October 19th, 1915

- Today Conrad achieves one of the great objectives of the war, one that however has nothing to do with the battlefield; instead it is marriage to his longtime mistress, Gina von Reininghaus.  They first met in 1907, when Conrad had become hopelessly smitten with Gina, who was less than half his age.  That Gina was already married with six children was but a mere inconvenience to Conrad, and he urged her to divorce her husband even as the two became lovers.  Conrad believed that if were victorious in war, his prestige and prominence would sweep aside all obstacles to making Gina his wife.  The current war, of course, has seen an unending succession of debacles, exposing his abysmal strategic judgement and the incompetence of the Austro-Hungarian army - the only victories he has achieved have occurred either due to Italian ineptitude (Cadorna is one of the few who legitimately rivals the Austro-Hungarian chief of staff in stubborness and detachment from the realities of war) or through German leadership.  What he has been unable to accomplish through battlefield glory has been accomplished through legal trickery: having divorced her husband, she has converted to Protestantism through a sham adoption by a sympathetic general, allowing her to skirt the Catholic Church's restrictions on divorce and remarriage.  Today's union legitimizes a relationship that Conrad and Gina had carried on openly and become the subject of mockery in Viennese social circles.  Unfortunately for the suffering Austro-Hungarian army, marital bliss does not confer martial ability on Conrad.

- In Serbia, on the western flank of the German XXII Reserve Corps the advance of 26th Division brings it into contact with the Austro-Hungarian 53rd Division of XIX Corps, held short of Obrenovac since its initial crossing of the Save River.  The arriving Germans turn the flank of the Serbian defenders, who pull back and allow the trapped Austro-Hungarians to finally break out.  To the east, the German 105th Division of IV Reserve Corps breaks through Serbian positions in the hills east of Lucić, suffering heavy casualties to overcome the fierce enemy resistance.  Meanwhile, however, the Germans score a coup when 232rd Reserve Regiment of 107th Division captures a Serbian patrol and an engineer detachment with orders to destroy the railway bridge over the Mlava River to the south.  Intelligence gleaned from the prisoners allow the Germans to capture the bridge intact, which will aid further advances.  To the south, while the Bulgarian 1st Army continues to be held up in the mountain passes east of Niš, to the south the Bulgarian 2nd Army has made much more progress, and today reaches the Vardar River at Veleš and cuts the railway linking Niš and Salonika.

- Both Russia and Italy formally declare war on Bulgaria today.

- The Serbian government has been pressuring General Sarrail to move his forces north from Salonika and concentrate them at Niš, to oppose the Bulgarians attacking from the east.  Sarrail knows that such a movement is impossible with the forces at his disposal, but recognizes that a gesture (beyond the deployment at the Strumica rail station) is needed.  As a result, he orders an infantry regiment and artillery battery, newly arrived at Salonika and from the French 57th Division, to move north to Krivolak, on the Salonika-Skopje railway thirty kilometres north of the Strumica rail station and south of Veleš.

The French advance from Salonika, October 1915.

- The Italian preliminary artillery bombardment along the lower Isonzo River is joined today by Italian aircraft, which this morning strike the Austro-Hungarian airbase at Aisovizza and begin airstrikes on marching columns and railway stations.  These raids are largely unopposed, as the Austro-Hungarian aircraft on the Italian Front are primarily designed for reconnaissance, not aerial combat.

- The government of Japan adheres to the Pact of London today, which had originally been signed on September 5th, 1914 by Russia, France, and Britain and by which they had pledged not to sign a separate peace with Germany.  Japan's agreement to remain in the war until the end does not, however, signal an expansion of the Japanese contribution to the war effort of the Entente.  Instead, the Japanese government hopes that adhering to the pact will secure it a seat at the peace conference at the end of the war and allow Japanese negotiators to secure the permanent transfer of captured German colonies in Asia and the Pacific to Japan.

October 1st, 1915

- Overnight the portion of the British Guards Division still in the line digs a new trench east of Loos parallel to the Lens-La Bassée road, from which the planned renewal of the offensive is to be launched.  Having completed the trench, Guards Division is relieved by the French IX Corps this morning and joins 3rd Guards Brigade in reserve.  Haig intends to use the Guards Division to retake the ground lost at the Dump and Fosse 8 over the past several days of severe fighting, but feels this attack must occur before the main offensive is renewed; otherwise, German forces here will be able to fire into the northern flank of the advancing British infantry.  As the Guards will not be in position to attack before October 4th, Haig, with the support of Field Marshal French, insists that the Anglo-French offensive be postponed several more days.  Unable to compel the British to attack earlier, Foch has no choice but to delay the attack of the French 10th Army until October 6th.

- Given the clear intentions of Bulgaria to enter the war on the side of the Germans, the Russian ambassador presents an ultimatum to the Bulgarian government today, requiring the dismissal of German officers and a formal commitment to neutrality.

- The Russian Black Seas Fleet bombards the Ottoman ports of Kozlu, Zonguldak, and Eregli, an operation that sees the first sortie by the newly-completed dreadnought Imperatrista Maria II.  Armed with twelve 12-inch guns, protected by a 12-inch armor belt, and capable of 23 knots, it more than balances the presence of the German battlecruiser Goeben in the Black Sea, and allows the Russians to undertake more aggressive operations.

- At 4pm the lead elements of the Ottoman 35th Division, retreating after defeat at the First Battle of Kut-al-Amara on September 28th, reach the ruins of the ancient city of Ctesiphon, fifteen miles south of Baghdad.  It is here that Colonel Nur-ur-din intends to make the next stand against the British advance up the Tigris River, and 35th Division is ordered to begin construction of an elaborate trench system.

- After receiving approval from Kabul, the German mission to Afghanistan was permitted to depart Herat and today arrives at the capital after a journey taking over a year.  Here, too, however, the Germans are kept at arms' length - they are not permitted to enter Kabul and their movement is limited.  Afghanistan is been under the indirect control of Britain, after the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 assigned the country to the British sphere of influence.  The primary aim of Emir Habibullah is to lessen the influence of Britain in his country and restore a degree of independence, and it is through this lens that he views the German mission - they are seen as a potentially useful tool to win concessions from the British.  He has no interest in the Germans, or indeed the wider war, beyond the extent to which he can manipulate the situation to his own advantage.  This does not preclude throwing his lot in with the Germans, but it does require keeping them at arms length at present to avoid an excessive commitment.  Indeed, the British, having learned months before of the German mission, have already contacted Habibullah with assurances of friendship and protection.  The German mission thus finds themselves as just one piece in the Great Game for control of the Northwest Frontier of India, a game which began long before their arrival and will continue long after the present war has passed.

August 21st, 1915

- The finance ministers of France and Britain, meeting at Boulogne today, agree to float a joint loan in the United States, though it will formally be in Britain's name only.  It was also agreed that proceeds would be shared with Russia, though Russian involvement would be kept private as American investors would be very hesitant to take up a loan backed by a government with such a poor fiscal reputation.  It is hoped that American revulsion at the sinking of the passenger liners Lusitania and, two days ago, Arabic would enhance the willingness of American investors to back the Entente financially, and President Wilson has indicated privately that while he will not endorse the loan, he will not oppose it.

- The Russians opposite Prince Leopold's army group retreat during the night, and during the former's pursuit of the latter today elements of both the German 12th Army and General Woyrsch's command cut the railway linking Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok while cavalry seize the town of Kleszczeli.

June 26th, 1915

- After elements of the French II and VI Corps attacked the German 9th Division on the western face of the St.-Mihiel salient six days ago and seized a stretch of the first trench line, the German 10th Division just to the north undertakes its own attack today to relieve the French pressure, and succeeds in occupying most of the high ground at Les Éparges, which had been one of the key positions seized by the French during the Battle of the Woevre in April.

- In Russia the disaster in Galicia has inevitably led to witch hunts for those deemed responsible, and the mantle has fallen on War Minister General Vladimir Sukhomlinov.  The generals at the front, unwilling to accept responsibility for their own mistakes, instead focus on the shortage of munitions, the production of which is the responsibility of the Sukhomlinov.  While the war minister has jealously guarded his powers, the problem of munitions is as much about distribution as it is about production, and stockpiles of hundreds of thousands of shells continue to sit in obsolete fortresses.  Moreover, Sukhomlinov has alienated many in the aristocratic officer corps, who have deeply resented some of his halting efforts to modernize the more antiquated aspects of the Russian army, and his long-standing personal rivals eagerly seize the moment to condemn him.  Sukhomlinov thus makes the perfect scapegoat and the Tsar is prevailed upon to dismiss him today, his replacement being General A. A. Polivanov.

- In Galicia the German 11th Army begins the next stage of its offensive, driving north from Rawa Ruska towards the pre-war frontier between Austria-Hungary and Russian Poland.  The advance of the left wing heavily contested, and only after hard fighting is it able to reach Miasteczko, its objective for today, by this evening.  To the east, however, the Russian XII and XXVIII Corps of 8th Army have already retreated, allowing the German XXII Reserve and Guard Corps, plus the Austro-Hungarian VI Corps, to advance uncontested.  On the right wing of 11th Army, XLI Reserve Corps plus the Beskid Corps (the latter reassigned from the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army) largely remain in place to preserve the connection between 11th Army and 2nd Army to the south.

The advance of the German 11th Army in southern Poland, June 26th to 30th, 1915.

- In the six months since the abject failure of the 3rd Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, the front between the two countries has been generally inactive.  This has suited the Serbs, given that over the winter and spring the country has been ravaged by a typhus epidemic.  On the Austro-Hungarian side, however much Conrad might have wished to crush the Serbs, the crisis in Galicia meant that there was a steady transfer of units from the Serbian front to the Eastern Front.  Moreover, by the time German intervention at Gorlice-Tarnow saved the Austro-Hungarian position in Galicia, Italian entry into the war had become apparent, which necessitated a further drawdown of forces facing the Serbs to man the Italian Front.  The result has been that the Austro-Hungarian units in the Balkans are actually outnumbered, and moreover are composed primarily of reservists and Landsturm militia.

To deter the Serbs from undertaking an offensive, the Austro-Hungarians begin a campaign of deception today to convince the Serbs that a more powerful force opposes them than is actually the case.  Infantry march regularly between camps, rail traffic is increased, and artillery batteries maintain a steady barrage across the Danube River into Serbian territory, while the small number of German detachments sent to support the Austro-Hungarians in the Balkans make themselves particularly visible among the Serbian population of southern Hungary, knowing that word of their presence will inevitably travel across the border.  The expectation is that the Serbian army, while it may relish an opportunity to fight an Austro-Hungarian army it has already defeated three times, would certainly refrain from attacking if they believe a sizeable German contingent is present

June 20th, 1915

- Another diversionary attack is launched today by the French army, this time against the northern flank of the St.-Mihiel salient, where repeated attacks by II and VI Corps manage to seize the first trench line held by the German 9th Division.  The French, however, are not the only ones capable of such secondary operations: today 9th Landwehr and 27th Württemberg Division attack on the western edge of the Argonne, and with the aid of flamethrowers seize a strech of the French line.

- With the German breakthrough of the Russian position at Horodysko and the subsequent advance to the Rawa Ruska-Lemberg road yesterday, General Brusilov of 8th Army realizes that the rest of the Russian line running south along the Wereszyca is now in danger of being outflanked from the north.  As a result, he issues orders this morning for 8th Army to fall back on Lemberg to the east, occupying the trenches protecting the city.  On the German side, General Mackensen directs the bulk of 11th Army to pivot to the north; while the advance eastward has lengthened the northern flank of 11th Army, it has also stretched the Russian 3rd Army opposite, and opened an opportunity to strike against the exposed flank of the Russian armies holding central Poland.  The Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, meanwhile, was assigned responsibility for the recapture of Lemberg.

As the Russian corps south of Zotkiew pull back this morning, the southern wing of the German 11th Army and the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army spend today in pursuit, and by evening IV, XIX, and XVIII Corps of the latter had closed up to the Russian defences at Lemberg.  To the north, while the German Guard Corps holds its position along the Rawa Ruska-Lemberg road, advance elements of XXII Reserve Corps enter Rawa Ruska itself.

- At the beginning of the month, the Russian government had appointed a special commission to supervise the supply of the war, mainly to head off criticism of their management of the war.  Reflective of the administrative chaos endemic within the Russian government, today that commission is replaced by a new council that does essentially the same thing, and has the authority to compel private industry to accept government orders for munitions.  The primary purpose of this new council, however, remains to counter political criticism; hence the inclusion among its membership the president and four other members of the Duma.

June 1st, 1915

- Earlier this month the leadership of the German armed forces prevailed on the Kaiser to loosen his restrictions regarding the bombing of London; henceforth, it is permissible to target the city east of the Tower of London.  Overnight the first bombing raid on the British capital is undertaken by the zeppelin LZ-38, which drops several bombs and killing thirteen people.  No targets of any real strategic significance are hit, but the experience of being under fire is new to the city's inhabitants, and the raid also highlights the current inability of the Royal Flying Corps to stop such attacks.  Of fifteen aircraft scrambled to intercept the zeppelin, only one so much as makes a visual sighting, while anti-aircraft fire is negligible; LZ-38 is never in any real danger.

- In Artois elements of the German XIV Corps retakes the trenches north of the sugar factory west of Souchez, but the trenches on the factory's other flank remain in French hands.  To the south, the French 5th Division of III Corps attacks between Neuville and a confused network of trenches to the north of Roclincourt known as the Labyrinth.  In bitter fighting they are repulsed near Neuville, but are able to seize and hold the first trench line of the Labyrinth.

- Overnight the Russians launch counterattacks all along the front of the German 11th and the Austro-Hungarian 4th Armies in Galicia.  Those that fall on the Germans, and in particular X and Guard Corps, are particularly heavy, but fail to make any headway whatsoever.  To the north, however, the Russians have more success.  Attacking at 2am, elements of the Russian XIV Corps break through the southern wing of the Austro-Hungarian 8th Division, capturing the town of Rudnik and establishing a bridgehead three kilometres wide on the west bank of the San River.  In response the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army pulls five battalions from VIII Corps to the northwest and sends them to south in an effort to hold the line.

The advance of the Russian XIV Corps at Rudnik, June 1st, 1915.

- In the context of the ongoing disaster in Galicia the Russian government is increasingly sensitive to criticism of its management of the war effort, and one perceived shortfall of the government has been the supply (or lack thereof) of munitions.  To head off this line of attack, the government today appoints a special commission to supervise the supply of the army, implicitly diminishing the role of army headquarters in dictating the production of munitions.

- North of Qurna on the Tigris River elements of 6th Indian Division hit the main Ottoman defensive line at Bahran, only to encounter token resistance; most of the defenders have already broken and fled to the north.  General Nixon, arriving from Qurna, convinces a reluctant General Townshend to order a pursuit to take advantage of the success.  By necessity the advance will be led by the naval flotilla assembled for the operation, and several gunboats lead the way up the river.

- In Washington today President Wilson meets with his cabinet to discuss the reply of the German government, received on May 28th, to the first American note regarding Lusitania.  The German communication had avoided dealing with the American request to halt unrestricted submarine warfare; instead, it had stated that Lusitania was an armed merchant cruiser with guns on its deck, and had often flown the American flag illegally to avoid German attacks.  The Americans should investigate this situation, and until this was done Germany would postpone any decision on unrestricted submarine warfare.  Wilson sees the German statement as a diversion from the central issue of the impossibility of conducting unrestricted submarine warfare without risking the lives of neutral, especially American, lives, and he has come to the meeting with a draft for a second American note:

Whatever may be the facts regarding the Lusitania, the principal fact is that a great steamer, primarily and chiefly a conveyance for passengers and carrying more than a thousand souls who had no part or lot in the conduct of the war, was torpedoed and sunk without so much as a challenge or a warning and that men, women, and children were sent to their death in circumstances unparalleled in modern warfare. . . . The United States cannot admit that the proclamation of a war zone . . . may be made to operate as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights . . . of American citizens bound on lawful errands as passengers on ships of belligerent neutrality.'

Wilson is thus staking his position on the right of American citizens to travel as they see fit, without risk of death due to a war in which they are not involved.  As the cabinet discusses the note, the Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, is increasingly restless.  He feels that the American government is not being equally critical of the British, given that their blockade manifestly interferes with the ability of American citizens to trade as they saw fit.  Moreover, he felt that if American citizens chose to sail on the liners of belligerents, they assumed responsibility for the consequences.  Bryan's core argument is that the United States must treat Germany and Britain equally, and fears Wilson's note deviates from that position.  As the discussion continues, Bryan snaps and interjects: 'You people are not neutral.  You are taking sides.'  President Wilson responds coldly to the accusation: 'Mr. Bryan, you are not warranted in making such an assertion.  We all doubtless have our opinions in this matter but there are none of us who can justly be accused of being unfair.' His resolve unshaken, Wilson ensures the meeting endorses his note, even as the gulf between himself and his secretary of state grows.

May 21st, 1915

- Over the past two days the British have attacked German lines near Festubert, but with the latter having received reinforcements, the British are unable to make gains comparable to those of a week earlier.

- Today the Entente powers sign a military convention with Italy, which details how the allied armies will cooperate once the latter enters the war.  The key aim of Italy has been to secure a guarantee of a Serbian offensive to draw off Austro-Hungarian forces from the Italian frontier.  In exchange, the Russian government had wanted Italy to transfer supplies to the Serbian army when they (hopefully) linked up.  This the Italians declined to do, and since the Entente want active Italian participation in the war the 'compromise' is that Russia will send supplies to Italy, which the Italians will then hand over to the Serbs if they two armies make contact.  It is another good deal for the Italians, and another setback for the Russians - not only have they been able to secure third-party assistance for their Serbian allies, but, given the continuing disaster in Galicia, the Russians are hardly in a position to be helping anyone out anyway.

- As the remaining German forces in German South-West Africa fall back towards Kalkfeld along the rail line leading to the north-eastern interior, Theodor Seitz, the German governor, sends a proposal to South African Prime Minister Louis Botha for an armistice.  The terms proposed by Seitz are for a territorial division of the colony based on the status quo, with the fate of the colony to be decided after the war.  Though the South Africans have fulfilled the objectives that Britain had emphasized - the occupation of the coast and the destruction of the main wireless tower at Windhoek - Botha has no intention of calling off the South African campaign in the colony until it has been fully occupied.  Botha's objectives in German South-West Africa are imperial, but as defined by South Africa: they wish to control all of German South-West Africa so they can claim it as a colony of their own after the war.

February 2nd, 1915

- Financial representatives from Britain, France, and Russia meet today in Paris to discuss the financing of the war.  Britain objects to a French proposal to issue a joint allied loan of £800 million, fearing that British credit would be undermined by association with the weaker credit of its allies.  Instead, Britain (with £25 million) and France (625 million francs) agree to support Russia, while in exchange France and Russia agree to ship £6 million in gold to Britain if the reserves of the Bank of England falls by over £10 million in the next six months.

- The defeat at Dogger Bank just over a week ago has capped a frustrating first six months of the war for the German High Seas Fleet.  The British clearly dominate the North Sea, as evidenced by their attack on the Heligoland Bight in August, and the naval raids against the British coast only narrowly avoided catastrophe at the hands of intercepting British squadrons.  Such setbacks demand a scapegoat, and today he is found - Admiral Ingenohl is dismissed as commander of the High Seas Fleet.

- In the Carpathians the Austro-Hungarian effort to seize the heights north of the Uszok Pass have failed.  Given the utter exhaustion of the infantry in the bitter cold, efforts to attack the Russian positions frontally and outflank them have gotten nowhere.  Early his morning General Szurmay pulls his forces back towards the Uszok Pass, in order to give them a brief respite from the fighting.

November 18th, 1914

- The decision of Duke Albrecht yesterday to suspend offensive operations at Ypres is approved today by Falkenhayn.  For several weeks he has been increasingly aware of the growing fatigue within the German army, and clearly even the more limited objectives set in early November, such as Mount Kemmel, could not be seized under present circumstances.  Instead, the German army on the Western Front is to go over on to the defensive - the hope for a rapid and decisive victory over the French is finally abandoned.

As the pre-war strategy has failed to deliver the promised victory in wartime, Falkenhayn and the German General Staff is left searching for alternatives.  Given the results in the west, a shift to the east appears logical, especially as by standing on the defensive reduces the amount of units needed on the Western Front.  Falkenhayn thus informs Hindenburg today that several corps will be shifted from the west to the east, including III Reserve Corps, XIII Corps, II Corps, and XXIV Reserve Corps, the former three coming from Flanders.

There is, however, a crucial difference between Falkenhayn and Hindenburg over what these reinforcements are to accomplish.  Hindenburg and Ludendorff believe that a decisive victory over the Russians is possible, one that will allow Germany to impose its peace terms on Russia.  Falkenhayn is less optimistic - taking his cue from the campaigns of Napoleon, he feels that the most that can be accomplished in the east are local victories.  This, however, is not problematic for Falkenhayn, as he has come to believe that Germany can no longer win a total victory over all of its enemies.  Instead, enough damage should be done to Russia to convince it to agree to a compromise peace based on no annexations, which will allow Germany to focus all of its military might against France and Britain.  If Russia cannot be convinced to sign a separate peace, Germany will inevitably be ground down by a war of attrition against enemies it can not hope to match in numbers.

Falkenhayn's views on a compromise peace, expressed today in a letter to Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, falls on deaf ears.   The Chancellor still believes that an absolute victory can be achieved in the east, and in this he has the agreement of Hindenburg and Ludendorff.  The prestige of the latter two grows as victories on the Eastern Front (however embellished by Ludendorff) are contrasted with failures, for which Falkenhayn is blamed, on the Western Front.  Falkenhayn's advice regarding the future direction of the war are rejected, though because of the personal support of the Kaiser there is no question at this time of replacing Falkenhayn.  Instead, the German Chief of the General Staff is left to continue to develop plans to achieve a total victory he no longer feels is within Germany's grasp.

- The German 9th Army arrives today just north of Lodz, but discover the city well-defended.  In something of a miracle, considering the Russian army's well-earned reputation for sluggishness, both 2nd and 5th Army have managed to retreat to the city before the Germans could arrive to seize it.  For 5th Army in particular it is a significant achievement, accomplished by non-stop marching over the past three days.  The result is that the four corps of the German 9th Army at Lodz find themselves facing seven Russian corps, and, as the latter is the supply centre for 2nd and 5th Army, for once it is the Russians who are better-supplied.  Ludendorff, however, orders Mackensen to continue the offensive - he has misinterpreted the Russian move back to Lodz as yet another panicked retreat, not an orderly redeployment.  It is a case of Ludendorff seeing what he wants to sees in the information arriving from the front.  Thus the Germans, despite being outnumbered, attack into the Russian lines.

- Yesterday a Russian squadron of five pre-dreadnoughts, three cruisers, and thirteen destroyers bombarded the Turkish Black Sea port of Trebizond.  On hearing of the attack Admiral Souchon decided to sortie with his 'Turkish' warships Goeben and Breslau in an effort to catch a portion of the Russian Black Sea Fleet.  In thick fog the two squadrons stumble into each other twenty miles off Cape Sarych on the Crimean coast just after midday.  Because of the poor visibility, Goeben does not sight the Russian squadron until it is already within range of the main guns of the latter's pre-dreadnoughts.  This nullifies the advantage Goeben would normally have over pre-dreadnoughts - i.e. that its main armament can fire longer distances.

The Battle of Cape Sarych, November 18th, 1914.  This map gives the Turkish names for Goeben (Yavuz) and Breslau (Midilli).

The Russian flagship Evstafiy hits Goeben with its first salvo, killing twelve Germans and one Turk.  Though Goeben in turn is able to land five hits on Evstafiy, killing thirty-four, Admiral Souchon quickly realizes that the short range - about seven thousand yards - means his ships are heavily outgunned, and he decides to use his superior speed to break off the engagement.  The battle lasts only fourteen minutes, and most of the warships present never fire a shot.  From this battle the Russians draw the conclusion that all of its large warships must operate together to avoid defeat in detail at the hands of Goeben, while for Souchon the engagement reinforces the isolation of his battlecruiser - as a light cruiser, Breslau is of little aid in a large naval battle, and the other warships of the Ottoman navy are of no value whatsoever (had they been present at Cape Sarych they would have lacked the speed to escape).

The Russian pre-dreadnought Estafiy.

- In Russia five Bolshevik Duma representatives are arrested for distributing Vladimir Lenin's Theses on the War calling for the transformation of the 'imperialist war' into a 'civil war' to bring about revolution.  At this point, however, most on the left still support the war effort.

November 12th, 1914

- Though the German breakthroughs of yesterday have been contained, there is still great concern among British commanders early this morning.  The German Guards regiments still hold the old British trench line between Polygon Wood and the Menin Road, and an attempt in the pre-dawn hours to launch a counterattack is abandoned after Brigadier-General Charles Fitzclarence of 1st Brigade is killed reconnoitring the enemy position.  General Haig informs Field Marshal French that his position is extremely precarious, I Corps current manpower being more than 80% below peacetime establishment.  The BEF commander is able to send 1st Cavalry Division to assist, given the lack of German effort yesterday in the area around Messines.

Though the British situation is dire, it is if anything worse on the German side.  The attacking units of yesterday suffered appalling losses - 1st Guard Regiment, for example, suffered in excess of eight hundred casualties alone.  The fresh divisions of Plettenberg's Corps, having launched the most determined assaults, have suffered the greatest losses.  The attacking power of Army Group Linsingen has been irretrievably broken - Winckler's Division spends today entrenching as opposed to resuming yesterday's attacks.  The British lines are not attacked today, and though on the northeast portion of the Ypres salient a surprise attack by the Germans on the French IX Corps forces the latter back six hundred yards, there is never any real risk of a German breakthrough here.

- Joffre issues instructions today to his army commanders, emphasizing the importance of constructing strong trench lines and defenses.  This was not, however, an acceptance by Joffre that the French army was to go over to the defensive; instead, stronger defenses meant fewer soldiers were needed to man the trenches, which freed up units to be placed in reserve to counter a German attack, or for use in future offensive operations.  Again, the emphasis on trench construction is meant to facilitate, not impede, a return to a war of movement.

- A conference advocating the complete prohibition of alcohol during wartime is held today at Caxton Hall, London, presided over by the Archbishop of Canterbury.  The call is based in part on the belief that drunk workers do not make good munitions workers.  There is, however, also a gender component - it is feared that as more working-class women enter the factory to replace men gone off to war, they are more likely to succumb to the temptation of alcohol, long a staple of male working-class culture.  The fear here is that these women will become less feminine, a common concern when normative gender roles are in flux due to the war, and the desire is to minimize the disruption - women may be needed to work like men, but heaven forbid they start drinking like men.

- Throughout the 19th-century, a cornerstone of Russian foreign policy was the acquisition of Constantinople and the straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, so as to have year-round access to the world's oceans, which Russia did not have from its Baltic or Pacific ports.  Equally, the British in the 19th-century consistently opposed the Russian claim on the basis that it would disrupt the balance of power, and thus Britain spent much of the last century propping up the Ottoman Empire.  Naturally, with the Ottomans now included among their enemies, the British feel no great desire to prolong their existence.  More important now is keeping the Russians onside, and the promise of the Straits is surely extra motivation to continue in the war.  Besides, there are plenty of other parts of the Ottoman Empire that the British have their eyes on, so a concession here can be balanced by an acquisition there.  Thus today the British government informs the Russians that they support the claim of the latter to the Straits in any postwar settlement.

- In South Africa Christian de Wet has raised a commando of about 3500 in the Orange Free State, but more have flocked to the Government.  Prime Minister Botha leads one commando of several that attempt to surround de Wet's force in Mushroom Valley.  Due to a miscommunication between the Government units the rebel commando is able to escape, but leaves behind a number of dead and wounded as well as 250 prisoners.  De Wet is determined to continue the rebellion - his son Danie had been killed in a skirmish with government soldiers on the 9th.  However, Botha today issues a promise of a pardon to any rebel who surrenders by the 21st, which begins to thin the ranks of the rebels.

November 4th, 1914

- At Ypres the day is cold and wet, mist turning to rain in the afternoon.  The British and French notice a distant lessening in the frequency of German infantry attacks, though German artillery bombardments continue, while French attacks, as in prior days, effect no change to the front line.  General Haig informs Field Marshal French today that 1st and 7th Division of I Corps desperately need to be relieved, as so heavy have been the losses, particularly for the latter, that they simply cannot hold a continuous trench line.

On the German side, Falkenhayn officially orders 6th Army to make one last push at Ypres, focusing on the line north of the Ypres-Comines Canal.  He hopes that with reinforcements a final attack will finally achieve the success that has eluded him on prior occasions.

- The raid on Yarmouth yesterday has an unfortunate coda for the Germans today.  A portion of the High Seas Fleet had left port and patrolled the Heligoland Bight yesterday in case they were needed to support or rescue Hipper's battlecruisers.  Overnight, however, there was a dense fog that prevented the warships from re-entering Wilhelmshaven.  At dawn today the armoured cruiser Yorck receives permission to proceed to Wilhelmshaven for repairs to its fresh-water tanks.  The fog is still so thick that it is impossible for the warships to see each other, however, and a change of current takes the unsuspecting Yorck into a defensive minefield.  It strikes two mines within a minute and rapidly sinks, and two hundred and thirty-five men drown.

The German armoured cruiser Yorck, lost today in a friendly minefield.

- The German occupation of almost all of Belgium has put an immense strain on the food supply of the latter's civilian population, as prior to the war three-quarters of all food consumed in Belgium had to be imported.  The perspective of the German government is that Belgium should continue to rely on imported food - why should they have to take responsibility for feeding them?  The counterargument of the British is that by conquering the country the Germans had assumed responsibility of the civilian population, and if food was allowed to be imported Belgium there was no guarantee that it would not be diverted to the German population.

The solution to the impasse was the formation of the Committee for the Relief of Belgium.  Headed by American mining magnate Herbert Hoover, the Committee took over responsibility for the feeding of the Belgian population by supervising the importation and distribution of food, ensuring that such supplies were not expropriated by the Germans.  Today the first food supplied by the Committee arrives in Brussels, helping to stave off starvation over the coming winter.  The Committee also makes the international reputation of Hoover, and propels him to the American Presidency.

- In London the first reports of the Battle of Coronel reach the Admiralty this morning, through sparse accounts that appear in the German press.  Though the Royal Navy makes no public comment, orders are immediately dispatched to British warships in the South Atlantic to converge, in preparation for the German East Asiatic Squadron moving around Cape Horn.  As a result, Rear Admiral A. C. Stoddart, who had been send to command the new squadron formed in the South Atlantic in October (as stated in the Admiralty's October 14th message to Craddock), will have four armoured cruisers, a force roughly equal in strength to Admiral Spee's.  However, after the humiliation of Coronel, no one at the Admiralty is interested in a fair fight.

- Without any sign from the Ottoman government repudiating the attacks undertaken by Admiral Souchon's warships on October 29th, Russia formally declares war on the Ottomans.

- At noon today Indian Expeditionary Force B begins its advance overland from its landing beaches to the town of Tanga.  The advance is as badly managed as everything else to do with this expedition.  Its commander had decided not to unload his artillery believing he could rely on the light cruiser Fox, but its captain, still fearful of mines, refused to approach close enough to Tanga to provide fire support.  The day is hot, and units lose touch with each other in the dense bush, only to stumble onto German positions at ranges under fifty yards.

The right of IEF B, comprised of its best units, manages to fight its way into Tanga itself, but the left comes under heavy fire and is halted.  One battalion on the left breaks and flees, and the rest on the left move northwards towards the more-successful right.  Thus despite British forces in the town itself, Colonel Lettow-Vorbeck is optimistic that his plan will work, and at 430pm orders his reserve company to hit the British southern flank.  The striking power of the maneouvre is muted, however, when a second company simply follows the first into the British position, instead of extending the German envelopment of IEF B even further westwards.

By nightfall confusion reigns on the battlefield.  In an effort to regain control of their units, German company commanders order their buglers to sound a recall.  The British commander, however, misinterprets this as signalling an imminent German charge, and believing himself defeated, withdraws his force back towards the landing beaches, even as the Germans also pull back to reorganize.

The British approach to Tanga and the German flanking maneouvre, November 4th, 1914.

- At the start of the war, the German light cruiser Karlsruhe was in the Caribbean, and since that time has attacking Entente shipping, capturing eighteen merchants.  Its run of good fortune comes to a sudden end today, when near Barbadoes Karlsruhe is blown in half by an internal explosion, most likely caused by unstable ammunition.  Its fate remains unconfirmed for months, until the survivors return to Germany, and for many weeks ahead the Admiralty continues to fear and plan around the existance of Karlsruhe.

September 3rd, 1914

- This morning, Lieutenant Watteau, a flyer attached to the Paris garrison, conducts a reconnaissance flight to the east of the city, which clearly shows the columns of the German 1st Army marching southeast, confirming that Kluck's army is not advancing on Paris, but rather passing to its east.  To Gallieni and his staff, this is the golden opportunity they had hardly dared dream off - now that 6th Army was at Paris, it was perfectly positioned to attack the German 1st Army in its flank.  At a staff meeting at 830pm, it is decided that if reconnaissance shows Kluck's army continued to bypass Paris, they would push for an immediate counteroffensive - foremost among Gallieni's concerns is that if Joffre continues the retreat of the French army to the Seine, Paris may be sacrificed.  To avoid this, Gallieni wants to attack with 6th Army as soon as possible.

- The German 1st Army reaches the Marne River this evening, right on the heels of the French 5th Army and the BEF, both of which had crossed the river this morning.  In the haste of their retreat, the French and British had failed to destroy a number of bridges, allowing the Germans to establish bridgeheads over the Marne.  In doing so, of course, 1st Army is disobeying Moltke's orders of yesterday.  General Kluck has sent three telegrams to OHL at Luxembourg informing him of his approach to and crossing of the Marne, but due to the constant communication difficulties none of the telegrams had actually gotten through to OHL.  As a result, Moltke is completely unaware that Kluck is disobeying his orders.

Moltke is not the only one suffering in ignorance - Kluck has directed the aircraft attached to his aircraft to focus south of his position, to observe the continuing retreat.  As he does not feel that there are any significant French forces at Paris, and because he has already left a corps to guard the Parisian flank, he does not direct any aircraft to the west.  He is thus largely ignorant of the arrival of the French 6th Army around the French capital.

- To the east of 1st Army, the 2nd and 3rd armies continued their advance.  As 2nd Army approached the Vesle River, General Bulow reported discovering the countryside littered with discarded weapons and uniforms, reinforcing his belief that he was facing a defeated foe.  Meanwhile, this afternoon General Hausen of 3rd Army orders XII Reserve Corps to capture the city of Rheims.  Attacking at night, the Germans catch the French garrison by surprise, and by midnight the city is in German hands.

- Joffre this afternoon visits the headquarters of 5th Army, where he dismisses General Lanrezac from command.  The French commander-in-chief has concluded that Lanrezac has lost his nerve, too fond of finding reasons not to attack.  Moreover, Joffre is tired of his constant suggestions and criticisms, notwithstanding the fact that Lanrezac's most important observation - the strength of the German right - was absolutely correct, and his conduct of the Battle of Charleroi, in preserving his army, may have very well saved France from destruction.  Accounts of the conversation between the two differ sharply - Joffre will say that Lanrezac was relieved to be dismissed, while Lanrezac would say he protested violently.  Regardless, the result was the same - Lanrezac is removed from his command, and will hold no other command for the duration of the war.  As his replacement Joffre appoints General Franchet d'Esperey, whose energetic and offensive spirit in leading I Corps appeals to the French commander-in-chief.

- The city of Lille has been occupied by the German army for just over a week.  However, in the continued German push to the south occupation forces simply cannot be spared to cover every point they have seized.  Today, the last German columns march through Lille on their way southward.  The 'captured' city finds itself free of Germans, and the immediate response is for several thousand young men to leave, seeking to enlist in the French army.

- Today, 33 304 men volunteer to join the British Army.  This is the highest one-day total in the war to date, and is a figure that will never be matched.  This peak in volunteers is a result of the war news from France over the past week, especially the British retreat of Mons.  It is notable that the biggest surge in recruitment comes not when the war begins, but when it appears the war might be lost.

- At the end of July the Russian government had temporarily closed state liquor shops, to ensure that the mobilization of the army went smoothly.  Today, the closure is extended until the end of the war - it is hoped that sobriety will enhance public health and improve industrial productivity.  In doing so, the Russian government deprives itself of a valuable source of tax revenue.  One can also imagine the impact it might have on the morale of the Russian people.

August 19th, 1914

- The German 1st Army crosses the Gette River in Belgium today, and find that the Belgian army has retreated in the night.  The Germans are furious that the Belgians have escaped destruction.  Perhaps not coincidentally, the village of Aerschot, between Brussels and the Gette River, suffers the first mass execution - 150 civilians are rounded up and shot.

- The French Army of Alsace, operating between 1st Army and the Swiss border, recaptures Mulhouse today.  However, its commander, General Paul-Marie Pau, is suspicious of the combat effectiveness of the reserve divisions, and otherwise restricts his activity to securing the Vosges, despite the fact that he is directly opposed by only four German Landwehr divisions.  Pau's inactivity allows the German 7th Army to threaten the right flank of the French 1st Army, which pulls the latter southward to cover the threat.  This in turn further draws the French 1st Army away from the French 2nd Army.

- Still ten miles east of Gumbinnen, François argues to Prittwitz that the Russian 1st Army should be attacked again - the Russians were disorganized by their advance and prior fighting, insisted François.  Prittwitz knew that initiating battle east of the Angerapp would mean abandoning the defensive positions the Germans had established there.  On the other hand, the Germans had intercepted a message from General Paul von Rennenkampf, commander of the Russian 1st Army, to one of his corps commanders, ordering that the army will rest on the 20th to bring up supplies and restore cohesion.  Prittwitz worries that if the Russian 1st Army delays its advance to the Angerapp, there will not be enough time to defeat them and redeploy southwestwards against the Russian 2nd Army.  Prittwitz decides instead to attack along the lines suggested by François - his corps will attack tomorrow morning, while the two and a half corps along the Angerapp will march east to join.

- The main Austro-Hungarian offensive against Russia begins today, with 1st and 4th Armies advancing north from Galicia into Russian Poland, in the direction of Lublin and Cholm.  Conrad's plan, to the extent that he has one, is to cut off the western portion of Russian Poland, isolating and destroying the Russian armies there.  In this maneouver he had hoped to be joined by a German force advancing south from East Prussia as the other half of the pincer.  Moltke has since disabused Conrad of this notion, yet Conrad persists with this operation.  Moreover, the position of 1st and 4th Armies will worsen the further north they go.  The Galician frontier resembles a half moon, and its length expands as the front moves into Russia.  Thus the flanks of 1st and 4th Armies, and in particular the right flank of 4th Army, arrayed to the east of 1st Army, will be exposed.  To the south, 3rd Army and whatever elements of 2nd Army that arrive are undertake an 'active defense' of the eastern portion of Galicia.  In practice, the commander of 3rd Army interprets this as a full advance into Russia.  This leaves 3rd Army even more exposed than 1st and 4th Armies, with the added complication that its lesser size makes it much less capable of meeting whatever Russian resistance it encounters.

- In response to the defeat suffered on the night of the 16th, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian 5th Army orders VIII Corps to retreat behind the Drina River.  While a necessary decision in light of the losses of VIII Corps - one division alone had lost a third of its strength on the 16th - it leaves the other corps of 5th Army - XIII Corps - unsupported in Serbian territory.

With the growing realization of the failure of 5th Army's offensive, Potiorek's constant demands of Conrad to allow more substantial use to be made of 2nd Army bears limited fruit - Conrad agrees to temporarily transfer IV Corps to 5th Army, and the unit launches an attack from the Sabac bridgehead against the Serbian 2nd Army.  The offensive makes some headway, but just as the Serbs appear about to give way, Conrad orders the effort called off, to allow for transfer of the corps to Galicia.

August 17th, 1914

- Today the advance of the 1st and 2nd German Armies through Belgium is in full motion - 1st Army is attacking the lines of the main Belgian army along the Gette River, fifteen miles east of Brussels, while elements of 2nd Army are crossing the Meuse River at Huy in the direction of Namur and 3rd Army is moving west towards Dinant and Givet.  King Albert and Premier de Brouqueville in Brussels discuss the plight of the Belgian army.  Both believe that the main German advance is coming through Belgium, and to date no significant military assistance has been forthcoming from their allies, Joffre still insisting that the German effort in Belgium was a 'screen' for operations elsewhere.  The Belgian army alone can hardly withstand the Germans; remaining at their current positions would only ensure their ultimate destruction.  This evening the Belgian king takes the decision to abandon the capital.

Operations in Northern France and Belgium, Aug. 17th to Aug. 26th, 1914.

- The commander of II Corps of the British Expeditionary Force, Lieutenant General James Grierson, drops dead this morning on a train near Amiens of heart failure.  Field Marshal French is shocked by the sudden death of his good friend, compounded by Kitchener's refusal to agree to French's preferred replacement.  Instead, Kitchener sends out General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, whom French dislikes.  Both corps of the BEF are now under opinionated generals (I Corps being led by General Sir Douglas Haig) disinclined to defer to the wishes of their commanding officer.

- Field Marshal Sir John French meets with General Charles Lanrezac of the French 5th Army at the latter's headquarters today.  As the BEF is to slid into the Entente line to the left of 5th Army, a good working relationship between the two commanders is essential.  Instead, the meeting reflects the suspicion both hold for the other; in particular, Lanrezac places no faith in the BEF.  He feels that the main German force is about to descend on his position, and 5th Army is all that stands between France and annihilation.  Instead of receiving support from Joffre, however, the only aid he is to receive is the tiny British force.  He feels French does not understand the gravity of the situation, an impression confirmed when the British commander states, as he did to the French President, that his force will not be ready for action until the 24th.  When French asks if the Germans are crossing the Meuse, Lanrezac's peevish response is that the Germans have come to the Meuse to fish.  Neither general is willing to place their cavalry under the direction of the other.  In a report later submitted by Lanrezac to Joffre, the former reported that the British cavalry cannot be counted upon for anything, and that British unfamiliarity with French roads could cause widespread confusion in the case of a retreat.  It is the first time that Lanrezac has mentioned the possibility of retreat, and reflects his anxiety that his army will be insufficient to stop the German steamroller.  Joffre, for his part, is unimpressed.

- The French advance into Lorraine continues.  In the face of heavy casualties, XX Corps, commanded by General Ferdinand Foch and part of 2nd Army, seizes a portion of the heights near Morhange.  The success of XX Corps, though, disrupts the plans of General Édouard de Curières Castelnau, 2nd Army commander.  Castelnau had wanted XX Corps, on the left flank of his army, to act as a pivot, around which the other corps to the south would turn.  With XX Corps now the furthest into German territory, the left flank of Castelnau's two centre corps is now uncovered.

- The embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force is completed in the Channel ports today.

- As the Russian 1st Army has been the first to cross into East Prussia, General Prittwitz, commander of the German 8th Army, has decided that it will need to be defeated first, before redeployment southwest to meet the impending invasion of the Russian 2nd Army.  Prittwitz leaves one corps in the south to screen the Russian 2nd Army, and moves his other three and a half corps against the Russian 1st Army.  The plan is to fight the Russians along the Angerapp River, well behind the border, on the belief that the longer the Russians have to march, the more exhausted and out of supply they will become.

Prittwitz's plan, however, does not account for the insubordination of one of his corps commanders, General Hermann von François, whose I Corps was drawn from East Prussia.  François and his soldiers did not want to yield an inch of their 'home' territory to the Russians, and I Corps had consequently deployed farther east than the rest of 8th Army, and had begin skirmishing with the Russian 1st Army as soon as it crossed the border on the 15th.  Today I Corps engaged the Russians at Stallupönnen, twenty miles to the east of Gumbinnen and the Angerapp, despite a direct order from Prittwitz to François.  I Corps' attack disrupted the advance of the Russian 1st Army and forced the Russian 27th Division to retire in disarray.  Having achieved a tactical success, François shadows the Russians as they lumber westward, continuing to skirmish.

Operations in East Prussia, Aug. 17th to 23rd, 1914.

- Britain and France establish the Commission Internationale de Revitaillement to co-ordinate Entente purchase of munitions and other supplies from neutral countries, and thereby keep down prices.

August 15th, 1914

- Joffre issues Special Instruction No. 10 at 7pm this evening, regarding the operations of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Armies.  The first two are to concentrate on the forthcoming offensive through the Ardennes, while 5th Army is to have one corps facing northeast to support the advance.  The rest of 5th Army, however, is to advance northwards into the triangle between the Meuse and Sambre Rivers, south of Namur, to cover the northern flank of the French line against German forces moving through Belgium.  It is the first acknowledgement by Joffre that the German invasion of Belgium necessitates alterations to Plan XVII, and reflects both intelligence indications from Belgium and the pressure of General Lanrazac of 5th Army.  However, Joffre's focus remains on the offensives undertaken by 1st through 4th Armies - he still believes that few Germans will move west of the Meuse, and indeed welcomes the notion of a strong German right wing, as he believes it means the centre at the Ardennes will be weakened, where the main French attack will shortly commence.

- The advance of the French 1st and 2nd Armies continues into Lorraine.  The Germans continue to fall back as planned, which gives the impression to the French commanders that their tactics and strategy are working.  However, there are indications that not all is well.  When the Germans do stand and fight, the French infantry take terrible losses, while German artillery are causing additional casualties.  The 2nd Army commander reports that defended positions require extensive artillery bombardment - this contrasts with pre-war doctrine, which believes that superior French morale and elan can defeat any defending force.  However, the continued German retreat ensures that no reassessment of tactics occurs.

- Field Marshal Sir John French meets French President Raymond Poincarè in Paris today.  The British general, unable to speak more than a few words of French, informs the French President that the British Expeditionary Force will not be prepared for action until August 24th.  French is taking Kitchener's instructions to heart - wanting to ensure the preservation of his command, he does not wish to risk it in battle until it is fully prepared and unless it is necessary.  Poincarè is horrified - he fears the BEF will not be able to take the field in time.

- The Russian advance into East Prussia begins today when 1st Army crosses the border.  The Russians aim to make a virtue of the delayed advance of 2nd Army, which will not reach the German frontier until August 20th.  Advancing westwards north of the Masurian Lakes, the objective of 1st Army is to force the Germans to battle, and pin them on their front, after which 2nd Army, advancing northwards west of the Masurian Lakes, will attack the Germans on their flank and roll them up.  The plan has several significant flaws.  First, in their haste to attack Germany as quickly as possible to aid their French allies, the Russian armies are advancing without adequate supply.  Second, there is an almost complete lack of communication between the commanders of the two armies and front headquarters, ensuring that each army operates largely in the dark regarding the location and intentions of the other.  Finally, what communications do take place are transmitted in the clear, giving the Germans a vital insight into their enemy's intentions.

- Conrad has his last audience with Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna today before his departure for the fortress of Przemysl in Galicia, where he will establish his headquarters.  The Emperor's final words were 'God willing, all will go well, but even if it all goes wrong, I'll see it through.'  Not exactly the most inspiring words on the eve of titanic battles that may decide the fate of Austria-Hungary.

- The entirety of Austro-Hungarian cavalry assigned to Galicia crosses over the Russian frontier in an effort to ascertain the dispositions of the Russian army.  In this task they fail completely.  When Russians were encountered, the cavalry dismounted to fight, eliminating their mobility, and in such fights failed to penetrate the Russian screens and thus missed the bulk of the Russian forces.  Moreover, the Austro-Hungarians wore a saddle best suited for the parade ground, but which on campaign rubbed the backs of their horses raw.  Half of the cavalry strength of the Austro-Hungarian army has vanished before the main fighting has even begun.

- The Austro-Hungarian 5th Army finally crosses the Drina River in strength, and advances southeast, where it runs into the Serbian 2nd and 3rd Armies.  The Serbs are entrenched in excellent defensive positions among the rough terrain; Austro-Hungarian soldiers, badly-supplied and poorly-equipped for mountain warfare, advance uphill in blistering heat and under constant fire from Serbian soldiers and guerrillas.  5th Army is unable to make any headway, held up on the Cer plateau, and takes heavy losses.

- Japan submits an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that it turn over its Chinese base at Tsingtao or face war.  The Germans are given seven days to respond.  Japan has been an ally of Britain since 1902, but the ultimatum makes no reference to the alliance.  Instead, the Japanese government has decided to join the war in pursuit of its own objectives, independent of the war in Europe.  Their primary goal is the seizure of Tsingtao, and secondly the conquest of further German colonies in the Pacific.  Japan has no intention whatsoever of getting involved in the fighting in Europe itself.  The British, for their part, appreciate that a Japanese entry into the war will ensure Entente naval supremacy in the Far East, but are wary of Japan's wider goals in China and the Pacific, where they may conflict with not only British interests but those of Australia and New Zealand.

- A small German detachment seizes today the village of Taveta, southeast of Mount Kilimanjaro just inside British East Africa, and an important assembly point for any British advance into German East Africa.

August 14th, 1914

- As of today all of the forts north and east of Liège have fallen, opening the roads north of the city and allowing 1st Army to begin its advance.

- The first major French offensive begins today, as 1st and 2nd Armies begin their advance into Lorraine.  1st Army is tasked with the capture of Sarrebourg (sixty kilometres east of Nancy) and Donon (twenty-five kilometres south of Sarrebourg), the latter a key German defensive position covering a valley in the Vosges.  To its left, 2nd Army was to advance towards Morhange (forty-five kilometres northeast of Nancy) while covering the northern flank of 1st Army.  To the south, the newly-formed Army of Alsace, consisting of VII Corps and additional divisions, was to advance again on Mulhouse.

Opposing them are the German 6th and 7th Armies, with orders to gradually retire in the face of the French attacks.  From the perspective of the Schlieffen Plan, a French attack here was welcome news - the further east the French moved, the farther away they would be from Paris and northern France, where, it was believed, the war would be decided.  Thus the first day of the offensive sees Donon captured and French forces advance ten miles towards Sarrebourg.  Both French and German commanders believe the fighting is going according to plan.

Operations in Lorraine, Aug. 14th to 20th, 1914.

- To the north of the French attack into Lorraine, 3rd and 4th Armies are preparing for their own offensive into the Ardennes, which 5th Army is to support.  However, the commander of 5th Army, General Charles Lanrezac, is increasingly nervous about developments in Belgium.  Unlike Joffre, he believes that the German attack on Liège indicates that the focal point of the German effort will be an invasion through Belgium to descend on France from the northeast.  If true, 5th Army is the only French formation in position to contest the German advance.  Lanrezac desires to re-orientate his army to face north, and advance to defensive positions along the Sambre and Meuse Rivers southwest of Namur.  To date Joffre has dismissed Lanrezac's concerns, seeing the German invasion as only a minor operation - indeed, it is to be welcomed, as German forces in Belgium will be cut off once the offensive through the Ardennes is successful.

Lanrezac decides to visit Joffre's headquarters today to put his case directly to the commander of the French Army.  Joffre is still not impressed - he and his staff suggest that there are no German forces west of the Meuse, and that Lanrezac should focus on the upcoming offensive.  Indeed, in Joffre's mind Lanrezac is exceeding his authority by questioning the strategic basis for the plan of operations - it is for Joffre, not Lanrezac, to draw conclusions regarding the main push by the Germans.  Lanrezac departs Joffre's meeting pessimistic about the course of the campaign.  Back at his headquarters, he receives an intelligence report stating that there are now eight German corps across the Meuse.  Angry at this confirmation of his fears, he fires off an aggressive message to Joffre, insisting that the Germans are coming through Belgium in strength.

- Field Marshall French, Wilson, and other officers of the British Expeditionary Force arrive at Amiens, where the BEF will de-train prior to marching up to its assembly point at Maubeuge.

- The German East Asiatic Squadron, consisting of the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the light cruiser Nürnberg, departs Ponape eastward in the direction of the Marshall Islands, while Emden sails southwest towards the Indian Ocean.

- South African Minister of Defence J. C. Smuts meets today with the senior officers of the armed forces, and encounters opposition to the suspected campaign against German South-West Africa, especially from the Commandant-General, C. F. Beyers, and two district commanders, J. C. G. Kemp and S. G. Maritz.  Smuts handles the meeting to ensure there are no resignations, believing that it is better to keep such opposition within the army, in contrast to their leaving and potentially raising the flag of rebellion.

- Conrad has allowed 2nd Army on the Serbian frontier to establish bridgeheads across the Sava at Mitrovica and Sabac, in support of the advance of 5th Army to its right.  General Putnik, commander of the Serbian Army, nevertheless realizes by this day that the main Austro-Hungarian attack will be coming from 5th Army, and that 2nd is a mere diversion.  Moreover, this conclusion is reinforced by signals intelligence passed on by the Russians that 2nd Army will soon depart for Galicia.  Putnik is thus able to redeploy his three armies westward against the Austro-Hungarian 5th Army without fear of being taken in the flank.  Thus 5th Army, stumbling across the Drina, is about to advance into almost the entirety of the Serbian army.

- In Constantinople, Enver Pasha emphasizes in discussion with the German ambassador that the Emir of Afghanistan was willing to launch an invasion of India.

- Moltke today sends a telegram to Count Georg von Waldersee, Chief of Staff to the German 8th Army: 'When the Russians come, not defence only, but offensive, offensive, offensive.'  The note reflects the differing priorities of 8th Army, the only German formation assigned to East Prussia at the start of the war.  Strategically, it is responsible for holding off the Russians until the success of the Schlieffen Plan will allow for the redeployment of most of the German army to the East.  To accomplish this, however, requires 8th Army to also go on the attack - the Russians have superior numbers, so a purely defensive approach could allow the Russians to overwhelm 8th Army.  Instead, General Maximilian von Prittwitz und Graffron, commander of 8th Army, is prepared to use the broken terrain of East Prussia to its advantage.  The Masurian Lakes in particular are impassable by sizeable formations, and thus Prittwitz hopes to use interior lines to defeat the Russians in detail by focussing his forces either north or south of the lakes.  Such a plan requires strong nerves to temporarily leave the other side of the lakes uncovered.  Moreover, Moltke's telegram also speaks to the larger understanding that a German offensive in East Prussia is desirable to relieve Russian pressure on their Austro-Hungarian allies.

August 6th, 1914

- Oskar Potiorek, the military governor of Bosnia, is appointed to command all Austro-Hungarian forces on the Serbian Front.  He has a special incentive to take the war to the Serbs as thoroughly as possible - as governor of Bosnia he had been responsible for the security arrangements for the visit of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28th, and in some quarters has been assigned some of the blame for the assassination.  Potiorek had also aspired to the post of Chief of Staff, but had been passed over on Conrad's appointment.  Thus professional jealousy will also cloud operations against Serbia.

Upon his appointment Potiorek is informed by Conrad that he will only have use of the 2nd Army until August 18th, at which point it was to entrain for the Russian front.  As such, the 2nd Army could only support the operations of Potiorek's other two armies - 5th and 6th - and was not to cross into Serbian territory.  Needless to say, Potiorek is less than pleased with this arrangement.

- General I. G. Zhilinskii, a former Chief of Staff of the Russian Army, is appointed commander of the North-West Front.  Facing the Germans in East Prussia, he has two armies under his authority - 1st Army, under General Paul Rennenkampf, and 2nd Army, under General Alexander Samsonov.  At the direction of Grand Duke Nicholas, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, North-West Front was to launch an invasion of East Prussia as soon as possible, in order to support their French allies by compelling the Germans to move forces from the West to the East.  The coordination of the operations of 1st and 2nd Armies will be hindered, however, by the bitter professional rivalry of Rennenkampf and Samsonov.

- At Liège the Germans have their first success, in large part due to the actions of General Erich Ludendorff, a former operations officer on the General Staff who was now the liasion officer between 2nd Army and Emmich's task force.  When the advance of the 14th Brigade stalled, Ludendorff rode up to ascertain the cause.  Learning that the commander of the 14th Brigade has been killed, Ludendorff assumes command, and directs the brigade to attack into a gap between two of the Belgian forts.  In fierce fighting the brigade breaks through, and by 2pm is on the east bank of the Meuse River overlooking Liège and its citadel.  Ludendorff demanded the surrender of the Belgian commander of the town, but was refused.  In reply, the Zeppelin L-Z drops thirteen bombs on Liège, killing nine civilians - it is the first time a European city has been bombarded from the air.

- Though the Belgian commander is determined to continue resistance, the German advance between two of his forts is worrying - it raises the possibility of each fort being isolated in turn.  He decides to send the Belgian 3rd Division, which had been supporting the defense of the forts, back to the main concentration of the Belgian army to avoid it being surrounded and forced to surrender.

- Three French cavalry divisions are ordered into Belgium to reconnoiter German strength north of the Ardennes Forest.  However, General Joffre has no intention whatsoever of sending a significant French force to aid the Belgians - his focus is solely on the execution of Plan XVII and the offensives into Alsace and Lorraine.  He does not believe that the Germans are committing significant forces to the advance through Belgium, and does not want to dilute his imminent offensives by redirecting divisions northwards.

- A second meeting of the War Council in Britain finally reaches a decision on the deployment of the British Expeditionary Force.  At Kitchener's insistence, instead of the full six infantry divisions of the regular army being sent to France, only four, plus the cavalry division, will depart at once, while the fifth may follow in the near future, but the sixth is to remain home.  It is a precarious balance between those, like General Wilson, who want a full commitment to France, and those, like both Kitchener (training of an expanded army) and Asquith (public order) who have other concerns.  Under pressure from Joffre, the deployment area of the BEF will remain Maubeuge, in line with pre-war planning.  Joffre wants the BEF forward at the extreme left of the Entente line - though the left is not a priority under Plan XVII, it does need to be covered, and the BEF can fulfill that role while the important fighting is done by the French in Alsace and Lorraine.  It is worth noting that Field Marshal Sir John French, Commander of the BEF, preferred it to be deployed either in Belgium directly or Amiens.  With deployment at Maubeuge, French is being required to carry out a strategy he does not agree with.

Departure of the 1/5th Seaforth Highlanders from Wick, Scotland,
Aug. 6th, 1914

- Goeben and Breslau depart Messina this afternoon, sailing southwards.  The British light cruiser Gloucester, watching the southern exit of Messina Strait, observes the two German warships, and falls in behind them.  By nightfall Goeben and Breslau have turned southeastward, and by 11pm it is clear that they are heading not for the French troopships or the Adriatic, but the Aegean.  The British battlecruisers are hopelessly out of position, and Gloucester by herself would be easily sunk by Goeben.  However, there is a British squadron of four old armoured cruisers steaming south of Corfu.  Receiving word of the direction of Goeben and Breslau, they move to intercept.

- China formally declares its neutrality in the war.  In practice this does not mean much - the Great Powers have enclaves and zones of influence in the country, particularly at water's edge, and they will act as they deem necessary in the circumstances.

- The tiny country of Montenegro declares war on Austria-Hungary, in solidarity with its Serbian allies, and places its small army under Serbian control.

August 5th, 1914

- At dawn, Goeben and Breslau arrive at the Italian post of Messina on Sicily in order to replenish their stock of coal.  The Italian authorities, however, emphasizing the neutrality of Italy in the war, inform Admiral Souchon that his ships may remain in harbour for only 24 hours.  As the German sailors desperately shovel coal as quickly as possible, the British light cruiser Gloucester watches the southern exit of the Messina Strait, while the battlecruisers Inflexible and Indefatigable are to the northwest of Sicily, covering the French troop transports.

- General Radomir Putnik, Chief of Staff of the Serbian Army, arrives at his headquarters today.  He had actually been in Budapest when Austria-Hungary issued its declaration of war, but in an act of chivalry he was not detained and was permitted to return to Serbia.  In another remarkable episode, Putnik had with him the only set of keys to open a safe in his office which contained the only copy of Serbia's mobilization plan.  In his absence, his staff had to dynamite open the safe before they could begin to mobilize.

- Austria-Hungary today declares war on Russia.  The delay speaks to the extent to which the war had already bypassed one of its initiators.

- Representatives of twenty-one London commercial banks meet to discuss the economic fallout from the advent of war.  They calculate that they are owed £60 million by firms in Germany and Austria-Hungary, debts that they will be unable to collect.

- In Austria-Hungary, finance ministers and the central bank agree that the country's gold reserves will be allotted solely for state and military use, and that foreign payments will be halted to prevent a currency drain.

- In France, the central bank advances to the government 2.9 billion francs in new notes to finance the war efforts, raising the value of the notes in circulation by almost a third.  With convertability from notes to gold suspended, the central bank can increase the money supply almost at will.

- In Britain, a meeting of the War Council is held to discuss the deployment of the British Expeditionary Force, consisting of all six regular divisions of the British Army.  The members of the Council include civilian ministers and leading figures in the army - among the former is Asquith, Grey, and Churchill, and the latter includes Field Marshal Sir John French, commander of the BEF, and Kitchener in his new role as Secretary of State for War.  The meeting is a shambles.  The official mobilization plan for the BEF is that it is to be deployed to France as soon as possible, assembling at the French fortress of Maubeuge on the Belgian frontier.  As he had no part of developing the mobilization plan, Kitchener feels no responsibility to ensure its implementation.  He argues that Maubeuge is far too forward, risking their early destruction of the Germans move through Belgium in force.  Instead, the BEF should assemble at Amiens, far to the rear.  Other generals are appalled - General Sir Henry Wilson, author and driving force behind the pre-war mobilization plan, and who would become Deputy Chief of Staff of the BEF, felt Amiens would leave the BEF too far away from the fighting to make any difference.  Sir John French, meanwhile, suggests that instead of France the BEF should go to Antwerp in Belgium - if the war is about aiding Belgium, shouldn't the BEF land in Belgium to help directly?  Moreover, there are suggestions, particular from the civilian ministers, that some of the divisions of the BEF be held back, out of fear of German invasion.  Churchill and the Navy says this is preposterous, but the fear remains.

Kitchener also astonishes the Council when he declares that the war will last three years and require the mobilization of millions of soldiers into seventy divisions.  Everyone else, believing the war will be over in months, not years, is flabbergasted.  Here is Kitchener, on his first day in office, declaring that everyone else's perceptions of how the war will play out are completely out-of-touch.  Many, instead, believe Kitchener is the one out-of-touch.  Kitchener is doubtful of sending the BEF to France at all - better to use the trained regulars of the BEF, especially the non-commissioned officers, as a nucleus of a massively-expanded British Army.

The meeting breaks up without agreement.  It is often said that no plan survives contact with the enemy - in this case, the British plan does not survive contact with Kitchener.

- In Belgium General Emmich's brigades launch the first major attack on the four easternmost forts at Liège.  Repeated assaults are broken up, German soldiers mowed down by the fort's machine guns before they could reach the forts themselves.  The fighting is a preview of what the Western Front will become in the years ahead.  By nightfall the Germans have suffered heavy casualties without seizing any of the forts.  Morale among the Germans has been shaken as Emmich orders another assault for the next morning.

- Moltke writes this day that 'Our advance in Belgium is certainly brutal, but we are fighting for our lives and all who get in the way must take the consequences.'  These ominous words reflect how the German army will deal with civilians, especially in Belgium, who are suspected of resisting the German advance.  As German units move into Belgium, they are constantly on the lookout for francs-tireurs - the name given to civilians and partisans who sniped at Prussian soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1.  Furthermore, the Germans are outraged that the Belgians dare resist - they know they cannot win, so why not step aside and allow the Germans to move as they please?  The combination of these two attitudes is lethal during the German invasion of Belgium.  Official orders come down from the generals in charge of the advance that all resistance by civilians must be dealt with using the harshest means possible, and soldiers came to see such francs-tireurs around every corner.  There was a deliberate policy to 'frighten' the Belgian population into submission.  Any civilian caught with a firearm was liable for summary execution.  Further, if any village or town was suspected of harbouring civilian resisters, innocent civilians, including women and children, would be executed and the village burnt to the ground, in order to 'make an example' of those who resisted.  In reality, there is no evidence of any widespread resistance by the Belgian population - indeed, the Belgian government had told its people to hand in their guns to the nearest authorities before the Germans arrived.  Already, six hostages has been shot at Warsage and the village of Battice burnt to the ground.  These are merely the first steps of what will come to be known around the world as the 'Rape of Belgium'.

August 2nd, 1914

- In many of the larger cities of Europe, enormous crowds form, in part to celebrate the coming of war (in the belief it will be both short and glorious), in part to learn the latest news, and in part simply to be present at the most important moment of their nation's lives.  In St. Petersburg, crowds gather in the Winter Palace Square, waving flags and portraits of the Tsar.  When Nicholas II appears on the palace balcony, the entire crowd kneels and sings the national anthem.  Images of these crowds are among the most famous of the war, seen as a poignant reminder of the hopes and optimism that many embraced in August 1914, in stark contrast to the horrors to come.  Not everyone, though, shares this war enthusiasm.  These crowds are urban and disproportionately middle-class.  In rural Europe, the coming of war is greeted with much more reserve - through conscription peasants were more familiar with army life than their urban middle-class counterparts, and thus they do not share the latter's romantic and idealist view of war.

A jubilant crowd in Munich on August 2nd, among whom is one
particularly infamous figure.

- In France, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), representing the trade union movement in the country, calls on its members to support the government and mobilization.  This is a dramatic about-face for the CGT - it had long embraced revolutionary syndicalism and pacifism, and its stance had long been that if war ever appeared likely a general strike was to be called to ensure the maintenance of peace.  This about-face is a product of several factors.  First, the death of Jaurès has robbed the movement of a key voice at the moment of crisis.  Second, many of the urban working-class prove susceptible to the call of nationalism - forced to choose, most feel greater loyalty to other classes in France than their working-class compatriots in Germany.  Third, the war can be seen in terms favourable to the left - in this light, Imperial Germany is an autocratic and feudal remnant, which the war will sweep away.  Finally, the very speed of the crisis has prevented coordinated action - as late as the 30th, Jaurès himself was suggesting that the crisis would blow over.  Even if the workers had wanted to go on strike to prevent the war, there was hardly time to have organized such a move.

- As part of German mobilization, the first trains, each with fifty-four cars, cross the Hohenzollern Bridge over the Rhine River.  Over the next sixteen days, 2150 such trains are scheduled to use the bridge.

- After the debacle of the 1st, Luxembourg is fully occupied today, the Germans meeting no significant resistance.

- A strange scene at Armstrong's Elswick shipbuilding yard on the Tyne in northern England.  In the yard lies the dreadnought Sultan Osman I, built by Armstrong under contract for the Ottoman Empire. It was one of two dreadnoughts ordered by the Ottomans from British shipyards - the other, Reshadieh, had been completed just weeks earlier, while Sultan Osman I was awaiting the last of its 12-inch guns.  An Ottoman steamer had arrived in England on July 27th, carrying 500 sailors for the voyage to Constantinople.  The two dreadnoughts were to form the backbone of the otherwise-antiquated Ottoman navy.  They had cost the impoverished nation almost £6 million, and had been paid for through extra taxes, donations from villagers, and deductions from the salaries of civil servants.  The two were seen as a point of pride by the Ottoman people, a symbol that their much-battered nation was still a Great Power, despite the recent loss of Libya and most of its Balkan territories.

The ships will never reach Constantinople.  The focus of Churchill and the Admiralty is on the possibility of war with Germany, the latter having the second-largest navy in the world.  In a war at sea, the crucial measurement of strength was the number of dreadnoughts one could deploy.  While the Royal Navy had more than Germany, the margin was not overwhelming, and so Churchill had decided that, in this moment of crisis, Britain needed to confiscate the Ottoman dreadnoughts to add to the British margin of superiority at sea.  Thus the yard sees the odd sight of a detachment of the Sherwood Foresters Regiments, bayonets fixed, boarding Sultan Osman I, in order to prevent the Ottoman sailors from taking possession.  Though Churchill offers compensation, the Ottoman government is both offended and indignant at the British action.

- The seizure of Sultan Osman I and Reshadieh happens the same day that secret negotiations are concluded between the Ottoman Empire and Germany.  Prior to the July crisis, the Ottomans had sought alliances with the Great Powers of Europe, both for defending the tottering empire as well as regaining lost territories in the Balkans.  None had taken the Ottomans up on their offer - the Ottoman Empire had long been described as the 'Sick Man of Europe,' whose decline appeared to be terminal.  Its military was ineffective, its economy backwards, and was reliant on foreign investment for any significant industrial growth.  Their most recent alliance offer, made by Grand Vizier Said Halim and Enver Pasha, had been sent to Germany on July 22nd, one day before the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was delivered to Serbia.  While previously the Germans had viewed the Ottomans as militarily useless, the prospect of a general European war changed perspectives.  Suddenly, the prospect emerged of using the Ottomans to distract the British and the Russians, drawing some of their forces away from the more vital battlefields in Europe.  Though war with Russia was not the original intent of Enver and the Grand Vizier, they were willing to accept the terms, believing the war would be short, and offered the potential of German aid if other Great Powers attempted to partition the Ottoman Empire.  Thus a secret defensive alliance is signed between Germany and the Ottoman Empire this day.  It does not immediately lead to the Ottomans entering the war, however, for the negotiations have been kept from most of the Ottoman cabinet by Enver, and it would not be easy to convince the others of the necessity of entering the war.  Further, the Ottoman military remained a shambles - it would take months of mobilization before they would be able to threaten their neighbours.  Still, having negotiated the alliance, the Germans are now eager to make the Ottomans co-belligerents.

- At 7pm, the German ambassador to Belgium delivers an ultimatum to the Foreign Office in Brussels.  It had been in the ambassador's safe since its arrival by special courier on July 29th, having been drafted personally by Moltke on the 26th.  The note stated that the Germans had indications the French intended to invade Belgium to attack the German army - obvious misinformation without considering that Moltke must have had a 'premonition' of the 'indications' a week earlier.  It goes on to state that, given the obvious inability of the Belgian army to defend itself, it would be necessary for the German army to move into Belgium to block the French 'advance'.  Emphasis was placed on the benign nature of this intervention, pledging to restore Belgian independence as soon as the war was over.  However, if Belgium resisted, the country would be seen as an enemy, and dealt with militarily.  Finally, a answer was demanded within twelve hours.

The ultimatum was a central component of the Schlieffen Plan, and it was hoped that Belgium would stand aside as the Germans marched through.  Indeed, Moltke could not imagine the tiny army of Belgium offering anything more than token resistance - surely they understood that active resistance meant annihilation.  So much the better if the pesky neutral adopted the proper attitude to Germany.

- There are two Cabinet meetings held in London today to discuss the ongoing crisis.  Grey is finally able to win agreement for a declaration that the Royal Navy will not allow the German fleet to pass into the Channel and bombard French ports unmolested.  Though this is a step towards war, it is still a very small one, and Grey continues to emphasize to the French ambassador that further commitments are not inevitable.  Even this decision comes at the cost of two resignations, and it is apparent that the middle group in Cabinet is still unwilling to go any further in the direction of intervention.  That afternoon a communication from the leaders of the opposition Conservative party emphasize their support for intervention and their willingness to join a coalition government.  This adds a party dimension to the crisis - this is a Liberal government, and ministers do not want to make way for Conservatives who would be even more energetic and aggressive in prosecuting the war.  Thus a desire to keep the Conservatives out is one small addition to the scale in favour of intervention.

That evening, Grey is informed by telegram of the German ultimatum to Belgium.  He immediately meets with Prime Minister Asquith, who agrees to order immediate mobilization of the British army.  An invasion of Belgium might now bring unity to a Liberal government that remains badly divided over the war.  The British government now awaits word of the Belgian response - they can hardly enter the war in defense of Belgian independence if the Belgians themselves are not willing to defend themselves.  Will tiny Belgium stand in the way of the German behemoth?

- At 9pm, the Belgian Council of State convenes, presided over by King Albert.  Discussing the matter for the next three hours, there was no serious consideration given to accepting the German ultimatum.  No faith was placed in the assurance that in victory Germany would evacuate Belgium - it was generally believed that once the Germans were allowed into the country, they would never leave.  Both the King and the ministers also had no illusions regarding the consequences of resistance - the Belgian army was hopelessly overmatched, and at best could hope to slow the German steamroller.  However, as Baron de Bassompierre recorded, 'If we are to be crushed, let us be crushed gloriously.'  The meeting adjourns at midnight to allow the Prime Minister, the Foreign Minister, and the Justice Minister to draft the reply.