- Before the Entente conference at Chantilly scheduled for tomorrow, British and French political and military leaders meet at Calais today to discuss strategy. Joffre calls for another major offensive on the Western Front, and advances two lines of thinking beyond the necessity of liberating occupied French territory. First, the Entente needs to attack on the Western Front while the German defence has been relatively weakened due to troop transfers to the east. If they wait instead, it would give the Germans, victorious in the east, the opportunity to shift forces back to the west and themselves go on the offensive. Second, an attack is necessary to prevent even greater disasters on the Eastern Front should the Germans be able to send further reinforcements east. Joffre calls on the British to send as many divisions as possible to France and participate in the forthcoming offensive.
Lord Kitchener, however, has his reservations. He doubts whether a truly decisive victory is possible on the Western Front, as evidenced in his support of the Dardanelles operation. Further, Kitchener is extremely hesitant to send the 'New Armies', composed of the hundreds of thousands of men who have volunteered since the outbreak of the war, into combat until they are fully trained and equipped. These are the divisions that Joffre speaks of, and Kitchener is very reluctant to let him have them; the meeting concludes without a firm British commitment.
- In southern Poland the Austro-Hungarian VIII, X, and XVII Corps of 4th Army secure further small gains today. Given that the fighting of the past week has exhausted the ammunition supply, however, 4th Army headquarters issues orders this evening to suspend offensive operations for two days. The Austro-Hungarians envision that once the supply issue has been addressed, they will be able to resume the offensive on the 9th.
The Russians, however, have other plans, as the counterattack of yesterday was only the prelude to a much larger operation. The Russian 3rd Army has concentrated the fresh troops of XXV and VI Siberian Corps on either side of the Bystrzyca River on the front line northeast of Kraśnik opposite the centre of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army, and the attack is to begin in the predawn hours of tomorrow.
- North of the upper Isonzo three Alpini battalions of the Italian army attempt to advance near Mt. Krn, but are repulsed. To the south, however, VI and X Corps make only half-hearted efforts to renew the attacks of yesterday.
- Having successfully passed the barrage at Akaika on June 29th, the Indian expedition up the Euphrates River reaches Suk-es-Shuyukh today, which they seize as a base of operations for the advance towards Nasiryeh.
Showing posts with label Lord Kitchener. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Lord Kitchener. Show all posts
Monday, July 06, 2015
Wednesday, August 20, 2014
August 20th, 1914
- The German 1st Army occupies Brussels today, while the Belgian army completes its retirement into the fortified camp of Antwerp.
- The concentration of the British Expeditionary Force at Maubeuge is completed today, and the two British corps begin to advance northeast. Meanwhile, in London, the British Cabinet has authorized the deployment of the fifth British infantry division to the Continent.
- The French 5th Army completes its advance to the Sambre and Meuse Rivers. Its defensive position resembles an inverted 'V', with the Belgian forts at Namur at the point. Just to the north, cavalry units belonging to 5th Army engage in small skirmishes with German cavalry.
- At 830pm Joffre issues orders for 3rd and 4th Army to attack tomorrow. The latter will advance northeast towards Neufchâteau while the former will move against Arlon. To protect the advance against a German counterattack from Metz, Joffre has formed a portion of 3rd Army into a separate Army of Lorraine to cover the southern flank of the attack. This is to be the main assault of Plan XVII - a strike north of Metz-Thionville which will crush the centre of the German line. While Joffre is aware that the Germans are advancing through Belgium, he still does not see it as the focal point of the German campaign. Indeed, he believes that the Germans have reduced their forces opposite 3rd and 4th Armies to strengthen the German right, which will increase the odds of French success tomorrow. He has also instructed the commanders of 3rd and 4th Armies to make no preparatory movements, so as to not tip off the Germans to the advance and cause them to stop moving forces into Belgium.
- Even as Joffre is ordering the main French attack, the offensive in Lorraine is disintegrating. There is a renewed attack today by the French 1st and 2nd Armies, the former in particular attempting to seize Morhange. Advancing into prepared German defences, the French suffer horrendous losses. Simultaneously, Prince Rupprecht's 6th Army launches the counterattack 'authorized' by OHL on the 18th. This attack falls primarily against the two corps of 2nd Army to the south of XX Corps, whose successful advance had uncovered their flank. Unlike the French attack, the German advance is successful - both French corps retire in disarray, and by nightfall 2nd Army is retreating back across the French border to the Meurhe River and the fortifications of Nancy. 2nd Army has also lost contact with 1st Army to the south, and in order to re-establish the line 1st Army, which has also suffered heavily, and the Army of Alsace are ordered to fall back.
- In the early morning hours, the German I Corps under General François attacks the northern flank of the Russian 1st Army, and is a shattering success - one Russian division suffers 60% casualties. The rest of the attack by 8th Army, however, has a very different outcome. XVII Corps, under General August von Mackensen, and I Reserve Corps, under General Otto von Below, arrive on the battlefield only in the late morning, and the Russians facing them have been forewarned by I Corps' attack. Devastating artillery fire is poured onto XVII Corps, which suffers eight thousand casualties in two hours. An entire division breaks and retreats in disarray. I Reserve Corps, attacking to the south of XVII Corps, is similarly repulsed, and with XVII Corps in retreat, has no choice but to retreat as well. At 6pm 8th Army commander General Prittwitz calls François and informs him that despite his local success, I Corps must retreat. Though it is not an overwhelming one, the Russians have won the Battle of Gumbinnen.
The defeat provokes a crisis of confidence in Prittwitz. He sees his strategy - attacking each Russian army separately - in tatters. 8th Army is already in retreat, and the Russian 2nd Army will be able to advance northwards unmolested. Indeed, the Russian 2nd Army is already to the west of the German 8th Army, and Prittwitz concludes that a hasty withdrawal behind the Vistula River is required. This would abandon the entirety of East Prussia to the Russians, and his subordinates, François included, are appalled. When Prittwitz informs Moltke this evening of his decision, the latter is aghast - such a precipitate retreat might allow the Russians to threaten Berlin. Moltke instructs his staff to contact 8th Army's corps commanders directly, to learn their impressions of the situation.
There is one saving grave to come out of the Battle of Gumbinnen for the Germans - General Rennenkampf does not order his 1st Army to pursue. Though victorious, his army is exhausted and supplies are dangerously low. Instead, 1st Army is to rest and recover from the battle. In this are the seeds of the German revival.
- Conrad orders IV Corps to abandon the Sabac bridgehead as a preliminary to its transfer to Galicia. The order is countermanded by Potiorek, who believes the bridgehead is necessary to the preservation of 5th Army. Meanwhile, other elements of 2nd Army only today begin the transfer by rail to the Russian front, while 6th Army is finally in position to begin its offensive across the Drina River.
- Lord Kitchener persuades the British Cabinet to reject an alliance offer from Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, fearing that such a move would increase the probability of the Ottoman Empire joining the war on the side of Germany. Kitchener views this issue primarily through the lens of the Empire - his concern is avoiding an Ottoman offensive against Egypt.
 |
| Belgian soldiers during the retreat to Antwerp, Aug. 20th, 1914. And yes, those are dogs pulling machine guns. |
- The concentration of the British Expeditionary Force at Maubeuge is completed today, and the two British corps begin to advance northeast. Meanwhile, in London, the British Cabinet has authorized the deployment of the fifth British infantry division to the Continent.
- The French 5th Army completes its advance to the Sambre and Meuse Rivers. Its defensive position resembles an inverted 'V', with the Belgian forts at Namur at the point. Just to the north, cavalry units belonging to 5th Army engage in small skirmishes with German cavalry.
- At 830pm Joffre issues orders for 3rd and 4th Army to attack tomorrow. The latter will advance northeast towards Neufchâteau while the former will move against Arlon. To protect the advance against a German counterattack from Metz, Joffre has formed a portion of 3rd Army into a separate Army of Lorraine to cover the southern flank of the attack. This is to be the main assault of Plan XVII - a strike north of Metz-Thionville which will crush the centre of the German line. While Joffre is aware that the Germans are advancing through Belgium, he still does not see it as the focal point of the German campaign. Indeed, he believes that the Germans have reduced their forces opposite 3rd and 4th Armies to strengthen the German right, which will increase the odds of French success tomorrow. He has also instructed the commanders of 3rd and 4th Armies to make no preparatory movements, so as to not tip off the Germans to the advance and cause them to stop moving forces into Belgium.
- Even as Joffre is ordering the main French attack, the offensive in Lorraine is disintegrating. There is a renewed attack today by the French 1st and 2nd Armies, the former in particular attempting to seize Morhange. Advancing into prepared German defences, the French suffer horrendous losses. Simultaneously, Prince Rupprecht's 6th Army launches the counterattack 'authorized' by OHL on the 18th. This attack falls primarily against the two corps of 2nd Army to the south of XX Corps, whose successful advance had uncovered their flank. Unlike the French attack, the German advance is successful - both French corps retire in disarray, and by nightfall 2nd Army is retreating back across the French border to the Meurhe River and the fortifications of Nancy. 2nd Army has also lost contact with 1st Army to the south, and in order to re-establish the line 1st Army, which has also suffered heavily, and the Army of Alsace are ordered to fall back.
- In the early morning hours, the German I Corps under General François attacks the northern flank of the Russian 1st Army, and is a shattering success - one Russian division suffers 60% casualties. The rest of the attack by 8th Army, however, has a very different outcome. XVII Corps, under General August von Mackensen, and I Reserve Corps, under General Otto von Below, arrive on the battlefield only in the late morning, and the Russians facing them have been forewarned by I Corps' attack. Devastating artillery fire is poured onto XVII Corps, which suffers eight thousand casualties in two hours. An entire division breaks and retreats in disarray. I Reserve Corps, attacking to the south of XVII Corps, is similarly repulsed, and with XVII Corps in retreat, has no choice but to retreat as well. At 6pm 8th Army commander General Prittwitz calls François and informs him that despite his local success, I Corps must retreat. Though it is not an overwhelming one, the Russians have won the Battle of Gumbinnen.
The defeat provokes a crisis of confidence in Prittwitz. He sees his strategy - attacking each Russian army separately - in tatters. 8th Army is already in retreat, and the Russian 2nd Army will be able to advance northwards unmolested. Indeed, the Russian 2nd Army is already to the west of the German 8th Army, and Prittwitz concludes that a hasty withdrawal behind the Vistula River is required. This would abandon the entirety of East Prussia to the Russians, and his subordinates, François included, are appalled. When Prittwitz informs Moltke this evening of his decision, the latter is aghast - such a precipitate retreat might allow the Russians to threaten Berlin. Moltke instructs his staff to contact 8th Army's corps commanders directly, to learn their impressions of the situation.
There is one saving grave to come out of the Battle of Gumbinnen for the Germans - General Rennenkampf does not order his 1st Army to pursue. Though victorious, his army is exhausted and supplies are dangerously low. Instead, 1st Army is to rest and recover from the battle. In this are the seeds of the German revival.
- Conrad orders IV Corps to abandon the Sabac bridgehead as a preliminary to its transfer to Galicia. The order is countermanded by Potiorek, who believes the bridgehead is necessary to the preservation of 5th Army. Meanwhile, other elements of 2nd Army only today begin the transfer by rail to the Russian front, while 6th Army is finally in position to begin its offensive across the Drina River.
- Lord Kitchener persuades the British Cabinet to reject an alliance offer from Greek Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, fearing that such a move would increase the probability of the Ottoman Empire joining the war on the side of Germany. Kitchener views this issue primarily through the lens of the Empire - his concern is avoiding an Ottoman offensive against Egypt.
Thursday, August 07, 2014
August 7th, 1914
- In the pre-dawn hours, as Goeben and Breslau continue to sail eastwards, a British squadron of four armoured cruisers under Rear Admiral Ernest Troubridge are moving to intercept. However, Troubridge is troubled at the scenario playing out. His force will not be in position to attack Goeben and Breslau until after dawn. Further, Goeben is faster than his ships, and the main guns of Goeben can shoot farther than his own. His fear is that his squadron would be unable to close to engage Goeben, the latter using its superior speed to keep the range at where the Goeben can fire but the British armoured cruisers cannot. Despite outnumbering the German force, at 405am Troubridge, fearing annihilation, orders his squadron to abandon the chase.
At dawn, Goeben and Breslau, unaware of how close they had come to battle, sail eastwards, still followed by the light cruiser Gloucester. Early this afternoon, Admiral Souchon attempts to shake his pursuer by turning to fight, but Gloucester simply turns as well, remaining outside the range of Goeben's guns. Souchon orders a return to the prior course, needing to rendezvous with his collier if he is to reach the Dardanelles. At 440pm, Gloucester, almost out of coal, is forced to give up the chase. The British now lose track of Goeben and Breslau.
- As with the other self-governing dominions of the British Empire - Canada, Australia, and New Zealand - South Africa was automatically at war with Germany when Great Britain declared war on August 4th. Today the South African government receives a telegram from London asking whether South African forces could seize key points in neighbouring German South-West Africa. Prime Minister Louis Botha is supportive of the appeal - the conquest of the German colony offers the prospect of the creation of an empire of its own for South Africa. But the issue is not clear-cut - when Botha brings the request before his cabinet today, four ministers support him, while four are opposed. The issue raises to the surface the underlying tension in South African society - the Boer population, which politically dominate the dominion, are not altogether supportive of Britain and its war. It has only been a dozen years since the Boers were forced to surrender their autonomy at the end of the Second Boer War in 1902. Further, German South-West Africa has been a haven for die-hard Boer rebels, raising the possibility of Boer fighting Boer in an invasion of the German colony. Finally, the rhetoric of Britain makes many Boers uncomfortable - Britain declares itself to be fighting on behalf of small nations such as Belgium, which stands in uneasy contrast to British policy towards the very small Boer republics prior to 1902. Thus there is a genuine fear among ministers in Botha's government that a move to openly support Britain through attacking German South-West Africa might destabilize South Africa itself and lead to a rebellion among those Boers who have never completely reconciled themselves to membership in the British Empire.
- As the rest of the French army continues to assemble, General Joffre orders the VII Corps to undertake an offensive into Alsace with the objective of seizing Mulhouse. This is separate from the main offensives Joffre is planning to launch under Plan XVII, and is designed both to satisfy the desire of the French public to reclaim the 'lost territories' of Alsace-Lorraine and demonstrate to their allies the readiness of the French army. Undertaken by two infantry divisions and one infantry brigade, this force crosses the border at 5am and begins the twenty-five kilometre march to Mulhouse.
- At Liège, Ludendorff decides that the brigade he has led inside the ring of forts should assault the town itself. The German force is able to enter the town unopposed, the Belgian 3rd Division having been withdrawn the previous day. Ludendorff himself drives up to the old Citadel guarding the centre of the town, strides up to the gates, and demands their surrender. The Belgian soldiers remaining in the Citadel, instead of shooting Ludendorff for his insolence, surrender. How much better for the Entente would it have been if they had surrendered only after dispatching Ludendorff first? Regardless, the Germans now control the town of Liège, but there are still the forts around the town to subdue before 1st and 2nd Armies can fully begin their march through Belgium.
- Lord Kitchener issues his first public appeal for volunteers, calling for 100 000 recruits. Kitchener intends these volunteers to form the seventy-division British army he envisions will be needed to win a war that will last years, not months.
At dawn, Goeben and Breslau, unaware of how close they had come to battle, sail eastwards, still followed by the light cruiser Gloucester. Early this afternoon, Admiral Souchon attempts to shake his pursuer by turning to fight, but Gloucester simply turns as well, remaining outside the range of Goeben's guns. Souchon orders a return to the prior course, needing to rendezvous with his collier if he is to reach the Dardanelles. At 440pm, Gloucester, almost out of coal, is forced to give up the chase. The British now lose track of Goeben and Breslau.
- As with the other self-governing dominions of the British Empire - Canada, Australia, and New Zealand - South Africa was automatically at war with Germany when Great Britain declared war on August 4th. Today the South African government receives a telegram from London asking whether South African forces could seize key points in neighbouring German South-West Africa. Prime Minister Louis Botha is supportive of the appeal - the conquest of the German colony offers the prospect of the creation of an empire of its own for South Africa. But the issue is not clear-cut - when Botha brings the request before his cabinet today, four ministers support him, while four are opposed. The issue raises to the surface the underlying tension in South African society - the Boer population, which politically dominate the dominion, are not altogether supportive of Britain and its war. It has only been a dozen years since the Boers were forced to surrender their autonomy at the end of the Second Boer War in 1902. Further, German South-West Africa has been a haven for die-hard Boer rebels, raising the possibility of Boer fighting Boer in an invasion of the German colony. Finally, the rhetoric of Britain makes many Boers uncomfortable - Britain declares itself to be fighting on behalf of small nations such as Belgium, which stands in uneasy contrast to British policy towards the very small Boer republics prior to 1902. Thus there is a genuine fear among ministers in Botha's government that a move to openly support Britain through attacking German South-West Africa might destabilize South Africa itself and lead to a rebellion among those Boers who have never completely reconciled themselves to membership in the British Empire.
- As the rest of the French army continues to assemble, General Joffre orders the VII Corps to undertake an offensive into Alsace with the objective of seizing Mulhouse. This is separate from the main offensives Joffre is planning to launch under Plan XVII, and is designed both to satisfy the desire of the French public to reclaim the 'lost territories' of Alsace-Lorraine and demonstrate to their allies the readiness of the French army. Undertaken by two infantry divisions and one infantry brigade, this force crosses the border at 5am and begins the twenty-five kilometre march to Mulhouse.
- At Liège, Ludendorff decides that the brigade he has led inside the ring of forts should assault the town itself. The German force is able to enter the town unopposed, the Belgian 3rd Division having been withdrawn the previous day. Ludendorff himself drives up to the old Citadel guarding the centre of the town, strides up to the gates, and demands their surrender. The Belgian soldiers remaining in the Citadel, instead of shooting Ludendorff for his insolence, surrender. How much better for the Entente would it have been if they had surrendered only after dispatching Ludendorff first? Regardless, the Germans now control the town of Liège, but there are still the forts around the town to subdue before 1st and 2nd Armies can fully begin their march through Belgium.
- Lord Kitchener issues his first public appeal for volunteers, calling for 100 000 recruits. Kitchener intends these volunteers to form the seventy-division British army he envisions will be needed to win a war that will last years, not months.
 |
| Volunteers for Kitchener's 'New' Army in London, Aug. 7th, 1914. |
Monday, August 04, 2014
August 4th, 1914
- At 4am, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe receives orders from the Admiralty to take command of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet as Commander-in-Chief. The Grand Fleet is the strongest naval force in the world, consisting of dreadnoughts, battlecruisers, and supporting vessels, and is based at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys. As its commander, Jellicoe's role is the most important in the Royal Navy. The Grand Fleet is essential to the survival of Great Britain - should its ships be sunk, the Germans would be able to easily blockade the country and, since Britain must import food, force starvation and surrender within weeks. Thus, as Churchill says of Jellicoe, he is 'the only man on either side who can lose the war in an afternoon.' Jellicoe is acutely aware of the pressure and responsibilities of his role. He sees it as his task not to destroy the German navy, but to preserve the Grand Fleet. The status quo is satisfactory for Britain - merely by existing, the Grand Fleet is able to blockade Germany, as no German ships can possible sail through the Channel or out of the North Sea east of Scapa Flow without interception by the Royal Navy. Thus Jellicoe does not seek battle with the Germans merely for the sake of battle, as he knows that victory in such a battle will not substantially change the status quo, but defeat can end the war.
- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations. The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army). It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan. On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army). The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany. The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain. For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance. For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine. Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory. Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.
- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force. The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion. Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside. This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen. As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.
- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège. Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable. For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies. Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.
- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside. Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich. This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles. Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown. When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders. By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.
- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany. When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war. At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum. The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.
- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly. The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality. He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.' Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.
- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!' At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers. Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort. At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.
- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber). He concludes:
Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies. It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.
- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War. The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis. For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable. The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660. When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent. Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence. What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages. He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa. His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had. It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.
- In a statement to a private meeting of bankers and businessmen Lloyd George reassures them that it will be 'business as usual' regarding the economy - government intervention will be minimized, so there is no need for panic or hasty withdrawal of funds. The slogan will become famous as a description of the British approach to the wartime economy in the early stages of the conflict, but right from the start some 'unusual' measures were being taken. This day also sees the British government taking over the management of the nation's railways, to ensure efficient distribution of war material and food. Railway owners were only the first to see how 'unusual' the economy could become in wartime.
- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification. They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area. This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France. At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd. Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment. Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.
The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente. With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau. The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers. Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am. Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other. After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward. The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire. Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go. Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships. By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon. By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared. The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm. Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.
- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call. Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'. Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm. When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.
- On the Western Front the great armies of France and Germany assemble. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers, with their equipment and supplies, are brought like clockwork to the designated locations. The German forces comprise seven armies (8th Army is forming in East Prussia), arranged north (1st Army) to south (7th Army). It is 1st Army (General Alexander von Kluck) and 2nd Army (General Karl von Bülow) that carries the main burden of executing the Schlieffen Plan. On the French side five armies assemble, arranged south (1st Army) to north (5th Army). The first four armies are assigned the primary responsibility for executing Plan XVII, the French war plan, which prescribes an invasion of Germany. The tiny Belgian army of six divisions assembles just east of Louvain. For both the Germans and French, it will take several days until the process of mobilization is complete and the armies are ready to begin their advance. For both countries, the initiation of hostilities will consist of a massive offensive - the Germans through Belgium, and the French through German-held Alsace and Lorraine. Both also expect the successful execution of their war plans to bring about a rapid end to the war in victory. Both sides, believing in the superiority of their arms and their cause, believe that none can stand before them, and that their enemies will be swept away.
 |
| French and German deployments on the Western Front at the start of the war. |
- At 6am, the German ambassador delivers a note to the Belgian government, informing it that due to their rejection of the German proposals, the German army will take all necessary measures, including the use of force. The Germans remain hopeful that the Belgians will not resist their invasion. Moltke in Berlin believes that after a token resistance to satisfy honour, the Belgians will stand aside. This is wishful thinking - nothing would suit the Germans more than for the Belgians not to resist, so that is what they expect will happen. As with much that occurs in these first days of the war, they are incorrect.
- The first stage of the Schlieffen Plan is the capture and destruction of the large fortifications around the Belgian town of Liège. Consisting of a dozen forts arranged in a circle around Liège on the Meuse Rivier, they are Belgium's primary defense against invasion from the East, and are widely considered to be near-impregnable. For the Germans, Liège falls directly in the line of advance of 1st and 2nd Armies. Due to a decision not to violate the neutrality of the Netherlands, there is no way around Liège, so the forts must be taken.
- The German invasion of Belgium begins just after 8am as German cavalry sweep forward to reconnoiter the Belgian countryside. Behind them march six brigades under the command of General Otto von Emmich. This task force has been specially-created to capture Liège as the rest of the German assembles. Approaching their objective, they realize that the bridges on the Meuse north and south of the town have been blown. When the Germans attempt to cross, they are surprised to come under heavy and sustained fire from Belgian defenders. By nightfall a German detachment has succeeded in crossing the Meuse north of the town, but to the south the Germans have been halted, while in the centre the bulk of Emmich's force has closed up to the four easternmost forts.
 |
| The Liège forts and the initial German advance, Aug. 4th, 1914. |
- The British government awaits confirmation of the German invasion of Belgium before issuing an ultimatum to Germany. When the news arrived of German forces crossing the border near Liège, the Cabinet meets at 11am, and decide to issue an ultimatum, expiring at midnight Berlin time, requiring Germany to withdraw from Belgium, or Britain would declare war. At 2pm Prime Minister Asquith makes his way to the House of Commons to announce the ultimatum. The streets are thronged with bystanders, cheering every minister (and many they mistake for ministers) they see.
- That afternoon the British ambassador delivers the ultimatum to Chancellor Bethmann-Holweg directly. The Chancellor is indignant at the British for entering the war over what he sees as the trivial matter of Belgian neutrality. He berates the ambassador, and that all of the horrors of war to ensue will be the fault of the British, and 'all for just a word - "neutrality" - just for a scrap of paper.' Little does Bethmann-Hollweg suspect that he has given Entente propagandists a coup - the phrase 'scrap of paper' will become infamous, and tar Germany's name around the world.
- In Berlin the deputies of the Reichstag hear an address by the Kaiser, who again emphasizes national solidarity in wartime - 'From this day on I recognize no parties but only Germans!' At 3pm the deputies reconvene and after a speech by the Chancellor, assigning blame for the war solely on the Entente powers. Afterwards the Reichstag unanimously approves the package of war credits to finance the war, including a short-term credit of 5 billion marks, the suspension of convertibility of bank notes to gold (to allow greater control over the amount of notes in circulation, as they no longer have to be tied to gold deposits) and the creation of special loan banks for the private sector, freeing the Reichsbank to focus on the financing of the war effort. At the conclusion of business, the Reichstag votes itself out of session for four months, by which time it is generally expected that the war will be over.
- At a joint session of the Senate and Chamber in Paris this afternoon, an address by President Raymond Poincarè is read (the President is barred by law from appearing before the Chamber). He concludes:
In the war which is beginning, France will have Right on her side, the eternal power of which cannot with impunity be disregarded by nations any more than by individuals. She will be heroically defended by all her sons; nothing will break their sacred union before the enemy; today they are joined together as brothers in a common indignation against the aggressor, and in a common patriotic faith. She is faithfully helped by Russia, her ally ; she is supported by the loyal friendship of Great Britain. And already from every part of the civilised world sympathy and good wishes are coming to her. For today once again she stands before the universe for Liberty, Justice, and Reason. Haut les coeurs et vive la France!
Just as elsewhere, the sacred union is a rallying cry for all Frenchmen to set aside the regular divisions of peacetime and join as one to defeat France's enemies. It is a potent argument in the frenzied atmosphere of the first days of August - now comes the collision of such idealism with the realities of modern warfare.
- As the hours ticked down to the expiry of the British ultimatum to Germany, Prime Minister Asquith appoints Lord Kitchener to the post of Secretary of State for War. The post had been vacant since March due to the resignation of the prior Secretary over the 'Curragh Mutiny', when some British officers refused orders they perceived would require them to suppress Ulster Unionists in the ongoing Irish crisis. For the past several days Asquith has acted as Secretary of State for War, but a permanent appointment is obviously desirable. The selection of Kitchener is a bold choice - he was the first serving officer to sit in the British Cabinet since 1660. When the decision was made he was about to return to Egypt where he was serving as Consul-General - the order to return to London reaches him aboard a Channel steamer just as it was about to depart for the Continent. Kitchener had not wanted the appointment - he was contemptuous of both War Office officials and politicians who thought they knew more about military operations than professionals - and the rest of the Cabinet was not enthusiastic about his presence. What Kitchener brought to the appointment, however, outweighed the disadvantages. He was arguably Britain's most famous soldier in 1914 - he had a long history of service throughout the Empire, including wars in the Sudan and South Africa. His appointment lent instant gravitas to the Liberal government, giving it credibility in the management of military affairs that it would not otherwise have had. It also sets the stage for epic clashes between civilian and military leadership of the war.
 |
| The face of Kitchener, with its distinctive moustache, would be ubiquitous on recruiting posters throughout Britain. |
- In the pre-dawn hours, two warships steam westwards from Sicily, lights out to prevent identification. They are German - the modern battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau. Assigned to the Mediterranean since 1912, the two warships comprise the entirety of Germany's naval presence in the area. This morning they are sailing towards the Algerian coast, hoping to intercept French troopships carrying reinforcements from Algeria to metropolitan France. At 235 am, the German commander, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, receives a telegram instructing him to sail to Constantinople, to reinforce the secret German-Ottoman treaty of August 2nd. Almost at the Algerian coast, he continues westward until he reaches Philippeville, which he then subjected to a token bombardment. Having made his appearance, he turns back eastwards - he intends to coal at Messina before continuing to Constantinople.
The presence of Souchon's warships is well-known to the Entente. With the French fleet tied down escorting troopships, it is the Royal Navy that takes on the responsibility of tracking down and sinking Goeben and Breslau. The British Mediterranean Fleet is superior to the German force, consisting of three battlecruisers, four old armoured cruisers, four modern light cruisers, and a flotilla of destroyers. Two of the battlecruisers - Indefatigable and Indomitable - sailing westward sight Souchon's force approaching them just after 1030am. Though war between the two countries now appears inevitable, it has formally not yet begun, so the German and British warships pass each other 8000 yards apart, all at battle stations but without training their guns on the other. After, the two British battlecruisers swing around and follow Goeben and Breslau as they continue eastward. The British hope to keep the Germans in sight until war is declared, when they can open fire. Souchon, of course, wants to escape before this can happen, and he pushes his ships as fast as they can go. Fortunately for Souchon, their fastest is just a bit faster than the British ships. By 4pm, Goeben was slipping out of sight in the haze of the horizon. By 730pm, all that could be seen was smoke in the distance, and by nightfall even that sign had disappeared. The British ships are forced to call off the chase just before 10pm. Goeben and Breslau have escaped, and none to soon - the British ultimatum to Germany expires in two hours.
- In the last minutes before the expiry of the ultimatum at 11pm London time, the British Cabinet meets at Downing Street, awaiting expiry or a last-minute telephone call. Outside a massive crowd can be heard singing 'God Save the King'. Suddenly the chimes of Big Ben sound, signalling 11pm. When the last 'Boom!' echoes away, Great Britain is at war with Germany.
 |
| Crowds outside Buckingham Palace cheer the declaration of war against Germany. |
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)