October 26th, 1915

- At 1005 am Lieutenant Max Immelmann shoots down a British B.e.2c two-seat reconnaissance biplane, his fifth of the war, making him Germany's first ace of the war.

Lieutenant Max Immelmann after his fifth victory, Oct. 26th, 1915.

- After hard fighting, the German XXII Reserve Corps, with the assistance of a heavy artillery bombardment, has secured the Serbian defensive positions at Arangelovac.  With the way open to the high ground at Rudnik, Mackensen orders the corps, supported by the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps, push on towards Kraljevo, hoping to block one potential Serbian retreat route to the west.  Meanwhile, the Bulgarian 2nd Army seizes the Kačanik Gorge north of Skopje which, with the earlier occupation of Veleš along with Skopje itself, isolates Salonika from Serbia.

- Lord Kitchener remains skeptical of the Salonika expedition, and feels that, with the fall of Skopje, the opportunity to effectively aid the Serbs may have passed.  However, under continued pressure from the French, he agrees today to permit the British 10th Division, currently at Salonika, to cross the Greco-Serbian border to aid the French in the Vardar River valley.

- The German mission to Afghanistan has its first audience with Emir Habibullah today, where the latter expresses sympathy for the Germans but is unwilling to commit himself or his country to any particular course of action.  The stalling of the emir leads some in the German mission to wonder if they will be able to accomplish their objectives.

October 5th, 1915

- Overnight a reconstituted British XI Corps, with 12th and 46th Divisions (the former a New Army formation and the latter a Territorial unit; both had formerly been in the Ypres salient) replacing the shattered 21st and 24th alongside the Guards Division, has been reinserted into the frontline opposite the Hohenzollern Redoubt.  Haig believes that the ground lost here over the past week must be recaptured prior to any further advance eastward, and thus has ordered the Guards Division to recapture the Redoubt and 12th Division to seize The Quarries.  All of the artillery belonging to the British 1st Army will support this attack, which will also be accompanied by the release of chlorine gas from 480 cylinders.  Such a maximum effort, however, takes time to prepare for, especially with respect to the deployment of the drums of gas, and as such Haig has scheduled this assault to take place on October 9th, with the subsequent attack eastward scheduled for the following.  News of the delay, however, is disappointing to Joffre, who had hoped that the British attack at Loos would coincide with the renewed French assaults in Artois and Champagne, and despite a visit by Foch to Sir John French's headquarters the British refuse to be rushed.  Though terrible weather has postponed the attack in Artois, the preliminary bombardment in Champagne has already begun, and Joffre feels he has no choice but to abandon the concept of simultaneous assaults, ordering the French 2nd and 4th Armies to attack tomorrow as scheduled.

- With the growing French artillery bombardment, it has become clear to the German defenders in Champagne that the enemy is preparing to make another big push to break through their line.  General Einem of 3rd Army reports to Falkenhayn today that sufficient reserves are now available to halt any French assault in the coming days, though if the French attack for more than several days further reinforcements may be necessary.  Further, given that the reserve line German troops now inhabit was not as well-developed as the old first trench line, French artillery fire is having a particularly severe effect on soldiers who lack dugouts to shelter in.  Moreover, while the placement of much of the reserve line on the reverse side of various hills prevent the French from observing the fall of their shells, it also prevents the Germans from observing French preparations to attack.

- Joffre and Kitchener meet at Calais to discuss the expedition to Salonika and operations in the Balkans.  In addition to the infantry division and cavalry regiment already en route, Joffre has agreed to send an infantry brigade shortly and an infantry and two cavalry divisions once the fall offensive in Champagne is concluded.  The current French commitment to the operations thus stands at 64 000 men.  During today's meeting Kitchener promises to augment the British division on the way to Salonika with an infantry and cavalry division, while agreeing to send a further three infantry divisions when the Champagne battle is over.  Notably, these forces will come up about 20 000 short of the 150 000 requested by Venizelos, but when Joffre asks Kitchener to make up the difference, the latter states that this could only be accomplished by withdrawing further divisions from the British Expeditionary Force in France (from which the three infantry divisions mentioned above are to be taken).  Moreover, Kitchener remains unconvinced of the soundness of intervention in the Balkans.  The idea of sending forces into Serbia with winter imminent does not strike him as sound, and believes that even if the Entente force is augmented to 150 000 men it will not be sufficient to alter the balance of forces in the Balkans without Greek intervention.  Kitchener informs Joffre that the British contingent will not advance beyond Salonika unless the Greeks enter the war.  As a result, the two agree that the British will be responsible for defending Salonika itself while the French would undertake an advance northward to aid the Serbs.

- Though yesterday both the British and French governments had signaled their concurrence with the Russian ultimatum of the 1st, the Bulgarian government formally rejects the ultimatum today, unwilling to be dissuaded from entering the war.  The Entente interprets the rejection as the last straw, and instructions go out to the Entente ambassadors in Sofia to leave the country.

Meanwhile the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive against Serbia is about to begin - artillery today fires registration shots, aircraft tracking the fall of shells, so that when the main bombardment opens the Germans can be reasonably sure their shells are falling on the targets they intend to target.  On the other side the Serbian army has been preparing for the imminent attack, and General Radomir Putnik has deployed the Serbian 1st and 3rd Armies to defend the line of the Save and Danube Rivers.  After repulsing three separate Austro-Hungarian attempts to conquer Serbia in 1914, both Putnik and the Serbian soldier have earned well-deserved reputations for toughness and tenacity.  However, the Serbian army of late 1915 is not the same as that of late 1914.  First, a series of epidemics had decimated Serbia earlier this year, striking down thousands and crippling many more.  The army was not immune, and disease has thinned its ranks.  Second, the mobilization of 1914 had drafted almost every able-bodied male into the army, and while this contributed to victory in 1914 it means that there are practically no replacements for the 120 000 casualties the Serbians have suffered in the war to date.  Quite literally, this is the last Serbian army - should it be defeated, it would be impossible to raise another.  Third, the supply situation has worsened.  Prewar ammunition stocks, already low from the two Balkan wars, had been largely depleted by the fighting in 1914, and while the minimal Serbian armaments industry has proved wholely inadequate to the demands of modern war, supplies from France, while vital, can hardly make up the shortfall.  The Serbians thus face a severe shortage of weaponry and munitions at the moment they are needed most.  Fourth, the obvious agreement of Bulgaria to enter the war means that the Serbs cannot deploy their entire army to face the Germans and Austro-Hungarians attacking from the north; instead, 2nd Army and smaller forces have to be deployed along the eastern frontier to prevent a Bulgarian offensive from cutting behind the Serbian forces to the north.  Finally, Putnik himself is ill, suffering from influenza, and his role in directing the Serbian army is necessarily reduced.  Thus the German and Austro-Hungarian offensive will face a Serbian army in significantly more dire straits than it had been in 1914, which should be kept in mind when comparing the results of the 1915 campaign with that of 1914.

- Despite the vote in parliament yesterday, significant domestic opposition in Greece remains to the policy of the government: the idea of foreign troops arriving unimpeded at Salonika is seen as a gross affront of Greek sovereignty by the opposition press, which over the past few days has been giving vent to its frustrations.  Further, the leadership of the Greek army is opposed to intervention in the war.  Most importantly, Venizelos has been entirely unable to assuage the concerns of King Constantine regarding Greek entry into the war.  Unwilling to accede any longer to Venizelo's pro-Entente policy, he dismisses Venizelos as Prime Minister, and appoints as his replacement Alexandros Zaimis, an adherent of Constantine's policy of strict neutrality.  In choosing this course of action, Constantine has set the course of Greek politics on a fateful path to what will become known as the 'Great Schism' - Venizelos has no intention of going quietly into retirement.

Regardless of the dismissal of the Greek government, the Entente landing at Salonika begins today as the first elements of two brigades and an artillery battalion from the French 156th Division start to disembark.

French infantry at Salonika, October 1915.

- After yesterday's order dispatching the Ottoman XVIII Corps to Baghdad, Enver Pasha orders the formation of a new 6th Army to take command of all Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia.  His hope is that a unified command for the region with new leadership will stabilize the front and keep the British away from Baghdad.  To command 6th Army Enver assigned German Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz, currently in command of 1st Army in Thrace.  Goltz's responsibilities, however, go beyond Mesopotamia: 6th Army includes Persia within its zone of operations.  His appointment meets the request of the Persian government for a senior German officer to be made responsible for Persia, and in addition to meeting the British advance in Mesopotamia Goltz is to win Persia to the side of the Germans, ideally to open the way to a land attack on India.

It will, however, take a number of weeks for the elderly Goltz to reach Baghdad, given the poor transportation system, and in the meantime command of 6th Army will reside in Colonel Nur-ud-din, who has led Ottoman forces in the region since mid-June.  Despite the record of defeat, Nur-ud-din is an experienced officer with lengthy service in the Ottoman army, and his defensive efforts have largely been let down by poor morale.  With reinforcements en route, however, Nur-ud-din hopes to be able to hold the British at Ctesiphon.

September 25th, 1915

- At 3am General Haig and his chief of staff meet once more with Captain Gold, and the latter informs the commander of 1st Army that the wind would be most favourable at dawn.  Haig then issues orders for the chlorine gas cylinders to be opened right at dawn at 550am, with the infantry assault beginning at 630am.

The divisions of the British I and IV Corps prior to the attack at Loos, Sept. 25th, 1915.

The first British use of gas, however, is not without difficulties.  At 440am, a German shell strikes one of the cylinders in the sector of 3rd London Regiment of the Indian Corps, and some of the infantry are impacted by the gas before enough dirt can be shoveled onto the burst cylinder.  Elsewhere shifts in the wind affect the direction of the gas clouds.  In some sectors the gas settles into No Man's Land, and in a few places actually blows back on the British infantry; on the northern flank of I Corps, a gas cloud blows back on two platoons and the battalion machine gun section of 1/9th Highlanders of 2nd Division before they had their gas masks in place, and within a minute only sixteen of eighty men remain capable of action.  Though two reserve platoons are called up to take their place, given that the Germans opposite are now fully awake the British attack here is abandoned.  The employment of gas is of greater help on the front of IV Corps, the southern wing of 1st Army.  In some places the gas clouds at least mix with smoke to obscure the advance of British infantry (equipped with effective gas masks) until they are almost on top of the first German trench line.  In front of 15th Division (opposite the village of Loos) and 47th Division to the south, the gas works as intended, the clouds slowly rolling over the German trenches, with the attacking infantry following immediately behind.

North of La Bassée Canal, the diversionary attacks of 8th Division at III Corps and the Meerut Division of the Indian Corps capture several stretches of the first German trench line.  However, those elements that push forward successfully find themselves under attack on their flanks from those portions of the first German trench lines that remain in enemy hands, and by nightfall the Germans have recaptured their lost positions.  British casualties here are heavy - the Meerut Division alone loses four thousand men - but the attacks at least serve to pin the German forces opposite and prevent them from moving south against the main British attack.

South of La Bassée Canal, 2nd Division, attacking over broken terrain of brick heaps and shell craters, gets nowhere while suffering heavy casualties.  On its right 9th (Scottish) Division has more success: while its 28th Brigade to the north never reaches the first German trench line, 26th Brigade on the right, covered effectively by smoke and gas, breaks into and clears a German strongpoint known as the Hohenzollern Redoubt, passes through the second trench line, and reaches its objectives for the first day, all in the first hour.  26th Brigade, however, has suffered terrible losses for its success; of eight hundred men who attacked at 630am, only one hundred remain in action an hour later.  On 9th (Scottish) Division's right, 7th Division also achieves notable success: by 730am both of its brigades have pushed through both the first and support German trench lines, and by 930 have captured an old chalk mining area known as the Quarries in addition to capturing a German battery of eight artillery guns.  As of 11am they have reached the second German line opposite the villages of St. Elie and Hulluch, but as with the Scots to the north, the two attacking brigades of 7th Division have paid a high price to secure their gains.

Most of General Rawlinson's IV Corps also achieves significant gains in the first hours of the offensive.  On the corps' northern wing, though 1st Brigade of 1st Division is initially held up at the German wire, 2nd Brigade passes through the German lines and by late morning is also approaching the village of Hulluch.  In the corps' centre, 15th (Scottish) Division advances the furthest this morning: by 705am most of the first German line has been captured, and shortly thereafter British infantry pass through the ruined village of Loos itself, where the British artillery has been particularly thorough in wrecking the German communication trenches.  By 800am men of 44th Brigade reach Hill 70, the 'tallest' feature on the Loos battlefield and soon sweep over the crest, capturing the partially-completed redoubt the Germans were still in the process of constructing on the summit.  On the corps' southern wing, 47th Division pushes forward and has captured all of its objectives for the day by 9am.

Infantry of the British 47th Division advance into the clouds of chlorine gas released just prior to their attack, Sept. 25th, 1915.  The
photograph is taken from the forward British trenches looking towards the German lines.

Despite the failure of the use of chlorine gas to have a decisive effect, by late morning the bulk of the British 1st Army has pushed through the first German trench line and has reached the second trench line, in some cases advancing over three thousand yards.  On the German side, 117th Division of IV Corps, responsible for the stretch of the front from south of Haines to south of Hill 70, has suffered the worst, with fifteen companies destroyed and twenty-two guns lost.  It no longer has the strength to garrison the entire length of the second trench line it has been pushed into, and has lost touch with 7th Division on its southern flank.  When reports of the crisis reach the headquarters of the German 6th Army, Rupprecht immediately orders his entire army reserve - 8th Division, 26th Brigade, and three battalions drawn from II Bavarian Corps - to reinforce the battered IV Corps.  It will be late afternoon at the earliest before these forces can reach the battlefield, however; further British attacks in the hours ahead will have to be held by the battered remnants of 117th Division.

On either side of Arras, the assault infantry of the French 10th Army are in their forward trenches by 430am, and the artillery bombardment reaches its crescendo at 9am.  However, Foch's plan does not have them attack until 1225pm, the delay hopefully giving time for the British attack to the north to draw German attention and reserves.  Shortly before noon, however, rain begins to fall, and the resulting mud makes movement difficult.  It is too late to abandon the attack, however, given that the coordination of the overall Entente offensive depends on each main assault occurring on schedule.  Thus the French infantry go over the top at the scheduled hour.  Unlike the British, the French do not mass-release chlorine gas; instead, French artillery fires gas and smoke shells on rear areas and specified targets.

Overall, the assault of the French 10th Army has mixed results.  The attack of the French 43rd Division, located on the northern wing of 10th Army adjacent to the British, is repulsed by the German 7th Division opposite.  To the south, however, the weather works to the advantage of the French 13th and 70th Divisions northwest of Souchez - the trenches of the German 123rd Saxon Division of VI Corps have become waterlogged, and when the French infantry emerge from the smoke they overrun the German defenders and are able to push forward two kilometres to the base of Giesler Hill.  Further south, at Neuville St. Vaast, French infantry push through the German lines at several points, with some reaching the forward slope of Vimy Ridge itself.  On the other hand, the southern wing of 10th Army is unable to make any progress opposite and south of Arras against the German 1st Bavarian Corps.

For the Germans opposite the French 10th Army, the multiple enemy advances between Souchez and Neuville St. Vaast pose the greatest danger, where VI Corps struggles to hold the line.  However, the ability of either General Kurt von Pritzelwitz of VI Corps or Crown Prince Rupprecht of 6th Army to direct the defence of the threatened sectors has been impaired by the destruction of telephone lines by artillery fire and aerial bombardment, leaving the German commanders in the dark about the specific circumstances at the front.  Moreover, Rupprecht has already had to dispatch all of his army's reserves to contain the British assault at Loos, and thus has nothing left to send VI Corps; the forces already in the line will have to fight and contain the French on their own.

The ground seized by the French 10th Army north of Arras, Sept. 25th, 1915.

In the Champagne, at 9am the French artillery shift their fire to concentrate on the first German trench line, and add gas and smoke shells into the mix to reduce the visibility of the enemy defenders.  Fifteen minutes later, infantry from eighteen divisions go over the top, and the heaviest attack is undertaken on the inner wings of the French 4th and 2nd Armies, with II Colonial Corps of the former on the left and XIV Corps of the latter on the right.  Here the French artillery bombardment has been particularly effective - many of the German defensive positions have been completely destroyed, while many of the German survivors are too stunned to offer serious resistance.  So thick is the smoke and gas clouds laid down by the artillery that in some cases the French infantry reach the German trenches before the German soldiers can even emerge from their dugouts, and the latter are captured or killed before they are ready to even fight back.  The French bombardment has also cut most of the German telephone lines, cutting off communications and preventing frontline commanders from calling for reserves or counterartillery fire.  The result is that XIV and II Colonial Corps simply roll over the first trench line of the German VIII Reserve Corps.  By noon, both French corps have advanced three to four kilometres and are assaulting the final German reserve line just south of Somme Py.  The advancing French also turn east and west, and begin to roll up the flanks of the German forces on either side of the breakthrough.  In response, the German divisions on either side of VIII Reserve Corps, though more successful in repelling the French attacks, have to pull back several kilometres to avoid having their inner flanks turned.  Several German artillery batteries are overrun and captured by the French, and each of VIII Reserve Corps' three divisions suffer five thousand casualties.

The gains of the French offensive in Champagne, Sept. 1915.

One of the defining characteristics of the Western Front in the First World War is the length of time it takes information and orders to pass up and down the chain of command.  In an era before portable wireless radio, reports are either relayed by telephone or send by messenger; the former are extremely vulnerable to artillery fire, while the latter, making their way from newly-won or heavily attacked positions, must navigate both enemy fire and the broken terrain of the battlefield.  Delays in communication will be central to the outcome of the fall offensive of the Entente, but one of its first manifestations is seen on the German side.  Continuing his inspection tour of the army headquarters on the Western Front, this morning Falkenhayn arrives at Montmédy, and even though British and French forces have been attacking (and advancing) for several hours, now significantly out-of-date reports from 3rd and 6th Army headquarters are sanguine, indicating nothing more than the continuation of artillery bombardments that have been ongoing now for several days.  Believing that nothing in particular is amiss, Falkenhayn issues no new instructions and departs shortly thereafter for Stenay, headquarters of 5th Army.  While enroute, 3rd Army headquarters finally learns of the plight of VIII Corps, and sends an urgent plea for reinforcements to its neighbour 5th Army, saying that the 'enemy has broken through in the area of Souain-Somme Py.  Having also been attacked this morning, 5th Army is in no position to send aid, and its commander, Crown Prince Wilhelm, refuses.  With Falkenhayn having recently arrived at 5th Army headquarters, the request by 3rd Army is submitted directly to the German chief of staff.  Almost simultaneously, at 1230pm 6th Army headquarters in Artois sends an equally urgent message to Falkenhayn: 'Aided by gas the enemy has broken into the positions of IV Corps at Haisnes and Loos . . . The entire Army Reserve and the 8th Division had to be put at the disposal of IV Corps.  Further reinforcements for the army are urgently required.'  A telephone conversation with 3rd Army commander General Einem and his chief of staff, Lieutenant-General Ritter von Höhn, further brings home to Falkenhayn the perilous state of affairs, and the German chief of staff feels compelled to remind the badly-shaken Einem and Höhn that the Kaiser expects 'every man to do his duty.'

In an instant, Falkenhayn's understanding of the situation was transformed.  Not only were the British and French undertaking significant operations, but they appeared to be on the verge of achieving breakthroughs in both Artois and Champagne - Falkenhayn's strategy of standing on the defensive in the west to permit offensives in the east and the Balkans now appears to hover on the brink of disaster.  It was essential now to rapidly move all available reserves to 3rd and 6th Armies to allow them to hold their present lines.  Falkenhayn immediately orders 192nd Brigade transferred from 7th Army's reserve to 6th Army and 56th Division from Lorraine to 3rd Army.  Shortly after 1pm he departs Stenay for Mézières, OHL's headquarters on the Western Front, to better coordinate the response to the Entente offensive.  Here he instructs the Guard and X Corps, currently in Belgium resting and recovering after lengthy service on the Eastern Front, to move to reinforce 6th Army and 3rd Army respectively.  It would take hours for these reinforcements to arrive, however, and in the meantime 6th and 3rd Armies will have to hang on with what they have in hand.  Falkenhayn's entire strategy for 1915 hangs in the balance.

Meanwhile in Flanders the focus of British commanders this afternoon is pushing up reinforcements to continue the advance.  In each division, two brigades had led the attack this morning, while the third brigade was held in reserve, and the struggle now is to get these brigades forward to exploit the gains already won.  Now the British experience the difficulties in communicating on the modern battlefield.  At 910am, the commander of 1st Division, whose 1st Brigade has advanced almost to the village of Hulluch, issues orders for a two-battalion detachment under Lieutenant-Colonel E. W. B. Green (imaginatively named Green Force).  Several messengers are dispatched from 1st Division headquarters with the instructions, but several are struck by German artillery fire or get lost in a landscape where almost every identifying feature has literally been blown away.  As a result, the order to advance does not reach Lt-Col Green until 1055am, even though the latter's headquarters was only 2500 yards from the former.  It then takes another hour for the order to pass down through battalion and company commanders, so it is not until after midday that Green Force actually begins to move forward.  Similarly, to the north 27th Brigade, the reserve of 9th Division, is ordered forward towards Haisnes.  Prior to the battle, two communication trenches had been assigned to 27th Brigade to facilitate their movement to the front, but as the infantry attempt to pass through them they find the trenches blocked with wounded coming back to medical stations.  When they attempt to move around the blockages they find themselves under German artillery fire, so the brigade has suffered significant casualties before even reaching the front.  By the time they approach Haisnes, the German line has been reinforced, and the exhausted infantry instead concentrate on improving the defences of the ground seized.  The experience of 21st Brigade, the reserve of 7th Division, is similar - ordered forward to push through the German line north of Hulluch, as they approach the front line just west of St Elie German shrapnel shells cut great swathes through their ranks, and to the survivors who reach the front line it is clear no further advance is possible without more extensive artillery support.

With the delays and difficulties encountered by the divisional reserves, it will take the commitment of further reserve forces to maintain the momentum of the British attack.  However, neither I or IV Corps has any reserve, nor does 1st Army.  Instead, XI Corps, consisting of 21st and 24th Divisions, the Guards Division, and the Cavalry Corps were under the direct command of Field Marshal French.  The commander of the British Expeditionary Force has never been enthusiastic about the offensive at Loos, and it is possible that he retained direct control over these forces to prevent their commitment to a losing cause - the BEF still numbers only thirty-seven divisions, six of which are Territorial divisions with little experience and six of which are 'New Army' divisions with none at all, and given that Britain does not yet have conscription, the destruction of the six divisions of the BEF reserve would have been a serious setback.  The practical implication, however, is that after the success of the morning attack, another layer of command is added to the communication delays intrinsic to the First World War battlefield, and will become a major point of contention among the senior leadership of the BEF after the battle.

When the infantry attacked at dawn this morning, the lead columns of 21st and 24th Divisions were about four and a half miles behind the British front line, but the infantry are exhausted after marching all night from their prior concentration areas to the west.  At 7am, Haig sends a staff officer by car to French's headquarters, informing the latter that the attack is progressing satisfactorily and requesting the release of XI Corps.  Though it ought to have taken only forty-five minutes to cover the ground between the two locations by car, at 845am no response has been received and Haig dispatches another officer.  This message reaches French, who in turn at 930am orders the commander of XI Corps to begin moving his two divisions to the front.  It is another hour before the order reaches the divisional headquarters, and another forty-five minutes before the lead elements actually begin to move - by this time, the British advance means that they are now seven miles behind the current front line.  The exhausted infantry do their best to push forward, but the few roads are already clogged with military traffic and their progress is painstakingly slow.  Impatient, at 235pm Haig orders the commander of XI Corps to detach one brigade from each division and prioritize getting those forces to the front as quickly as possible, hoping they can launch an attack today towards the Haute Deule Canal, several kilometres past Hulluch.  It is not until 6pm that the first infantry of 62nd Brigade of 21st Division actually arrive at the front, and Haig realizes that it will be impossible to to attack this evening.  Instead, just after 8pm he orders XI Corps to take up position between Hulluch and Hill 70, in anticipation of an advance by the full corps early tomorrow morning.

On the German side, the hours of the afternoon pass without the expected resumption of the British advance.  Though fierce fighting continues, there is no concerted push against the reserve German trenches.  As the first reinforcements arrive later in the day, IV Corps uses them to reestablish a continuous front.  To the north, elements of 2nd Guard Division, transferred from VII Corps, reestablish contact with the northern flank of 117th Division between Auchy and Haisnes, while to the south, elements of 7th and 123rd Saxon Divisions, sent from VI Corps, advance to Hill 70 and make contact with the southern wing of 117th Division.  Though the Germans have suffered heavily, by evening they have recreated a cohesive front line, without gaps that could be exploited by the British.  Limited counterattacks have also been undertaken, and though little ground is retaken they have the virtue of at least keeping the British forces off guard, and help convince the lead British brigades that, after the morning battles, they need to wait for reserves before the advance can be resumed.  On the southern wing of the British gains, however, the infantry of 44th Brigade that captured the summit of Hill 70 and pushed down the eastern slope come under increasingly heavy German fire from the ruins of workers' cottages to the east.  Moreover, their very success means they are now confronted with German defenses that had not been given the same attention from British artillery as the first German trench line.  Taking losses, the men of 44th Brigade pull back from the eastern slope of Hill 70, and, given that the summit is now being swept by enemy machine gun fire, they retreat to the western slope and entrench.

As the situation stabilizes through the afternoon, the commander of the German IV Corps decides that the primary reserves dispatched from 6th Army headquarters - 8th Division and 26th Brigade - should be used to counterattack the salient around Loos carved out by the British.  Initially hoping to attack this evening, delays are experienced in getting the reserves to the front: 26th Brigade is attempting to deploy into trenches still contested by British infantry, while the soldiers of 8th Division have to move through the maze of ruined houses in the town of Lens.  Postponed several times, the counterattack is finally scheduled to go in at midnight.

The first day of the Battle of Loos has seen several British divisions advance several thousand yards, sweeping over the first German trench positions, seizing the village of Loos itself, and pushing up to the German reserve lines.  Having achieved this notable success, the pace of the advance faltered, as the forces of the initial attack have suffered losses and reserves have been delayed in getting to the front.  Nevertheless, Haig believes that the planned attack of 21st and 24th Divisions at dawn tomorrow will complete the breaking of the German lines.

The gains of the British 1st Army at Loos, Sept. 25th, 1915.

After its progress in the morning, the situation of the French 10th Army deteriorates in the afternoon.  Three regiments of the German 123rd Division, supported by the southern flank of the German 7th Division, attack after dark the French infantry that had pushed to Giesler Hill, and the exhausted French yield some of the ground won earlier today.  Opposite Neuville St. Vaast, further French assaults are unable to break through the reserve German trench lines, and though the Germans are unable to recover the forward trench lost this morning, they are able to reestablish a solid defensive line.

In Champagne, the German VIII Reserve Corps fights desperately throughout the afternoon to hold on to its reserve trench line.  To stem the French tide, the corps commander orders his recruiting depot (consisting of new recruits from the home front and returning wounded veterans) into the line at Somme Py.  In addition, most of 5th Division, located in 3rd Army's rear area and whose orders to transfer to the Balkans had been cancelled just yesterday, is fed into the battle over the afternoon and evening.  On the French side, the experience in the aftermath of initial success is similar to that of the British in Flanders: the lead infantry are exhausted and have taken significant losses.  Further, in the chaos of battle battalions have been hopelessly mixed up and lines of command confused, while the very extent of the French advance has caused its own problems, as isolated groups of German infantry, bypassed by the initial attack, now emerge to fight in ground the French believe they have already captured.  The result is that bitter fighting through the afternoon is not nearly as successful at that of the morning, and the Germans are just barely able to hang on.  Nevertheless, General Friedrich Fleck, commanding VIII Reserve Corps, and General Einem of 3rd Army believe the crisis is far from having past, and as the breakdown of communications prevents accurate news from reaching headquartesr to the rear, in the vacuum of news pessimism reigns.  Indeed Fleck, believing his command is on the verge of disintegration, requests permission this evening to withdraw from the reserve defensive position northwards past Somme Py and out of the trenches.  This retreat, if implemented, would give the French precisely the breakthrough in Champagne they are so desperate to achieve.

On the French side, as reports filter back to the headquarters of the French 2nd and 4th Armies of the successful advance of II Colonial and XIV Corps, General Castlenau of the Army Group of the Centre at 415pm orders the two divisions of VI Corps to enter the line and follow up the attack of and expand the ground seized by II Colonial Corps.  Again, however, it takes time for orders to make their way down the chain of command, and for the infantry to make their way across the shattered landscape, and it is midnight before VI Corps is in the front line.  Optimism remains high, however, that further attacks tomorrow will shatter the weakened Germans and push on to the north.

- South of Vilna, the withdrawal of Russian forces to counter the German offensive at and north of the city has allowed the German 12th Army to reach the Berezina River east of Lida while the army group under Prince Leopold has arrived at the Szczara River.  To the east of Vilna itself, the German 10th Army has ground its way towards Smorgon, but against increasing resistance has been unable to advance further.

To Falkenhayn, Ludendorff's September offensive at Vilna and Sventsiany has achieved exactly what the German chief of staff expected - namely, a minor advance of no great strategic consequence.  Considering both the impending invasion of Serbia and the Entente offensive on the Western Front, Falkenhayn believes it is both necessary and desirable to end operations on the Eastern Front.  Though the great German victories achieved since the attack at Gorlice-Tarnow in May have not convinced the Tsar to agree to a negotiated peace, they have sharply reduced the strength of the Russian army and it will likely be many months until the Russians are again capable of major offensive actions.  As such, Falkenhayn today issues orders for German forces on the Eastern Front to hold their present positions and construct a strong defensive line that can be held with a reduced commitment of forces.  At the northern end of the line, the armies under OberOst are to entrench on a line running from west of Riga through Mitau and west of Dvinsk to Lake Narotch and the mouth of the Bierieza River.  From here, the army group under Prince Leopold and the Army of the Bug will hold on a line running from the Bierieza River through Baranowicze to Pinsk.

- Russian cavalry and aircraft have reported the movement of the German XXIV Reserve Corps and other formations southeastward toward the northern flank of the Russian 8th Army.  Though General Brusilov wishes to stand on the Styr while redeploying the Russian XXX Corps towards Kolki to block the German advance.  His superior, the more cautious General Ivanov, disagrees and, seeking to avoid a potential envelopment, orders Brusilov's 8th Army to retreat eastward towards the Putilowka and Kormin Rivers.

- As plans are finalized for the Serbian campaign, preliminary operations are deemed necessary to seize several large islands in the Danube River east of Belgrade - in German or Austro-Hungarian hands, the islands shorten the distance needed by the main crossings, and can serve as platforms to position light artillery closer to the front.  The most substantial island is Temesziget, over twelve miles long and up to three miles wide, and its capture has been assigned to 11th Bavarian Division of IV Reserve Corps.  Overnight elements of the division crossed to the north shore of the island, and the small Serbian detachments are quickly overwhelmed.

- After several days of debate, the French Council of Ministers decides to go to the aid of the Serbs, and authorizes the dispatch of an expedition to the Balkans.  A telegraph is sent to the Greek government informing it that the Entente will provide the 150 000 troops required by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos to activate the convention with Serbia and bring Greece into the war.  The British government also agrees to commit forces to the Balkans, though with considerably more disagreement: while David Lloyd George is in favour of contributing to the expedition, Lord Kitchener argues that redeploying forces from Gallipoli to the Balkans is 'jumping out of the frying pan into the fire.'  In order to maintain the aura of neutrality, Prime Minister Venizelos requests twenty-four hours notice of the landing of the first Entente forces in Greece, so his government can lodge a diplomatic (though meaningless) protest.  The Entente plan is to land at the port city of Salonika in northern Greece, using it as a base of operations for forces moving north to Serbia's aid.

September 1st, 1915

- Kitchener issues orders today for the Indian Corps in France to remain part of the British Expeditionary Force through the next winter.  Though concerns have been expressed in some quarters regarding the ability of the Indian soldier to cope with the cold and miserable conditions of a Flemish winter, Kitchener understands that the Indian Corps have shown themselves capable of operating under such conditions just as well as the British divisions they fight alongside. There were also worries about the losses suffered by the Indian Corps since its arrival in France in October 1914 could be adequately replaced, but since the summer a steady stream of recruits had replenished the Meerut and Lahore Divisions.  Of the three thousand replacements who arrived in July, General James Willcocks, the commander of the Indian Corps, wrote that they were 'very good . . . some of them quite exceptionally so, and I feel years younger now as I see these fine fellows joining the ranks.'

- Upon the instructions of Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, the German ambassador to the United States delivers a note containing what becomes known as the Arabic Pledge to Secretary of State Robert Lansing.  Based on the decision of the conference at Pless on August 26th in response to the sinking of Arabic, the Germans pledge that no passenger ship of any nationality will be attacked without warning, and that adequate provisions will be made for the survival of passengers and crew.

- Joffre remains under pressure from government ministers to dispatch several divisions from the Western Front to the Near East, and seizes on a staff study suggesting that the operations proposed by General Sarrail would require eight divisions.  He writes today that such a substantial reduction in French strength on the Western Front would have 'disastrous consequences.'  Moreover, he questions the entire premise of undertaking operations to relieve the British position on Gallipoli:

It is the British who have led us to the Dardanelles.  In reality halting the offensive will be a British defeat.  Tomorrow, if we send reinforcements and assume command, we will find ourselves, in case of failure, facing a French disaster.

- For several days the Austro-Hungarian 2nd and 7th Armies, as well as Südarmee, have launched assault after assault on the Russian lines along the Strypa River.  Though in places they have managed to win some ground, it has come at great cost - the Austro-Hungarian Corps, for instance, has lost over five thousand men in just two days of fighting.  Today the Russian 11th and 9th Armies pull back from their lines along the Strypa River, though this is not due to any defeat they have suffered but rather due to the threat of envelopment from the north due to the advance of the north wing of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army through Lutsk.  Brussilov's 8th Army, meanwhile, takes up its new defensive line today along the Putilowka, covering Rovno, and south to the hills west of Dubno.

August 20th, 1915

- For several months Kitchener has resisted complying with the request of Joffre for a major British attack to accompany the fall French offensive, preferring the British contribution to be limited to a heavy artillery bombardment that would not waste large numbers of infantry in futile assaults.  A discussion of operations on the Western Front at the Dardanelles Committee today, however, shows that events have conspired to wear down the opposition of the Secretary of State for War.  On the Eastern Front, the recent fall of Warsaw seems to indicate that the Russians face a fresh series of disasters, and a strong effort by Britain and France is needed to prop up Russian morale.  Such a success is not to be found on Gallipoli, however, given the failure of the big push over the past two weeks.  The French themselves, Kitchener suggests to the committee, need to go on the attack to preserve morale, and that the hesitancy of the British to attack is leading the French 'to have grave doubts about us.'  The nightmare scenario of Russia and/or France seeking a separate peace is even raised.  In such circumstances, Kitchener, with the utmost reluctance, now states that the British Expeditionary Force needs to undertake a major attack along the French this fall, even though, as he replies to a colleague, 'the odds were against a great success.'  The circumstances of the war have forced the British hand; as he informs the committee, 'we must make war as we must, not as we should like.'  With such sentiments are thousands of British infantry condemned to die; indeed, it is an appropriate summary of how all sides view the ongoing struggle.

- On the Eastern Front only the German 12th Army is able to make significant progress today, seizing Nurec and Bielsk; the army groups of Prince Leopold and Mackensen are largely held up by strong Russian resistance.  Even where the Russians are pulling back, however, the pace of the German advance is slowing, as casualty lists grow and logistical difficulties multiply; since the beginning of the month, General Gallwitz's 12th Army has suffered 60 000 losses while supplies now have to be hauled 125 kilometres by cart from the nearest railheads.

- Though it had declared war on Austria-Hungary in May, it is only today that the Italian government formally declares war on the Ottoman Empire, and technically remains at peace with Germany.

- Having successfully evaded Russian patrols in eastern Persia, the German mission to Afghanistan reaches the border at Herat today.  The Germans enter the city in formal dress; the governor of the town is polite but unimpressed, and decides to hold the mission in the town while awaiting instructions from the emir of Afghanistan in Kabul.

May 25th, 1915

- The formation of the new coalition government in Britain is completed, and the new cabinet formally takes office today.  Prime Minister Asquith retains office as Prime Minister, as there was never any serious discussion of replacing him at present, as no Liberal at this moment has the stature to supplant him.  Furtjer, Conservative leader Andrew Bonar Law understands that the alternative to a Liberal-led coalition is not a Conservative-led coalition but a Conservative minority government which would be opposed by a partisan Liberal party that would block Conservative efforts to fight the war as they saw fight (i.e. such as on conscription).  Even though the Liberals and Conservatives have roughly the same number of MPs in the House of Commons, the Liberals also retain a majority of places in the cabinet and many of the key offices; Lloyd George in particular has worked in negotiations to limit Conservative ministers, and has succeeded in convincing Bonar Law to accept the relatively junior office of Colonial Secretary.  Nevertheless, there is no doubt that this is no longer a purely Liberal government, as Liberal ministers now find themselves sitting at the same time as such objects of long-time partisan hatred as Edward Carson.  In addition, the Labour party has joined the coalition, and for the first time in its history a Labour MP - its leader, Arthur Henderson - has a seat at the cabinet table (as President of the Board of Education).  Of the major parties only the Irish Nationalists are absent; though offered a place, and though the party leadership was tempted, they declined as it would mean serving alongside the hated Ulster Unionists.

Two particular changes warrant mention.  First, the press campaign against Lord Kitchener launched by The Times on May 14th has backfired spectacularly, as the public, oblivious to the administrative bumbling of the War Office, still see the Secretary of War as the great imperial hero.  As a result, removing Kitchener from office is not politically viable.  Instead, though he is left in office, Kitchener's powers are reduced by transferring responsibility for munitions production to a separate Ministery of Munitions.  Lloyd George becomes Minister of Munitions, and though giving up the Chancellorship of the Exchequer to do so would normally be seen as a demotion, he well understands that in wartime public focus is on the performance of the war ministries, and that if he can fix the 'shells crisis' he will become the man of the hour.

Second, today confirms Churchill's demotion from the Admiralty.  His replacement is Arthur Balfour, a senior Conservative (and ex-Prime Minister) whose steady and urbane personality is the absolute opposite of Churchill's, which is precisely the point.  No one would ever fear Balfour racing off to take up the defence of a threatened city, as Churchill did at Antwerp.  This morning Churchill cleans out his desk at the Admiralty building.  He is in the grib of severe depression, feeling that his political career is at an end.  At this moment he is visited by Kitchener, who commiserates with Churchill, and as it gets up to leave he remarks to his former colleague: 'Well, there is one thing at any rate they cannot take from you.  The Fleet was ready.'  Kitchener, in his typical imperious manner, is exactly right: whatever other failings Churchill may have demonstrated while First Lord of Admiralty from 1911 to today, it is indisputable that the Royal Navy was prepared for war when it came last August.  Moreover, of course, Churchill's hour is yet to come.

- As the French 10th Army inches forward in Artois, General d'Urbal has decided to launch an attack by XXI, XXXIII, and IX Corps simultaneously against several points.  After twenty-four hours' artillery bombardment, the infantry advance at midday, but fail to gain any significant ground.

- North of Przemysl the German advance continues today.  A Russian bridgehead west of the San held by XXI Corps at Zagrody is eliminated this afternoon, while to the north the German Guard Corps occupies Laszki.  The speed of the German advance is slower today; though Russian resistance continues, the crucial factor is that the farther east 11th Army goes, the more exposed its northern flank potentially becomes.  As a result, Guard Corps in particular finds itself shedding battalions as it advances to cover the line of the Lubaczowka River.

- Twelve days after the British pre-dreadnought Goliath was torpedoed by the Ottoman destroyer Muavenet, an even greater menance makes itself felt off the Dardanelles.  After weeks at sea and refuelling at Cattaro, the German submarine U21 enters action, torpedoing the British pre-dreadnought Triumph as it lay off Anzac Beach.  As it began to sink, a destroyer comes alongside and hundreds of sailors step from the stern of Triumph onto the deck of the smaller ship.  After twenty minutes the pre-dreadnought sinks, and fifty-three men drown.  The loss of the warship is bad enough, but the psychological impact is worse, as the sinking occurs in broad daylight in full view of both sides.  The Ottoman soldiers in their trenches cheer madly, their cries echoing down the hills into the Entente trenches, where British, French, and ANZAC infantry can only look on in shock.  Admiral de Robeck responds by immediately orders all of his large warships back to Mudros, which could hardly have had a positive impact on morale for the army still trapped in the Gallipoli beachheads.

- The diplomatic agreement between Japan and China, reflecting the latter's acceptance of the Twenty-One Demands.  As a result of the treaty, Japan's hold on southern Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia is enhanced, Japan receives Germany's economic rights in Shantung while the leasehold is to be settled after the war, the Japanese-controlled Hanyehping Company is established, and China pledges to lease no other power territory at Fukien, opposite Japanese-owned Taiwan.

May 14th, 1915

- This morning the fuse lit by Sir John French five days earlier explodes on the pages of The Times newspaper, which runs an extensive report and editorial on the recent failure at Aubers Ridge.  Given the close relationship between French and the newspaper's military correspondent, it is no surprise that the coverage praises the plan for and management of the battle itself.  Instead, the paper is harshly critical of the supply of both artillery shells and heavy artillery pieces, and lays blame for this failure directly on the War Office and the Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener.  The proprietor of The Times, Lord Northcliffe, has come to see Kitchener not as the imperial hero, but as the stubborn incompetent whose mismanagement is damaging the British war effort.  Northcliffe is not alone in this view; some within the Conservative party, as well as the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George, have become exasperated with Lord Kitchener, and feel he must go if Britain is to fully mobilize its industry in support of the war.

The political impact of The Times' report can hardly be underestimated.  Just several weeks earlier Prime Minister Asquith had assured the British public at Newcastle that the supply of munitions was more than sufficient, words that now appear hollow at best and deceitful at worst.  In particular, the report crystalizes concerns among many Conservative backbenchers that the Liberal government is mismanaging the war effort.  This places the leadership of the Conservative party in a quandary: since the beginning of the war all of the major parties have observed a political truce, but it is increasingly difficult to restrain the backbenches from attacking the government over perceived incompetence, and The Times report pours gasoline on the simmering fire.

This afternoon, meanwhile, the first meeting of the War Council is held in London since April 6th.  With the allegations from The Times hanging in the air, Kitchener is in a foul mood, and complains bitterly about the navy abandoning the army at Gallipoli.  Fisher has finally had enough, and for the first time speaks of his constant opposition to the Dardanelles operation, a position that is news to most of those in the room.  Churchill, annoyed by Fisher's outburst, attempts to defend his own position afterwards in a letter to Asquith, arguing that Fisher has signed off on every order touching on the Dardanelles operation.

Later this evening Churchill and Fisher meet at the latter's office to discuss possible reinforcements for the Dardanelles now that Queen Elizabeth is being withdrawn.  Once again Churchill overawes the older Fisher, and the latter agrees to send several monitors to the Mediterranean to allow for the recall of several battleships.  After Fisher departs for the night, Churchill adds two submarines, as requested by Admiral de Robeck, to the list of proposed warships to be sent to the Dardanelles.  It is a fateful decision.

As the political turmoil swirls in London, Prime Minister Asquith is suffering from a much different kind of angst.  For several years he has been desperately in love with Venetia Stanley, a close friend of his daugher Violet.  He has shared all manner of state secrets with her, and relies on her utterly for moral support.  Today, however, Venetia informs Asquith that their relationship is at an end, and that she is to marry Edwin Montagu, a fellow Liberal politician.  Asquith is utterly shattered; he writes to Venetia today that 'this is too terrible; no hell could be so bad.'  The gravest crisis the Liberal government has ever faced is at hand, and the Prime Minister is a broken man.

- Today repeated French attacks secure most of Notre-Dame de Lorette in Artois, but the Germans stubbornly remain entrenched on the eastern edge, and from this position they are able to fire into the northern flank of the French XXXIII Corps and prevent a further advance towards Souchez.  On the German side additional reinforcements come forward, and 5th Bavarian Division, which has lost two-thirds of its strength since the 9th, is pulled out of the line today.  However, when 6th Army commander Crown Prince Rupprecht requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn, the latter instead replies with a sharp rebuke: most of the reserves on the Western Front have already been sent to 6th Army, and that the forces now available in Artois ought to be more than sufficient to hold the line.  In part this reflects Falkenhayn's irritation at Rupprecht's constant demands, but also that the shift to the east in April has meant that the Western Front must defend itself with what it has, and few reserves remain.

- Today the German 11th Army approaches the Russian positions at Przemysl and the San River, and prepares to attack the enemy line at Jaroslau tomorrow.

- When the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army retreated to the Pruth River it left a bridgehead on the north side at Kolomea, and this is the target of an attack by the Russian XXXIII Corps after midday.  Despite heavy Russian pressure, the Austro-Hungarians are able to hold on, in part due to the arrival of the first reinforcements from III Corps.

- The resignation of the cabinet of Prime Minister Salandra yesterday evening is a shock to the Italian public.  In particular, those who favour intervention in the war on the side of the Entente are shocked, and fear that they will be denied their war at the last moment.  What happens next, however, will transform the political situation.  Starting today, significant numbers of the urban middle class gather in major cities and towns throughout Italy to call for war against Austria-Hungary.  This is the same social group that were the predominant presence in the crowds that in other countries celebrated the outbreak of war last August.  These demonstrations appear spontaneously with no organization and little support from the upper classes or political elites other than a few wealthy northern landowners and the owners of industrial concerns such as Fiat.  Indeed, the sudden outbreak of pro-war protests comes as a shock to Salandra, Sonnino, and their allies; the old cabinet, in its capacity as a caretaker government until the king appoints a replacement, authorizes local prefects to call in the army if necessary to maintain public order.  In practice, the gatherings are generally peaceful, as befitting crowds of the 'respectable' middle-class.

These demonstrations become known as the 'Radiant Days of May' and, precisely because they were so unexpected and spontaneous, they have an impact on the political class far outweighing the actual size of the crowds.  Dozens of parliamentary representatives who previously had opposed war now declare in favour of intervention, wanting to stay in step with public opinion.  The demonstrations also influence Victor Emmanuel, believing they will sway the votes of a sufficient number of parliamentary representatives as to make the formation of an anti-war cabinet impossible, and thus making the recall of Salandra to the premiership palatable.

- Today Admiral de Robeck receives the Admiralty reply to his message of the 10th regarding a further naval attack on the Dardanelles.  In line with Fisher's views, Churchill writes that 'the moment for an independent naval attempt to force the Narrows has passed . . . your role is therefore to support the army in its costly but sure advance and to reserve your strength to deal with the situation which will arise when the army has succeeded.'  The fleet is to remain in a subordinate position to the army, and success will depend on the army securing Gallipoli.

May 13th, 1915

- Yesterday the British 28th Division, having suffered greatly in the recent fighting, was withdrawn from the eastern face of the Ypres salient, replaced by 1st and 3rd Cavalry Division fighting as dismounted infantry.  They gain a rapid initiation to the fighting at Ypres, coming under a heavy artillery bombardment early this morning that precedes another German attack.  Most of the British line holds, but 7th Cavalry Brigade is forced back hundreds of yards, and a subsequent counterattack by 8th and 10th Cavalry Brigades is unable to fully restore the position.

The front line at Ypres, May 13th, 1915.

Though desultory fighting will continue around the Ypres salient for several weeks, the 2nd Battle of Ypres has effectively drawn to a close.  In the context of major operations on the Western Front, the battle has undoubtedly been a German victory.  Not only were they able to advance several miles towards Ypres, but were also able to force the British to voluntarily yield ground, something virtually unheardof.  Moreover, while German casualties numbered 35 000, Entente casualties were in excess of 60 000, and the Germans accomplish this favourable casualty ratio while attacking, inverting the normal situation whereby attackers suffer more than defenders.  In a larger sense, however, the 2nd Battle of Ypres was a missed opportunity.  Because the operation had never been intended to be a major offensive, the Germans were not prepared when the initial gas attack proved more successful than anyone could have imagined.  The shock effect of gas literally blew a hole in the Entente line larger than any seen to date in the war, and with sufficient reserves the Germans might have been able to drive on Ypres and beyond.  In a familiar refrain, by the time the Germans realized the opportunity that existed, the moment to exploit it had already passed, and subsequent fighting was comparable to the static fighting seen in other major engagements - the vast majority of the ground captured by the Germans was achieved in the first hours after the gas attack.  The lost opportunity, however, is even greater than the specific context of the 2nd Battle of Ypres.  The most potent effect of gas is psychological: when it strikes soldiers who are unprepared, their willingness to stand and fight vanishes and resistance becomes impossible.  By definition this can only happen the first time gas is used; within twenty-four hours crude countermeasures were being developed, and in future soldiers who are gassed will have gas masks at hand.  This ensures that while gas still kills and has an impact on the battlefield, never again can it have the same psychological effect.  The most effective use of gas was always going to be the first time, and the Germans threw away this opportunity by not being prepared to exploit the situation.  The Germans have also earned the opprobrium of being the first combatant to use asphyxiating gas on the battlefield.  Though all countries will soon make extensive use of gas, and work to develop ever more lethal chemicals, 2nd Ypres becomes, in the eyes of many, yet another example of German 'barbarism', in line with the Rape of Belgium and the sinking of Lusitania.  For many in both Entente countries and neutrals such as the United States, it is yet another reason why Germany and 'Prussian militarism' must be crushed; one cannot compromise with barbarism.  Finally, the battle has been the baptism of fire for 1st Canadian Division.  The resiliency (if not sheer stubbornness) of the Canadians in the first days of the German offensive, holding their lines despite gas and overwhelming attacks until British and French reserves could arrive, was vital to preventing a greater German breakthrough, and becomes a celebrated feat of arms.  It is the first of many such accomplishments for the Canadians on the Western Front.

- In Artois French pressure forces the Germans to abandon most of the village of Ablain, but otherwise French attacks are unsuccessful today.  Nevertheless, Crown Prince Rupprecht, commander of the German 6th Army, believes that three of his front-line divisions are completely worn out and must be replaced, and requests further reinforcements from Falkenhayn.  The German Chief of Staff agrees, transferring 2nd Guard Reserve Division and two brigades from OHL control to 6th Army's sector.

- The battered Russian 3rd Army completes its retreat to the San River, taking up positions north of the fortification of Przemysl.  Its northern wing is entrenched on the east bank from Jaroslau almost to the junction with the Vistula River, where 4th Army covers both sides of the Vistula itself.  The southern wing of 3rd Army, between Jaroslau and Przemysl, is actually deployed on the west bank; because the west bank is much higher than the east, holding the river line itself here is not possible.  South and east of Przemysl sit 8th and 11th Armies, the latter connecting with 9th Army still conducting its offensive in the Bukovina.  Reinforcements are also en route; General Alexeyev has begrudgingly allowed XV Corps, formerly part of Northwest Front, to redeploy southwards, and it is to come into the line between 4th and 3rd Armies.

The German and Austro-Hungarian advance towards Jaroslau and Przemysl, May 13th to 16th, 1915.

- In east Galicia the Austro-Hungarian 7th Army continues its retreat to the Pruth River, and by nightfall most of its elements are across.  The west and centre wings were able to pull back relatively unmolested, but the east wing came under heavy attack, especially by the Russian XXXIII Corps, as it did so.  Here at least the Russians are having some success in the Carpathians, and the offensive has forced the Austro-Hungarians to divert III Corps, initially intended to garrison the frontier with Italy, to Bukovina.  Beyond this, however, it has had no impact on the larger strategic picture; Falkenhayn for one knows that if Mackensen and 11th Army continues to achieve success, and in particular force the San River line, the Russian position in the Bukovina will be outflanked and nothing that happens there will matter.

The Battle of Dniester, May 13th, 1915.

- At 5pm the Italian cabinet reconvenes, and since yesterday's meeting Salandra has met with party leaders over the question of peace or war.  He reports to the cabinet that only one - Leonida Bissolati of the moderate Socialists - supported intervention.  The cabinet then spends the next four hours debate the issue back and forth.  One concern is that if the cabinet, and by convention the king, endorses war, but then is repudiated by parliament, a constitutional crisis may ensue.  To clear the air and force the issue, Salandra proposes the government's resignation; his hope is that efforts to cobble together an alternative anti-war government will fail, and thus by default committing Italy to war.  At 9pm the cabinet agrees, and Salandra immediately drives to the royal palace at Villa Savoia to offer their resignations.  At 1030pm news of the resignation becomes public; the moment of decision is at hand.

- Today the German submarine U21 arrives at the Austro-Hungarian naval base of Cattaro, after several weeks at sea.  Due to its lengthy journey from Germany it had only barely made it to port, with only 1.8 tons out of the original 56.5 tons of fuel remaining.  Once refueled and resupplied, the Germans will have their first active ocean-going submarine in the Mediterrean (UB-8 is a much smaller coastal submarine).

- For weeks Entente warships have pounded Ottoman positions on Gallipoli with impunity, as none of the shore batteries could fire shells capable of penetrating the armour of the old pre-dreadnoughts.  Given their numbers, the Entente fleet has also shown no real concern with naval opposition, and largely assume they may sail and anchor as they please.  Overnight, the Ottomans do their best to disabuse the British and French admirals of their misplaced faith in their invulnerability.  With a full moon and heavy mist reducing visibility, the Ottoman destroy Muavenet, captained by a German, snuck through the straits and moved up the European coast of Gallipoli.  In Morto Bay, not a hundred yards offshore, the destroyer comes across the British pre-dreadnought Goliath at anchor, where it is waiting to continue its shore bombardment at dawn.  Surging forward, Muavenet fires three torpedoes and disappears back into the night and through the straits before anyone can react.  The torpedoes strike home, and within minutes rolls over and sinks.  Because the current here is four to five knots and moving away from shore, none of the British sailors in the water can swim ashore.  Five hundred and seventy drown, and only one hundred and eight survive.  It is a striking accomplishment for the Ottomans: the Sultan awards each sailor on Muavenet a gold watch and a purse filled with gold.

The sinking of Goliath shows that the waters off the Dardanelles are now contested, and the aftershocks of the loss of the pre-dreadnought reach London this afternoon, where news of the sinking prompts a passionate outburst from Admiral Fisher.  For months he has worried over the potential loss of warships during the Dardanelles campaign, and in particular is concerned about Queen Elizabeth, Britain's newest and most advanced battleship.  The loss of Goliath stokes these fears to a fever pitch, and Fisher insists that Queen Elizabeth be ordered to return to home waters immediately.  Churchill accedes to the First Sea Lord's demand, but later this evening the argument is joined by Kitchener when he visits the Admiralty on a different matter.  When the Secretary of War learns of Queen Elizabeth's recall, he goes into a rage, accusing the navy of abandoning the army after the army had come to the aid of the navy after the latter's failure to force the Dardanelles.  Fisher, never one to back down from a fight, fires right back at Kitchener, declaring that Queen Elizabeth will sail for home this instant or he would resign on the spot.  Kitchener returns to the War Office and pens an aggressive note to Asquith, but for now Fisher has won the argument: the orders for Queen Elizabeth's recall stand.  The crisis over the Dardanelles, however, is just beginning.

- In German South-West Africa the advance of South African forces from Swakopmund on the coast and from the south has been slow and irregular, disrupted by supply difficulties more than German opposition.  After several months, however, today the northern detachment, under the direct command of Prime Minister Botha, enters Windhoek, the capital of the German colony.  In doing so the South Africans also seize the main wireless station, disrupting communications between the remaining German forces in the colony, now retreating northeast along the lone railway, and the outside world.

March 22nd, 1915

- In Britain the ongoing shortage of artillery shells leads Prime Minister Asquith to appoint a committee to plan for the formation of a new committee on munitions.  Beyond this reflecting the inanity of bureaucratic processes and the deliberate (to put it charitably) decision-making process of the Prime Minister, it also illustrates the growing marginalization of the War Office with respect to munitions production.  The new committee is to be under Cabinet, not the War Office, and David Lloyd George, but not Kitchener, was invited to attend its first meeting.  The growing belief in government circles is that however lustrous Kitchener's image is among the British public, his contempt for politicians and the normal procedures of administration has left the War Office in bureaucratic chaos.

- Overnight the Austro-Hungarian artillery at Przemysl fire off their remaining ammunition, and this morning are destroyed.  At 6am, the last of the fortifications are reduced to rubble, and at 7am an automobile carrying two staff officers depart Przemysl to negotiate the surrender of the garrison.  As white flags flutter over the remnants of the defences, the first Russian detachments enter Austro-Hungarian lines by 9am.

As a result of the surrender of Przemysl, 9 generals, 93 staff officers, 2500 other officers, and 117 000 men march into Russian captivity.  The rank-and-file of the Austro-Hungarian garrison has suffered terribly over the past months, their rations reduced to almost nothing.  The Russians, however, cannot help but notice that the senior Austro-Hungarian officers have a well-fed look about them.

The fall of Przemysl is undoubtedly a significant disaster for Austria-Hungary, it constituting one more military embarassment in a war that has gone completely off the rails for the Dual Monarchy.  The fortress' surrender also formally ends the efforts undertaken by the army over the past few months to break through the Russian lines to relieve the garrison.  Conrad's tunnel vision regarding the relief of Przemysl blinded him to the realities of attempting to conduct major offensive operations in mountainous terrain in the midst of terrible winter conditions.  The Winter Battles of the Carpathians have been a shattering debacle far beyond the mere failure to reach Przemysl.  Over the past few months, the Austro-Hungarian army has suffered 800 000 casualties, three-quarters as a result of sickness and exposure; the efforts to relieve the fortress squandered far more men than the besieged garrison itself contained.  In the end, Conrad's offensive has resulted in the worst of both worlds: not only has Przemysl been lost, but the catastrophic losses further cripples the fighting capacity of the field army.  It is one of Conrad's greatest failures in a war marked by them.

- Senior Entente commanders in the eastern Mediterranean meet today in the wardroom of Queen Elizabeth to plot the next move after the rebuff of the 18th.  For several days Admiral Robeck has continued to ruminate on the losses suffered in that day's bombardment, and opens the conference by declaring his opinion that the Dardanelles cannot be forced by warships alone.  Instead, the only way the minefields could be swept would be if the mobile batteries were destroyed and the enemy shore occupied by landing forces.  This declaration finds support from General Sir Ian Hamilton, who had been dispatched by Kitchener to command the various British forces assembling in the eastern Mediterranean and had arrived on the 17th.  His reaction to the failure of the 18th was that the army would now have to play a central part in the operation, and after communication with Kitchener had been informed by the latter that if large scale landing operations were necessary, then so be it.  With Hamilton's support, Robeck is able to carry the room, and the conference unanimously resolves that the naval attack should be postponed until the landing operation was ready to commence.  As the forces under Hamilton's command are scattered across the Mediterranean, he advises the admirals that it will be about three weeks before he is ready to move.

Keyes is absent from the meeting, attempting to reorganize the minesweeper fleet, and when he learns of the decision he works to change Robeck's mind.  Keyes is convinced that the Ottomans are tottering, and that one more push will shatter the defenders and open the way to Constantinople.  Robeck, however, still fearing additional warship losses more than anything else, refuses to budge.

March 16th, 1915

- As the British government discusses ongoing operations in the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, the focus is not only on securing victory in the current war but also ensuring that the British Empire is in the best position for the post-war world.  As Kitchener writes in a memorandum submitted to the War Council today:

It must not be forgotten that, after the conclusion of peace, old enmities and jealousies which have been stilled by the existing crisis in Europe, may revive.  We have, in fact, to assume that, at some future date, we may find ourselves an enmity with Russia, or with France, or with both in combination, and we must bear this possibility in mind in deciding how, when the time for settlement comes and the question of the partition of Turkey in Asia arises, our interests can best be safeguarded.

- In Champagne a large number of French assaults are launched between 445am and 2pm, but with only minor exceptions are repulsed.  With XVI Corps failing to make further progress, Joffre finally concludes that the operation in Champagne cannot win a decisive victory and ought to be wound down.  He orders General de Langle to undertake the planned XVI Corps' attacks with the remaining fresh infantry, and then cease operations, form strong defensive positions, and pull all but three corps out of the line.

- Falkenhayn orders the formation of eight additional divisions today, of which four - 111th, 113th, 119th, and 121st - will be ready for service by April 1st, with 115th, 117th, 123rd, and 11th Bavarian ready one to two weeks later.  With the six new divisions whose creation has previously been ordered, these constitute the fourteen divisions (down from the initial projection of twenty-four) available as an OHL reserve, and which Falkenhayn intends to use on the Western Front.

The German Chief of Staff also issues a written directive to the commander of the newly-formed 11th Army:

The OHL plans to break through the enemy front in the West after making an adequate number of troops available. To this end, strong reserves will be placed in readiness in rear of that front along the several rail lines.  The concentration of these reserves and their subsequent forward movement by rail to the point where the breakthrough is to be effected, will be regulated by the OHL.  The tim for placing the reserves in readiness and the place for the breakthrough operation proper have not yet been fixed.  The Commander of the Eleventh Army will conduct the offensive in a zone of action that will be designed in due time.  The Eleventh Army Commander's next task will consist of reconnoitring the terrain between La Bassée Canal and the Avre near Roye for a breakthrough operation, with a view to piercing the hostile front north of the Somme on a width of from 25 to 30 kilometres and advancing thence to the sea.  In the zones of action to be selected, it is planned to allot first of all, in addition to the troops already in position, as many infantry divisions (each of three regiments) as will enable each division to occupy from two and a half to three kilometres of frontage.  The necessary heavy artillery will be made available.  With the aid of these forces the tactical breakthrough should be successful - including the piercing of the enemy's line.  In rear of the rupture, the OHL intends to place as many additional forces in readiness as will be required to exploit the tactical breakthrough for strategic purposes.  The reconnaissance must be initiated as early as possible . . . [and] the result will be submitted to the OHL in the form of a report no later than the end of March.

- Today a doctor serving on the hospital ship Soudan examines Admiral Carden, declaring that he has a dangerous ulcer and that he requires several weeks of rest to avoid a complete breakdown.  Though it means the end of his naval career, Carden feels he has no choice but to signal the Admiralty that he must resign as commander of the Dardanelles expedition.

March 10th, 1915

- At 730am this morning, British artillery opens up on the German line at Neuve Chapelle.  The intense bombardment, using more shells in thirty-five minutes than the British had used in the entire Boer War, catches the Germans completely by surprise.  The concentration of shells against such a small portion of the line ensured that most of the German defensive positions were obliterated, while the brevity of the bombardment left the Germans with no time to send up reinforcements, leaving the defenders significantly outnumbered.  When the attacking infantry go over the top at 805, they easily break through the front German trench while the German survivors break and retreat.  The pace of the British advance is set not by German resistance, of which there is practically none, but rather how fast they can move over the ruined battlefield.  In thirty minutes, the British have captured the village of Neuve Chapelle, and the entire of the first objective line is soon in British hands.

The battle of Neuve Chapelle, March 10th to 13th, 1915.

The ruins of the village of Neuve Chapelle after its capture by the British, March 10th, 1915.

By noon the British have achieved the goal that has and will elude so many other attacks on the Western Front - a breakthrough.  The German line has been shattered, and there is nothing before the British infantry but fleeing Germans.  It is a success that exceeds even the expectations of Haig and his staff.  However, this breakthrough leads to the accomplishment of absolutely nothing of significance, and the reasons point to fundamental realities that hinder offensive operations on the Western Front for most of the war.  Most important is actually a technical limitation: while wireless radios have been developed, they have not yet been miniaturized enough to allow for sets to be carried by infantry into battle.  Thus advancing infantry have only two options for communicating to rear areas: (1) telephone lines; and (2) messengers on foot.  The first requires the laying of telephone wires that are extremely vulnerable to enemy artillery fire, while the latter, even if they can escape the front line alive, are greatly slowed by the destruction omnipresent on the battlefront, and hours frequently pass between the departure of a messenger from a front line officer to his arrival at a headquarters in the rear.  As a result, it is practically impossible for officers commanding advancing infantry to communicate their position, which in turn has two consequences.  First, it means that artillery batteries fire without knowing the location of their own infantry, which creates the very real potential for friendly fire and prevents the infantry from ordering artillery fire on unexpected defensive positions they encounter as they advance.  Instead, the infantry is expected to advance at the pace of the pre-arranged artillery barrage, as it moves from the first to the second to the reserve trench lines.  Move too fast, and the infantry run the risk of literally running into their own artillery fire.  Second, it means that when the advance does not go to plan, forward officers are unable to receive revised orders from their superiors.  Thus when the pre-battle plan fails to provide instructions for the actual circumstances on the battlefield, forward officers default to doing nothing, lest they either create chaos by random advancing and/or march their soldiers into a future artillery target.  This is not to condemn these officers, having to make difficult decisions often under intense enemy fire and with their units significantly depleted; it is little wonder that they default to their training, which is in such conditions to wait for further orders.  The problem, of course, is that as they wait, the enemy has a window in which they can rush in reinforcements and plug the breach in the line.  Thus even when attacking forces are able to achieve a breakthrough, it disappears like a mirage, ever just beyond reach.

This is precisely how the breakthrough at Neuve Chapelle plays out.  When the British infantry reach their first objective line ahead of schedule, they halt their advance, awaiting further orders.  The Germans, meanwhile, rush up reserve formations to plug the gap, and are able to do so largely unmolested by artillery fire.  In addition to the lack of direct communication between British batteries and their infantry, air-ground artillery coordination has also failed; despite the infantry carrying white stripes of cloth to mark their position, mist obscures them.  By the time the British are finally prepared to resume the advance at 530pm, they find new German reserves in front of them, and they are halted halfway between Neuve Chapelle and Aubers Ridge.  By the end of the day's fighting, the strategic opportunities available in the morning have vanished, and further attacks will need to be launched against forewarned and reinforced German defences.

Two gunners of No. 5 Mountain Battery, 3rd Mountain Artillery Brigade, Royal Garrison Artillery (Indian Army), lying dead by their
2.75 inch mountain gun near Neuve Chapelle, March 10th, 1915.

- Despite the abject failure of test use of gas at the Battle of Bolimów in January on the Eastern Front, the German army continues to view the weapon as potentially significant.  The first asphyxiating gas to be produced in quantity was chlorine, chosen because it did not require the diversion of any resources or manufacturing capacity from the munitions industry.  Though a shell has also been invented that can carry and disperse gas, they are not yet available in sufficient quantity to make their use effective.  Instead, the tactic at present is to mass thousands of canisters of the gas along the front line, and open them when the wind will push the gas in the desired direction.  As its use was totally dependent on the weather, it could not be used in major pre-planned operations that required precise scheduling, as with the preliminary discussions at OHL regarding an offensive on the Western Front.  Instead, Falkenhayn has decided that the execution of the first major gas attack will be assigned to 4th Army, responsible for the front in Flanders.  The focus of the operation will be primarily on testing the combat effective of large-scale use of gas, while crucially the gains on the battlefield itself are a secondary consideration.

4th Army headquarters has decided that the attack should take place on the southeastern face of the Ypres salient, between the Ypres-Comines Canal and the Menin road.  XV Corps has been assigned to undertake the assault, and as of today the gas canisters have been installed on six thousand yards of the line.  Now it is simply a matter of waiting for the right weather conditions.

- The German navy loses two submarines today: U-12 is rammed and sunk by the British destroyer Ariel off the Scottish coast, while U-29, whose captain had famously sunk the 'live bait squadron' off the Dutch coast in September, is rammed and sunk by Dreadnought while attempting to line up a torpedo shot at the dreadnought Neptune.  The two losses highlight that the only reliable means the British have of sinking U-boats is to destroy them at the surface.  As of yet, no means exists to sink a submerged submarine.

- Even in the context of a terrible winter in the Carpathians, a particularly heavy blizzard strikes today.  In these conditions movement is impossible; the sick and wounded die as they cannot be evacuated, while entire skirmish lines vanish into the snow.  The Austro-Hungarian infantry find it impossible to dig entrenchments, and have to huddle in the open in front of the Russian positions they are supposed to be attacking.  In the eastern Carpathians, the blizzard forces Generals Pflanzer-Baltin and Brusilov to postpone their respective plans for offensive operations.

The position of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd and 3rd Armies in the Carpathians, March 10th, 1915.

- In London, unbridled optimism still reigns regarding the Dardanelles operation, and the War Council discusses today what the British should do after the fall of Constantinople- Kitchener, for example, calls for an attack on Alexandretta.  There is little appreciation as of yet of the difficulties encountered at the Dardanelles, where tonight the minesweepers make their seventh attempt.  To improve their chances of success, they use a new approach: instead of sweeping while sailing up the straits, they will sail in, turn, and sweep on the way out.  Meanwhile Commodore Keyes, Carden's Chief of Staff, has also taken direct command of the minesweepers, and to encourage them to perservere under fire, he has offered a financial bonus to the civilian crews and proposed to stiffen the crews with young officers from the fleet.

Despite the new tactic, this evening's effort is little more successful than earlier attempts.  Though escorted by Canopus and other warships, the minesweepers are under fire as they sail up the straits, and by the time they reach the point to turn and begin to sweep, four of the crews are so agitated that they do not extend their equipment.  Two trawlers manage to sweep two mines, but the other strikes a mine and sinks.  Though the crew is saved, the loss serves only to inspire the shore defences to pour more fire on the ships.  With two of the trawlers damaged by 6-inch shells, the operation is called off and the minesweepers withdraw.

- In Germany the Admiralty Staff considers the ammunition situation at the Dardanelles to be dire, and since the prospects of Austro-Hungarian success against Serbia are as remote as ever, they recommend putting severe diplomatic pressure on Romania to allow for the transportation of munitions across its territory.  It also recommends that at least one German submarine should be dispatched to the Dardanelles, as the Austro-Hungarians remain unwilling to do so.

- The commander of the British force occupying Duala and the surrounding region in German Kamerun is informed by London today that no further reinforcements should be expected and that his priority is defending his current positions, as opposed to undertaking offensive operations.  This is effectively a restatement of the original British aim in its campaign against German Kamerun - namely, that the priority is the conquest of the coast and the denial of ports to German raiders.

- After two months of moving between fjords on the southern Pacific coast of Chile, the German light cruiser Dresden has slowly been making its way up the Chilean coast since mid-February, staying out to sea to avoid detection.  Two days ago, it was sighted by the British armoured cruiser Kent, and though it used its superior speed to escape, it used most of its remaining coal to do so.  Since yesterday Dresden has been anchored in Cumberland Bay on the Chilean island of Más á Tierra, waiting for the arrival of its collier.  Today the Chilean governor insists that in accordance with maritime law, Dresden has used up its alloted twenty-four hours in neutral waters and must depart immediately, but the German captain insists that his engines require repairs, which would provide legal justification to prolong his warship's stay.  While this dispute is played out, Dresden's wireless signal to its collier has been intercepted by the British, and both Kent and the light cruiser Glasgow are en route to Cumberland Bay.