captured French soldiers. It is immediately relayed to Moltke at OHL, which realizes that the fighting of yesterday by IV Reserve Corps is not a rearguard action, but is only one element of a major French counteroffensive all along the line. The Germans, as much as the French and British, now understand that the climactic battle is at hand.
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| The Western portion of the Battle of the Marne, Sept. 5th to 9th, 1914. |
- On the far west of the line, General Gronau's report of yesterday's fight against the French 6th Army prompts Kluck at 3am to order II Corps to march north to reinforce IV Reserve Corps along the Ourcq River. During the day, 6th Army launches a major assault against the two German corps, experiencing heavy losses while making no headway. The Germans suffer as well, however - after two days of combat IV Reserve Corps is on its last legs. The commander of II Corps telegrams Kluck at nightfall that further reinforcements are needed by 5am or the French will break through. In response, Kluck orders IV Corps to undertake a night march to the Ourcq. He has now pulled two corps out of his front line facing south in order to redirect them west to face the French advancing from Paris. For Joffre, his original plan - use 6th Army to turn the flank of the German 1st Army - has misfired.
- There are two remaining corps of the German 1st Army - III and IX - that are adjacent to 2nd Army and orientated south. Early this morning they are subject to heavy artillery bombardments from the French 5th Army opposite. Initially believed to be just another rearguard action, it quickly becomes apparent that the pursuer is now the pursued - 5th Army has turned and has gone over to the attack. From noon until nightfall, the three corps of 5th Army's left wing - I, III, and XVIII - fight the German III and IX Corps. Despite being outnumbered and completely surprised, the Germans counterattack to throw the French off-balance. The counterattack temporarily succeeds, but cannot halt the French completely - by the end of the day the three French corps have advanced five kilometres. Further, the two German corps suffer heavily in their effort to delay the French.
- In between the French 5th and 6th armies, the BEF this morning finally halts its retreat, and begins to advance. While Sir John French has agreed to participate in the French offensive, the caution and hesitancy he has shown over the past two weeks has not completely abandoned him. The movement of the BEF northward is extremely slow, worried about German ambushes. Though encountering no resistance, by nightfall the slow pace of the BEF advance leaves them still ten kilometres behind where Joffre wanted the BEF to be this morning.
- Further east, Joffre needs the French armies between 5th Army and Verdun to hold the line long enough to allow the counteroffensive to the west to succeed. On the eastern flank of 5th Army sits Foch's 9th Army, dug in on the southern side of the Marshes of St. Gond, which greatly restricted movement by large forces. Joffre's instructions to Foch was to protect the right flank of 5th Army while it attacked the German 2nd Army. Foch, as was his nature, believed the best way to do so was to attack. While his right is locked in artillery duels with the Germans, he orders his left - 42nd Division and the Moroccan Division, supported by IX Corps - to attack. They crash into the eastern flank of the German 2nd Army as they attempt to work their way around the western edges of the marsh. Bülow of 2nd Army insists on reinforcements from 3rd Army to the east, and the battle devolves into a stalemate.
- Beyond the French 9th Army sits 4th Army, while opposite is the German 4th Army. Duke Albrecht, commander of the German 4th Army, plans a major attack this morning to push back the French and relieve the pressure on the German 6th Army before Nancy. At dawn, however, a preemptive artillery attack by the French disrupts the Germans, and the attack bogs down without making significant progress. Duke Albrecht appeals to Hausen of 3rd Army to his west for support - thus 3rd Army today is pulled in opposite directions to support its neighbours, and combined with the day of rest Hausen gave his army yesterday it is unable to decisively influence the course of the battle today.
- In Lorraine the French 2nd Army continues to be battered by Rupprecht's offensive at Nancy. In response to Castlenau's telegram of yesterday, Joffre informs him today that the main counteroffensive has begun, and that he hoped 2nd Army could hold its position. However, he also states that a withdrawal would be acceptable to prevent a breakthrough.
- Even as the climactic battle rages, Joffre continues to purge the French army of officers he feels have failed to live up to his expectations. As of today, he has fired three army commanders, seven corps commanders, and thirty-four divisional commanders.
- One good piece of news for the Germans today is the surrender of the French fortress of Maubeuge, taking almost 33 000 prisoners and seizing 450 artillery pieces. The three brigades of VII Corps freed up by this surrender are now available to head south to the fighting along the Marne.
- In Galicia, the Russian 3rd and 8th armies attack the Austro-Hungarian 3rd and 2nd armies opposite. While the Russians make no headway, they fix the enemy forces on this front, rendering them unable to come to the aid of Austro-Hungarian armies to the north.
- Responding to Russian demands for an attack, the four divisions of the Serbian 1st Army cross the Sava River near Belgrade today and move into southern Hungary. The advance is primarily about making a political point - i.e. the weakness of Austria-Hungary - as opposed to any military objective, since the Serbs can hardly expect to occupy any significant amount of Austro-Hungarian territory for a prolonged period. The sortie does push Conrad to approve a second offensive against Serbia, which Potiorek has been calling for since his first failure in August.
- Since late August five columns of British and Imperial soldiers had been advancing from Nigeria into the German colony of Kamerun to the southeast. Each of these columns has been rebuffed, the last defeat coming today when the Cross River column is ambushed by the Germans, suffering 50% casualties, which include eight of eleven officers. This halts the British attempt to invade Kamerun by land fails, and the focus will turn instead to a naval landing. In Kamerun itself the British defeats have a decisive effect on morale. The Germans in Kamerun, as in other colonies, make use of askaris, or African soldiers, and for the first time they experienced victory over Europeans. Even if in service of another European colonial power, the legacy of Africans defeating Europeans is not to be underestimated.
Tuesday, September 02, 2014
September 2nd, 1914
- After the skirmish at Néry yesterday, Kluck briefly abandons his southeastern advance to attempt to pursue the BEF. Once again, however, the British escape, reaching the Marne River by nightfall. The German 1st Army thus resumes its march to the southeast. The temporary redirection of 1st Army, however, serves to confuse Kluck's intentions in the eyes of the French - does he still intend to change course back towards Paris?
- In the French capital, the government is advised by Joffre that it should abandon Paris as soon as possible. Doing so might lessen the attraction of Paris to the advancing Germans, and guarantee that the government remains functioning if the capital is lost. This evening, under the cloak of darkness, the entire French government boards a train bound for Bordeaux, where they will establish themselves. President Poincarè writes that it is 'the saddest event of my life.'
With the departure of the government, full military and civil authority is vested in General Gallieni as Military Governor of the city. He continues his vigourous work to ensure that Paris is defensible. No thought is given to declaring Paris an open city - indeed, in the event of attack its famous bridges over the Seine are to be dynamited to deny them to the Germans, and even the Eiffel Tower is to be destroyed.
Also, Joffre places 6th Army under the command of Gallieni. The army, retreating for several days from its initial assembly point at Amiens, arrives today at the defences of Paris. Its units are exhausted from both the rapid retreat and constant skirmishes with the advancing Germans. Still, Gallieni now has the army he deems essential to ensure the defence of Paris. Joffre, however, has the Minister of War place Paris and its forces under his authority as Commander-in-Chief.
- Joffre also issues revisions to his General Instruction No. 4 of yesterday, which for the first time states the possibility of the Paris garrison joining in the hoped-for French counteroffensive by advancing east in the direction of Meaux.
- This evening Moltke issues a new General Order to the armies on the Western Front. Moltke's attention is now on the centre of the line, where he believes a great victory was achieved yesterday against a French counteroffensive. In Lorraine, 6th and 7th armies are to continue to attack, while to the west of Verdun the 4th and 5th armies are to maintain pressure on the French armies opposite, and 3rd Army is to attack Foch's army detachment coming into the line. The key role is to be played by 2nd Army, driving southeast, forcing the French armies away from Paris and turning the flank of the French 5th Army. Finally, 1st was to protect the western flank of 2nd Army by positioning itself in echelon behind its neighbour - in essence, 1st Army was to station itself to the northwest of 2nd Army, protecting it from any French counter-attacks as it advances southeast. The General Order reflects Moltke's increasing focus on the centre of the line, not the right, and his desire to achieve a 'Cannae'. Gone are the ambitions to envelop Paris central to the Schlieffen Plan, and 1st Army, which was to have the most important role in the Plan, is relegated to a secondary role.
When the General Order reaches General Kluck at 1st Army headquarters, he is astonished by the instructions. He has no information about the larger war situation, only knowing that the British and French forces in front of him continue to retreat. Moreover, at present 1st Army is ahead of 2nd Army - to implement Moltke's General Order would require 1st Army not just to halt but to actually retreat. He believes that his army, not 2nd, is about to secure the destruction of the French 5th Army by turning its flank. Kluck thus decides to ignore the General Order, and continue his advance.
- In the French capital, the government is advised by Joffre that it should abandon Paris as soon as possible. Doing so might lessen the attraction of Paris to the advancing Germans, and guarantee that the government remains functioning if the capital is lost. This evening, under the cloak of darkness, the entire French government boards a train bound for Bordeaux, where they will establish themselves. President Poincarè writes that it is 'the saddest event of my life.'
With the departure of the government, full military and civil authority is vested in General Gallieni as Military Governor of the city. He continues his vigourous work to ensure that Paris is defensible. No thought is given to declaring Paris an open city - indeed, in the event of attack its famous bridges over the Seine are to be dynamited to deny them to the Germans, and even the Eiffel Tower is to be destroyed.
Also, Joffre places 6th Army under the command of Gallieni. The army, retreating for several days from its initial assembly point at Amiens, arrives today at the defences of Paris. Its units are exhausted from both the rapid retreat and constant skirmishes with the advancing Germans. Still, Gallieni now has the army he deems essential to ensure the defence of Paris. Joffre, however, has the Minister of War place Paris and its forces under his authority as Commander-in-Chief.
- Joffre also issues revisions to his General Instruction No. 4 of yesterday, which for the first time states the possibility of the Paris garrison joining in the hoped-for French counteroffensive by advancing east in the direction of Meaux.
- This evening Moltke issues a new General Order to the armies on the Western Front. Moltke's attention is now on the centre of the line, where he believes a great victory was achieved yesterday against a French counteroffensive. In Lorraine, 6th and 7th armies are to continue to attack, while to the west of Verdun the 4th and 5th armies are to maintain pressure on the French armies opposite, and 3rd Army is to attack Foch's army detachment coming into the line. The key role is to be played by 2nd Army, driving southeast, forcing the French armies away from Paris and turning the flank of the French 5th Army. Finally, 1st was to protect the western flank of 2nd Army by positioning itself in echelon behind its neighbour - in essence, 1st Army was to station itself to the northwest of 2nd Army, protecting it from any French counter-attacks as it advances southeast. The General Order reflects Moltke's increasing focus on the centre of the line, not the right, and his desire to achieve a 'Cannae'. Gone are the ambitions to envelop Paris central to the Schlieffen Plan, and 1st Army, which was to have the most important role in the Plan, is relegated to a secondary role.
When the General Order reaches General Kluck at 1st Army headquarters, he is astonished by the instructions. He has no information about the larger war situation, only knowing that the British and French forces in front of him continue to retreat. Moreover, at present 1st Army is ahead of 2nd Army - to implement Moltke's General Order would require 1st Army not just to halt but to actually retreat. He believes that his army, not 2nd, is about to secure the destruction of the French 5th Army by turning its flank. Kluck thus decides to ignore the General Order, and continue his advance.
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| The Western Front, Sept. 2nd, 1914 |
- The westward retreat of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army, broken after the Battle of Gnipa Lupa, continues - Lemberg, fourth-largest city of the Dual Monarchy, is given up without a fight as 3rd Army retreats 32 kilometres today. Conrad, however, sees in this retreat an opportunity to envelop and destroy the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies. More of 2nd Army has arrived from the Serbian front, deploying to the south of 3rd Army, and is ordered to attack north into the southern flank of the two advancing Russian armies. Meanwhile, believing the Russian 5th Army was comprehensively defeated at the Battle of Zamość-Komarów, Conrad orders 4th Army to turn southeast and attack the northern flank of the two Russian armies. It is an enormously ambitious plan, and one completely beyond the capabilities of the Austro-Hungarians - they were exhausted by lengthy marches and had already suffered heavy casualties. But Conrad was never one to let such details get in the way of his ambitious schemes.
- The first of sixty thousand Japanese soldiers come ashore today at Lungkow, the first step in the campaign against the German naval base at Tsingtao on the Chinese coast. Since the entrances to Tsingtao have been heavily mined by the Germans, the Japanese land in nearby Chinese territory, and begin a methodical advance towards the German base. Though China has declared itself neutral in the war, the Japanese have no great respect for Chinese authority, and have no compunction about violating Chinese neutrality to further their war effort.
Tuesday, August 26, 2014
August 26th, 1914
- In line with his General Instruction No. 2, Joffre establishes the new 6th Army, to be formed at Amiens and commanded by General Michel-Joseph Maunoury. It will initially consist of VII Corps, drawn from Alsace, and two reserve divisions currently fighting in Lorraine. As lead elements of these units detrain at Amiens, the Army of Lorraine, briefly established to cover the offensive into the Ardennes, and the Army of Alsace, are stood down, their remaining units assigned to neighbouring armies.
- Joffre travels to BEF headquarters today, summoning Generals Lanrezac and d'Amade to meet them as well. Joffre needs the BEF to remain in the Entente line, retreating on level with 5th Army, but Joffre is hamstrung by the fact that he cannot give orders to Sir John French - indeed, as a Field Marshal the latter technically outranks the former. Thus Joffre must try to use persuasion.
The meeting, however, is a complete disaster. French begins by listing all of the ways in which the armies of France have let himself and the British down, ending with Lanrezac's retreat of 5th Army on the 23rd. Lanrezac, for his part, has had enough of British equivocations, and contributes little beyond shrugs of contempt and icy stares; the commanders of the two adjacent armies refuse to directly speak to one another. Joffre discovers that the British commander has not even read his General Instruction No. 2 yet - though his staff had received it, they had not yet translated it to him. Joffre attempts to patiently outline his requirements of the BEF, but is unable to extract any promise from Sir John French. The meeting breaks up without result.
- The gloom at BEF headquarters is matched by the events on the battlefield today. Early this morning, elements of Haig's I Corps skirmishes with parts of the German 1st Army, both attempting to bed down in the same small French village. The fighting breaks off quickly, but the normally cool Haig temporarily loses his nerve, informing Sir John French that I Corps is under major attack.. The news rattles BEF headquarters - French's chief of staff faints, and he himself orders I Corps to undertake a precipitate retreat. Crucially, the direction of I Corps' retreat will cause it to be separated from II Corps by the Oise River.
More serious is the plight of II Corps to the left at Le Cateau. Reconnaissance by the BEF's lone cavalry division under General Edmund Allenby discovers just after midnight that units of the German 1st Army are close enough to attack II Corps first thing in the morning. When informed at 2am, General Smith-Dorrien consults his divisional commanders, who declare that their forces are too tired and disorganized to undertake a nighttime retreat. Smith-Dorrien thus decides that II Corps will remain and fight the Germans until they can withdraw.
Opposite II Corps are two corps of the German 1st Army. Two further German corps attempted to turn II Corps left flank, but were blocked by the actions of General d'Amade's forces and the redeployed French cavalry under General Sordet. The battle thus consists largely of frontal German assaults on the British positions, coupled with heavy artillery fire. Though the Germans suffer significant casualties, superior numbers and artillery take their toll - II Corps loses eight thousand men and thirty-eight guns. However, from 5pm onwards II Corps is able to successfully disengage from the battle and resume the retreat. The Battle of Le Cateau is a tactical German victory, but once again the British have managed to retire before being enveloped. The Entente forces are being defeated and pushed back, but not destroyed.
- For several weeks discussion has occurred among Government ministers in France regarding bringing in leading figures from opposition parties to sit on the Council of Ministers, in order to give the Government a broader base of support and make real Poincarè's commitment to a Sacred Union. A reconstruction also gives an opportunity to assign blame for the initial defeats on a retiring minister. In this case, War Minister Adolphe Messimy is the natural culprit, seen as responsible for the conduct of the war, and criticized for excessively optimistic communiques. When asked to Messimy, though, Messimy refuses, resulting in Premier Viviani having to tender the resignation of the entire Council of Ministers, to allow for the creation of a new Council without Messimy. Infuriated at his treatment, Messimy leaves for the front as a Major of Reserves, and is replaced as War Minister by Alexandre Millerand.
- In East Prussia Ludendorff has a momentarily attack of nerves when reports reach him that elements of the Russian 1st Army are moving southwest. He fears being attacked in the flank by the Russian 1st Army while the operation against 2nd Army is still underway, and wonders if it should be cancelled. It is in this type of situation that Hindenburg shines. Nothing can shake his confidence and self-belief - he had agreed to Ludendorff's plan, so it would be seen through, and that was that. He reassures Ludendorff that the reported movement is merely a few cavalry units, and the latter's equilibrium is restored.
XVII and I Reserve Corps arrive on the battlefield today, to the east of XX Corps. Before them is the Russian VI Corps, guarding the right flank of the Russian 2nd Army. When the two German corps attack, the Russians are caught completely by surprise - earlier reconnaissance reports of troop movements to the north had been explained as Russian, not German, units. The Russian corps commander suffers a nervous breakdown, five thousand casualties were suffered, and by nightfall VI Corps was retreating in utter disarray. 2nd Army's right flank was no longer protected.
On the other side of the battlefield, General François again delays attacking the Russian I Corps before him. Ludendorff personally visits the headquarters of I Corps, insisting that General François carry out his orders. As his artillery arrives this evening, François agrees to attack tomorrow morning.
- Ludendorff is informed by a staff officer at OHL that two corps are being transferred from the Western to the Eastern Front. Ludendorff is astonished - he is well aware of the intricate and detailing planning that has gone into the German invasion of France through Belgium, and can barely comprehend how these plans could be disrupted by a subtraction of forces before France has been decisively defeated. He informs OHL that the reinforcements are not needed and in any case would not arrive before the decisive battle already underway. Ludendorff's objections are brushed aside, and the redeployment continues.
- In the Baltic Sea, the German light cruiser Magdeburg runs aground just off the entrance to the Gulf of Finland. Though the ship was destroyed by the Germans, the Russians manage to recover a copy of the German naval codebook, a vital seizure that will in time allow the British to begin to break German codes regarding naval operations.
- The Russian 5th Army, marching southwest towards Austro-Hungarian Galicia in aid of the Russian 4th Army, begins to collide with elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, advancing northwards, opening the Battle of Zamość-Komarów. One corps on the Russian right brushes past an enemy corps, suffers heavy artillery fire, and retreats northwards in disarray, Austro-Hungarians in pursuit.
To the south, however, the campaign is going against Austria-Hungary. General Rudolf von Brudermann, commanding 3rd Army east of Lemberg, believes there is only a small Russian force before him, and advances. He collides into the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies on the Zlota Lipa River and, significantly outnumbered, suffers a sharp defeat, some of the Austro-Hungarian divisions suffering up to two-thirds casualties. Brudermann's army is able to withdraw to the Gnipa Lipa River.
- A congress of the Nationalist Party, the chief opposition party in South Africa, is held in Pretoria. The Nationalists reflect the position of the more anti-British portion of the Boer population, and some of its leaders have considered rebellion. However, the congress endorses a position of neutrality, being pro-South African instead of either pro-British or pro-German - its leader J. B. M. Hertzog believes that remaining out of the war will allow South Africa to benefit from whomever wins in Europe, while choosing sides runs the risk of defeat.
- The German foreign office has assembled a mission of fifteen people to send to Afghanistan, to encourage the Emir to invade British India. The mission includes Wilhelm Wassmuss, a Persian-speaker experienced with the tribes of the region. The mission arrives at Constantinople disguised as a travelling circus - the Ottomans are not impressed.
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| The situation on the Western Front, Aug. 26th, 1914 |
- Joffre travels to BEF headquarters today, summoning Generals Lanrezac and d'Amade to meet them as well. Joffre needs the BEF to remain in the Entente line, retreating on level with 5th Army, but Joffre is hamstrung by the fact that he cannot give orders to Sir John French - indeed, as a Field Marshal the latter technically outranks the former. Thus Joffre must try to use persuasion.
The meeting, however, is a complete disaster. French begins by listing all of the ways in which the armies of France have let himself and the British down, ending with Lanrezac's retreat of 5th Army on the 23rd. Lanrezac, for his part, has had enough of British equivocations, and contributes little beyond shrugs of contempt and icy stares; the commanders of the two adjacent armies refuse to directly speak to one another. Joffre discovers that the British commander has not even read his General Instruction No. 2 yet - though his staff had received it, they had not yet translated it to him. Joffre attempts to patiently outline his requirements of the BEF, but is unable to extract any promise from Sir John French. The meeting breaks up without result.
- The gloom at BEF headquarters is matched by the events on the battlefield today. Early this morning, elements of Haig's I Corps skirmishes with parts of the German 1st Army, both attempting to bed down in the same small French village. The fighting breaks off quickly, but the normally cool Haig temporarily loses his nerve, informing Sir John French that I Corps is under major attack.. The news rattles BEF headquarters - French's chief of staff faints, and he himself orders I Corps to undertake a precipitate retreat. Crucially, the direction of I Corps' retreat will cause it to be separated from II Corps by the Oise River.
More serious is the plight of II Corps to the left at Le Cateau. Reconnaissance by the BEF's lone cavalry division under General Edmund Allenby discovers just after midnight that units of the German 1st Army are close enough to attack II Corps first thing in the morning. When informed at 2am, General Smith-Dorrien consults his divisional commanders, who declare that their forces are too tired and disorganized to undertake a nighttime retreat. Smith-Dorrien thus decides that II Corps will remain and fight the Germans until they can withdraw.
Opposite II Corps are two corps of the German 1st Army. Two further German corps attempted to turn II Corps left flank, but were blocked by the actions of General d'Amade's forces and the redeployed French cavalry under General Sordet. The battle thus consists largely of frontal German assaults on the British positions, coupled with heavy artillery fire. Though the Germans suffer significant casualties, superior numbers and artillery take their toll - II Corps loses eight thousand men and thirty-eight guns. However, from 5pm onwards II Corps is able to successfully disengage from the battle and resume the retreat. The Battle of Le Cateau is a tactical German victory, but once again the British have managed to retire before being enveloped. The Entente forces are being defeated and pushed back, but not destroyed.
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| The top part of the map gives the Battle of Le Cateau, Aug. 26th, 1914, and the bottom half gives the Battle of Guise (also known as the Battle of St. Quentin), Aug. 29th, 1914. |
- For several weeks discussion has occurred among Government ministers in France regarding bringing in leading figures from opposition parties to sit on the Council of Ministers, in order to give the Government a broader base of support and make real Poincarè's commitment to a Sacred Union. A reconstruction also gives an opportunity to assign blame for the initial defeats on a retiring minister. In this case, War Minister Adolphe Messimy is the natural culprit, seen as responsible for the conduct of the war, and criticized for excessively optimistic communiques. When asked to Messimy, though, Messimy refuses, resulting in Premier Viviani having to tender the resignation of the entire Council of Ministers, to allow for the creation of a new Council without Messimy. Infuriated at his treatment, Messimy leaves for the front as a Major of Reserves, and is replaced as War Minister by Alexandre Millerand.
- In East Prussia Ludendorff has a momentarily attack of nerves when reports reach him that elements of the Russian 1st Army are moving southwest. He fears being attacked in the flank by the Russian 1st Army while the operation against 2nd Army is still underway, and wonders if it should be cancelled. It is in this type of situation that Hindenburg shines. Nothing can shake his confidence and self-belief - he had agreed to Ludendorff's plan, so it would be seen through, and that was that. He reassures Ludendorff that the reported movement is merely a few cavalry units, and the latter's equilibrium is restored.
XVII and I Reserve Corps arrive on the battlefield today, to the east of XX Corps. Before them is the Russian VI Corps, guarding the right flank of the Russian 2nd Army. When the two German corps attack, the Russians are caught completely by surprise - earlier reconnaissance reports of troop movements to the north had been explained as Russian, not German, units. The Russian corps commander suffers a nervous breakdown, five thousand casualties were suffered, and by nightfall VI Corps was retreating in utter disarray. 2nd Army's right flank was no longer protected.
On the other side of the battlefield, General François again delays attacking the Russian I Corps before him. Ludendorff personally visits the headquarters of I Corps, insisting that General François carry out his orders. As his artillery arrives this evening, François agrees to attack tomorrow morning.
- Ludendorff is informed by a staff officer at OHL that two corps are being transferred from the Western to the Eastern Front. Ludendorff is astonished - he is well aware of the intricate and detailing planning that has gone into the German invasion of France through Belgium, and can barely comprehend how these plans could be disrupted by a subtraction of forces before France has been decisively defeated. He informs OHL that the reinforcements are not needed and in any case would not arrive before the decisive battle already underway. Ludendorff's objections are brushed aside, and the redeployment continues.
- In the Baltic Sea, the German light cruiser Magdeburg runs aground just off the entrance to the Gulf of Finland. Though the ship was destroyed by the Germans, the Russians manage to recover a copy of the German naval codebook, a vital seizure that will in time allow the British to begin to break German codes regarding naval operations.
- The Russian 5th Army, marching southwest towards Austro-Hungarian Galicia in aid of the Russian 4th Army, begins to collide with elements of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, advancing northwards, opening the Battle of Zamość-Komarów. One corps on the Russian right brushes past an enemy corps, suffers heavy artillery fire, and retreats northwards in disarray, Austro-Hungarians in pursuit.
To the south, however, the campaign is going against Austria-Hungary. General Rudolf von Brudermann, commanding 3rd Army east of Lemberg, believes there is only a small Russian force before him, and advances. He collides into the Russian 3rd and 8th Armies on the Zlota Lipa River and, significantly outnumbered, suffers a sharp defeat, some of the Austro-Hungarian divisions suffering up to two-thirds casualties. Brudermann's army is able to withdraw to the Gnipa Lipa River.
- A congress of the Nationalist Party, the chief opposition party in South Africa, is held in Pretoria. The Nationalists reflect the position of the more anti-British portion of the Boer population, and some of its leaders have considered rebellion. However, the congress endorses a position of neutrality, being pro-South African instead of either pro-British or pro-German - its leader J. B. M. Hertzog believes that remaining out of the war will allow South Africa to benefit from whomever wins in Europe, while choosing sides runs the risk of defeat.
- The German foreign office has assembled a mission of fifteen people to send to Afghanistan, to encourage the Emir to invade British India. The mission includes Wilhelm Wassmuss, a Persian-speaker experienced with the tribes of the region. The mission arrives at Constantinople disguised as a travelling circus - the Ottomans are not impressed.
Friday, August 15, 2014
August 15th, 1914
- Joffre issues Special Instruction No. 10 at 7pm this evening, regarding the operations of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Armies. The first two are to concentrate on the forthcoming offensive through the Ardennes, while 5th Army is to have one corps facing northeast to support the advance. The rest of 5th Army, however, is to advance northwards into the triangle between the Meuse and Sambre Rivers, south of Namur, to cover the northern flank of the French line against German forces moving through Belgium. It is the first acknowledgement by Joffre that the German invasion of Belgium necessitates alterations to Plan XVII, and reflects both intelligence indications from Belgium and the pressure of General Lanrazac of 5th Army. However, Joffre's focus remains on the offensives undertaken by 1st through 4th Armies - he still believes that few Germans will move west of the Meuse, and indeed welcomes the notion of a strong German right wing, as he believes it means the centre at the Ardennes will be weakened, where the main French attack will shortly commence.
- The advance of the French 1st and 2nd Armies continues into Lorraine. The Germans continue to fall back as planned, which gives the impression to the French commanders that their tactics and strategy are working. However, there are indications that not all is well. When the Germans do stand and fight, the French infantry take terrible losses, while German artillery are causing additional casualties. The 2nd Army commander reports that defended positions require extensive artillery bombardment - this contrasts with pre-war doctrine, which believes that superior French morale and elan can defeat any defending force. However, the continued German retreat ensures that no reassessment of tactics occurs.
- Field Marshal Sir John French meets French President Raymond Poincarè in Paris today. The British general, unable to speak more than a few words of French, informs the French President that the British Expeditionary Force will not be prepared for action until August 24th. French is taking Kitchener's instructions to heart - wanting to ensure the preservation of his command, he does not wish to risk it in battle until it is fully prepared and unless it is necessary. Poincarè is horrified - he fears the BEF will not be able to take the field in time.
- The Russian advance into East Prussia begins today when 1st Army crosses the border. The Russians aim to make a virtue of the delayed advance of 2nd Army, which will not reach the German frontier until August 20th. Advancing westwards north of the Masurian Lakes, the objective of 1st Army is to force the Germans to battle, and pin them on their front, after which 2nd Army, advancing northwards west of the Masurian Lakes, will attack the Germans on their flank and roll them up. The plan has several significant flaws. First, in their haste to attack Germany as quickly as possible to aid their French allies, the Russian armies are advancing without adequate supply. Second, there is an almost complete lack of communication between the commanders of the two armies and front headquarters, ensuring that each army operates largely in the dark regarding the location and intentions of the other. Finally, what communications do take place are transmitted in the clear, giving the Germans a vital insight into their enemy's intentions.
- Conrad has his last audience with Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna today before his departure for the fortress of Przemysl in Galicia, where he will establish his headquarters. The Emperor's final words were 'God willing, all will go well, but even if it all goes wrong, I'll see it through.' Not exactly the most inspiring words on the eve of titanic battles that may decide the fate of Austria-Hungary.
- The entirety of Austro-Hungarian cavalry assigned to Galicia crosses over the Russian frontier in an effort to ascertain the dispositions of the Russian army. In this task they fail completely. When Russians were encountered, the cavalry dismounted to fight, eliminating their mobility, and in such fights failed to penetrate the Russian screens and thus missed the bulk of the Russian forces. Moreover, the Austro-Hungarians wore a saddle best suited for the parade ground, but which on campaign rubbed the backs of their horses raw. Half of the cavalry strength of the Austro-Hungarian army has vanished before the main fighting has even begun.
- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army finally crosses the Drina River in strength, and advances southeast, where it runs into the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies. The Serbs are entrenched in excellent defensive positions among the rough terrain; Austro-Hungarian soldiers, badly-supplied and poorly-equipped for mountain warfare, advance uphill in blistering heat and under constant fire from Serbian soldiers and guerrillas. 5th Army is unable to make any headway, held up on the Cer plateau, and takes heavy losses.
- Japan submits an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it turn over its Chinese base at Tsingtao or face war. The Germans are given seven days to respond. Japan has been an ally of Britain since 1902, but the ultimatum makes no reference to the alliance. Instead, the Japanese government has decided to join the war in pursuit of its own objectives, independent of the war in Europe. Their primary goal is the seizure of Tsingtao, and secondly the conquest of further German colonies in the Pacific. Japan has no intention whatsoever of getting involved in the fighting in Europe itself. The British, for their part, appreciate that a Japanese entry into the war will ensure Entente naval supremacy in the Far East, but are wary of Japan's wider goals in China and the Pacific, where they may conflict with not only British interests but those of Australia and New Zealand.
- A small German detachment seizes today the village of Taveta, southeast of Mount Kilimanjaro just inside British East Africa, and an important assembly point for any British advance into German East Africa.
- The advance of the French 1st and 2nd Armies continues into Lorraine. The Germans continue to fall back as planned, which gives the impression to the French commanders that their tactics and strategy are working. However, there are indications that not all is well. When the Germans do stand and fight, the French infantry take terrible losses, while German artillery are causing additional casualties. The 2nd Army commander reports that defended positions require extensive artillery bombardment - this contrasts with pre-war doctrine, which believes that superior French morale and elan can defeat any defending force. However, the continued German retreat ensures that no reassessment of tactics occurs.
- Field Marshal Sir John French meets French President Raymond Poincarè in Paris today. The British general, unable to speak more than a few words of French, informs the French President that the British Expeditionary Force will not be prepared for action until August 24th. French is taking Kitchener's instructions to heart - wanting to ensure the preservation of his command, he does not wish to risk it in battle until it is fully prepared and unless it is necessary. Poincarè is horrified - he fears the BEF will not be able to take the field in time.
- The Russian advance into East Prussia begins today when 1st Army crosses the border. The Russians aim to make a virtue of the delayed advance of 2nd Army, which will not reach the German frontier until August 20th. Advancing westwards north of the Masurian Lakes, the objective of 1st Army is to force the Germans to battle, and pin them on their front, after which 2nd Army, advancing northwards west of the Masurian Lakes, will attack the Germans on their flank and roll them up. The plan has several significant flaws. First, in their haste to attack Germany as quickly as possible to aid their French allies, the Russian armies are advancing without adequate supply. Second, there is an almost complete lack of communication between the commanders of the two armies and front headquarters, ensuring that each army operates largely in the dark regarding the location and intentions of the other. Finally, what communications do take place are transmitted in the clear, giving the Germans a vital insight into their enemy's intentions.
- Conrad has his last audience with Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna today before his departure for the fortress of Przemysl in Galicia, where he will establish his headquarters. The Emperor's final words were 'God willing, all will go well, but even if it all goes wrong, I'll see it through.' Not exactly the most inspiring words on the eve of titanic battles that may decide the fate of Austria-Hungary.
- The entirety of Austro-Hungarian cavalry assigned to Galicia crosses over the Russian frontier in an effort to ascertain the dispositions of the Russian army. In this task they fail completely. When Russians were encountered, the cavalry dismounted to fight, eliminating their mobility, and in such fights failed to penetrate the Russian screens and thus missed the bulk of the Russian forces. Moreover, the Austro-Hungarians wore a saddle best suited for the parade ground, but which on campaign rubbed the backs of their horses raw. Half of the cavalry strength of the Austro-Hungarian army has vanished before the main fighting has even begun.
- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army finally crosses the Drina River in strength, and advances southeast, where it runs into the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies. The Serbs are entrenched in excellent defensive positions among the rough terrain; Austro-Hungarian soldiers, badly-supplied and poorly-equipped for mountain warfare, advance uphill in blistering heat and under constant fire from Serbian soldiers and guerrillas. 5th Army is unable to make any headway, held up on the Cer plateau, and takes heavy losses.
- Japan submits an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it turn over its Chinese base at Tsingtao or face war. The Germans are given seven days to respond. Japan has been an ally of Britain since 1902, but the ultimatum makes no reference to the alliance. Instead, the Japanese government has decided to join the war in pursuit of its own objectives, independent of the war in Europe. Their primary goal is the seizure of Tsingtao, and secondly the conquest of further German colonies in the Pacific. Japan has no intention whatsoever of getting involved in the fighting in Europe itself. The British, for their part, appreciate that a Japanese entry into the war will ensure Entente naval supremacy in the Far East, but are wary of Japan's wider goals in China and the Pacific, where they may conflict with not only British interests but those of Australia and New Zealand.
- A small German detachment seizes today the village of Taveta, southeast of Mount Kilimanjaro just inside British East Africa, and an important assembly point for any British advance into German East Africa.
Monday, August 04, 2014
August 4th, 1914
- At 4am, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe receives orders from the Admiralty to take command of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet as Commander-in-Chief. The Grand Fleet is the strongest naval force in the world, consisting of dreadnoughts, battlecruisers, and supporting vessels, and is based at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys. As its commander, Jellicoe's role is the most important in the Royal Navy. The Grand Fleet is essential to the survival of Great Britain - should its ships be sunk, the Germans would be able to easily blockade the country and, since Britain must import food, force starvation and surrender within weeks. Thus, as Churchill says of Jellicoe, he is 'the only man on either side who can lose the war in an afternoon.' Jellicoe is acutely aware of the pressure and responsibilities of his role. He sees it as his task not to destroy the German navy, but to preserve the Grand Fleet. The status quo is satisfactory for Britain - merely by existing, the Grand Fleet is able to blockade Germany, as no German ships can possible sail through the Channel or out of the North Sea east of Scapa Flow without interception by the Royal Navy. Thus Jellicoe does not seek battle with the Germans merely for the sake of battle, as he knows that victory in such a battle will not substantially change the status quo, but defeat can end the war.
- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations. The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army). It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan. On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army). The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany. The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain. For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance. For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine. Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory. Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.
- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force. The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion. Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside. This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen. As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.
- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège. Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable. For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies. Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.
- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside. Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich. This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles. Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown. When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders. By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.
- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany. When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war. At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum. The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.
- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly. The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality. He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.' Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.
- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!' At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers. Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort. At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.
- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber). He concludes:
Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies. It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.
- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War. The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis. For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable. The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660. When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent. Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence. What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages. He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa. His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had. It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.
- In a statement to a private meeting of bankers and businessmen Lloyd George reassures them that it will be 'business as usual' regarding the economy - government intervention will be minimized, so there is no need for panic or hasty withdrawal of funds. The slogan will become famous as a description of the British approach to the wartime economy in the early stages of the conflict, but right from the start some 'unusual' measures were being taken. This day also sees the British government taking over the management of the nation's railways, to ensure efficient distribution of war material and food. Railway owners were only the first to see how 'unusual' the economy could become in wartime.
- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification. They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area. This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France. At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd. Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment. Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.
The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente. With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau. The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers. Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am. Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other. After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward. The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire. Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go. Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships. By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon. By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared. The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm. Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.
- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call. Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'. Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm. When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.
- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations. The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army). It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan. On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army). The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany. The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain. For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance. For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine. Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory. Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.
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| French and German deployments on the Western Front at the start of the war. |
- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force. The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion. Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside. This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen. As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.
- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège. Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable. For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies. Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.
- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside. Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich. This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles. Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown. When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders. By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.
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| The Liège forts and the initial German advance, Aug. 4th, 1914. |
- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany. When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war. At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum. The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.
- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly. The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality. He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.' Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.
- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!' At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers. Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort. At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.
- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber). He concludes:
In the war which is beginning, France will have Right on her side, the eternal power of which cannot with impunity be disregarded by nations any more than by individuals. She will be heroically defended by all her sons; nothing will break their sacred union before the enemy; today they are joined together as brothers in a common indignation against the aggressor, and in a common patriotic faith. She is faithfully helped by Russia, her ally ; she is supported by the loyal friendship of Great Britain. And already from every part of the civilised world sympathy and good wishes are coming to her. For today once again she stands before the universe for Liberty, Justice, and Reason. Haut les coeurs et vive la France!
Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies. It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.
- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War. The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis. For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable. The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660. When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent. Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence. What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages. He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa. His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had. It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.
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| The face of Kitchener, with its distinctive moustache, would be ubiquitous on recruiting posters throughout Britain. |
- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification. They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area. This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France. At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd. Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment. Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.
The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente. With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau. The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers. Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am. Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other. After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward. The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire. Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go. Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships. By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon. By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared. The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm. Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.
- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call. Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'. Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm. When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.
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| Crowds outside Buckingham Palace cheer the declaration of war against Germany. |
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