March 31st, 1915

- After the directive of the 29th regarding the defensive of current positions, today OHL issues a second directive regarding the training of reserves which emphasizes the importance of offensive training.  To do so, successful operations, such as the Battle of Soissons, are to be studied in detail, while training camps are to be established which include mock fortified positions on which units can practice assaults.  The directive also states that the mission of the first line in an attack is to break through the enemy line; it will be the responsibility of subsequent waves of infantry to exploit the breakthrough.

- The Russian air force has lagged behind its opponents in innovation, with one very notable exception: the Il'ia Muromets bomber, a creation of the young and very talented designer Igor Sikorskii.  This massive aircraft was an unparalleled marvel of technical engineering; propelled by four engines, it is capable of carrying a crew of three for a five-hour flight with two machine-guns and a half-ton of bombs.  In a reconnaissance flight conducted today, one Muromets flies 533 kilometres at between 3200 and 3600 metres altitude.

Perhaps not surprising given the Russian war performance to date, the Muromets has been criminally underappreciated by army headquarters, including a ban on further production issued in October 1914.  Only by circumventing the army was Sikorskii able to have a squadron of Muromets formed under the patronage of the owner of the Russko-Baltiiskii aircraft company, allowing for the true value of the Muromets to be demonstrated.

The Russian Il'ya Muromets bomber.

- In the Carpathians, the main Russian attack over the past two days has fallen on the centre and right of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army.  Crucially, they have broken through the front of XIX Corps, forcing 41st and 37th Honved Divisions to fall back (the former having suffered 60% casualties, the latter reduced to two thousand riflemen).  The situation of 2nd Army is perilous - only fifteen hundred reserves remain available to plug holes in the line - and its commander orders preliminary planning for a withdrawal southwards out of the Carpathians if necessary.

- When Emden's landing party stops at a watering hole at 11am this morning, they are met by an Ottoman patrol of eighteen sent from Djidda to escort them the remaining distance to the town.  At 4pm they depart, the path carrying them away from the sea and through numberless flat sand drifts topped with grass.  After nightfall, a group of Bedouins, numbering about twelve or fifteen, are sighted in the distance before disappearing, which the Ottoman escort takes for robbers.  This causes little concern to the Germans, given that their party numbers fifty and carries with them four machine guns.

- Munitions production in Canada has been hindered by the lack of a pre-war armaments industry which could have been expanded once hostilities began.  To circumvent this limitation, a shell committee has been established by Sam Hughes, the minister of militia, to place orders not for complete shells, but rather individual components, allowing manufacturers to focus on those components which they already have some skill in producing.  The result is that by today 155 factories employing 25 000 are engaged in shell production in Canada.

March 30th, 1915

- Though the French offensive in Champagne was halted ten days ago, it is only today that the Germans conclude the battle is at an end, as aerial reconnaissance indicates the withdrawal of French corps from the front.

- The French offensive against the St.-Mihiel salient begins today when 73rd Division attacks along the Moselle River, near the eastern end of the southern face of the salient.  It is hoped that this attack, and subsequent ones planned to begin in the next several days in what will become the Battle of Woëvre, will draw German forces south before the primary French attack hits the western face of the salient.

- Colonel Seeckt, newly-appointed Chief of Staff of the German 11th Army, submits his proposal to OHL for an offensive on the Western Front by 11th Army, as per Falkenhayn's directive earlier this month.  After studying the line between La Bassée Canal and Roye, Seeckt concludes that the most advantageous sector for an offensive is a twenty-five kilometre stretch running from just south of Arras to just north of Albert, as it lays just sixty-five kilometres from the coast and is less-well defended than nearby sectors.  Further, the area to the west of the line is less developed, offering fewer possible points of resistance should the Germans break through, and the southern flank of a German advance would be in part shielded by the Somme River.

To achieve the initial breakthrough, Seeckt calls for the use of thirty heavy artillery batteries and 125 howitzer batteries, each of the latter covering two hundred yards of the front.  Five corps would be assigned responsibility for breaking the enemy line, and would be supported by a second wave of four corps designed to cover the flanks and maintain forward momentum.  A further army of five corps would then be necessary to carry the offensive to Doullens, the point at which he believed the Entente armies would be irretrievably split.  Overall Seeckt's plans calls for the employment of fourteen corps, of which eleven were to be newly-built.  This stands in contrast to the fourteen new divisions now available as a result of the reorganization of the German army; in other words, insufficient for Seeckt's operation.  Though Falkenhayn now has the outline of a plan for achieving the great victory he desires in the West, he is now confronted by the reality of insufficient forces to execute the operation.

- As the situation continues to deteriorate in the Carpathians, one officer describes the mood at Austro-Hungarian army headquarters as 'below zero', with Conrad constantly 'grumbling'.

March 29th, 1915

- OHL issues today a directive to the German armies on the Western Front regarding the maintenance of defensive positions.  In order to allow current lines to be held with as few infantry as possible, particular attention is to be paid to greater use of barbed wire, the construction of bombproof shelters of reinforced concrete, and the expansion of communication trenches, rear positions, and supporting positions, as well as the preparation of plans for the defensive use of artillery.  Simultaneously, OHL requests all units to undertake detailed reconnaissance of enemy lines, should an offensive be ordered.  It is hoped that thorough planning and preparation will ensure success on the attack and the defense.

March 28th, 1915

- In the first month of the German campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare, twenty-five merchant ships have been sunk, sixteen of which had been torpedoed without warning.  These numbers, however, have to be placed in the context of the overall flow of merchant traffic - over the same month over four thousand vessels had sailed into and out of British ports.

Today a twenty-sixth vessel is sunk, the 5000-ton British cargo and passenger liner Falaba.  In the St. George's Channel off the Irish coast, it is halted by U-28, and its captain is given ten minutes to abandon ship.  During this period, extended on request to twenty-three minutes, Falaba's wireless continued to broadcast signals requesting assistance.  When an armed British trawler appears, U-28 puts a torpedo into Falaba, which rapidly sinks.  One hundred and four lives are lost, including an American passenger, who becomes the first American citizen to die at sea as the result of the attack of a German submarine.  The response of the American government is to ask the German ambassador for clarification regarding details of the sinking; a muted reaction reflecting that only a single American life was lost.  The Germans, however, can hardly count on such forbearance in the future.

- The situation of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army continues to deteriorate in the Carpathians, as on its left wing 32nd and 13th Landwehr Division are forced to retreat when the Russians seize the Manilow Heights.

- Today the Russian Black Sea Squadron, consisting of five pre-dreadnoughts, two cruisers, and ten destroyers, appears off the mouth of the Bosphorus and ineffectively bombards the Ottoman forts guarding the strait.  The attack is little more than a token gesture, and naturally comes too late for the British and French on the other side of the Dardanelles, who have already decided to abandon a purely naval operation in favour of a combined assault.

- After a visit to the Sheikh of Leet, First Officer Mücke has been able to collect ninety camels for his party, and this evening depart Leet for Djidda.  The camels are used mainly to carry supplies, especially water, given the desert through which they will travel.

Emden's landing party moving through the Arabian desert.

March 27th, 1915

- The continuing deterioration of the Austro-Hungarian position in the Carpathians in the face of the Russian offensive prompts an agreement between the Austro-Hungarians and Germans to form a new German corps for insertion into the line.  Beskid Corps, as it is to be named, is to consist of 35th Reserve Division from central Poland, 4th Division from Südarmee, and 25th Reserve Division from 9th Army, and the latter, entraining today, is the first to begin its transfer to the Carpathians.

- General Sanders has begun work on reorganizing the defence of Gallipoli, pulling two Ottoman divisions away from the beaches to form a reserve which can respond to enemy landings at various points.  He also orders the construction of roads to facilitate the movement of his reserves and the improvement of defensive positions along the beaches, including trenches and barbed wire.  Sanders, however, is painfully aware that this work will take time, and fears an Entente attack before his force is ready; as he writes today, 'If the English will only leave me alone for eight days.'  He has no idea just how obliging the British intend to be.

- This morning the landing party of the German light cruiser Emden suffers its first casualty since it began its journey in November.  Seaman Keil had contracted a severe case of typhus at Hodeida, and his condition deteriorated after the sinking of one of the zambuks and the loss of the party's medical supplies.  He dies at 3am in Leet, and is given a burial at sea with full naval honours.

March 26th, 1915

- The Landships Committee has reported to Churchill the preliminary results of its investigations of possible vehicles that could be adapted to combat use, and has focussed on two potential designs: a six-wheeled vehicle and a tracked vehicle using Pedrails.  Today, Churchill authorizes the construction of prototypes of each for testing.

- Due to a lack of resources, Joffre cancels an attack planned in the Vosges, originally intended as a preliminary diversionary operation prior to the main offensive against the St.-Mihiel salient.

- Today the French 152nd Infantry Regiment, alongside 1st Chasseur Brigade, succeed in wresting control of the summit of Hartmannswillerkopf from the Germans.

- Admiral Robeck sends a further telegram to the Admiralty today, providing a more detailed justification of his decision to abandon the naval assault on the Dardanelles:

I do not hold the check on the 18th to be decisive, but having met General Hamilton . . . I consider a combined operation essential to obtain great results and object of campaign . . . To attack the Narrows now with fleet would be a mistake, as it would jeopardize the execution of a better and bigger scheme.

March 25th, 1915

- The Dutch merchant ship Medea is halted by a U-boat today, and after searching the vessel it is sunk by the Germans.  This is the first time a neutral ship has been sunk by a submarine after being searched since the commencement of unrestricted submarine warfare.

- For two weeks the German XV Corps on the southeastern face of the Ypres salient has been waiting for the right wind and weather conditions to conduct its planned gas attack, but on no day has the wind blown from the east or southeast, resulting in continual delays.  Today the German 4th Army orders that the gas cylinders be moved to the front held by XXVI Reserve Corps and 46th Reserve Division (of XXIII Reserve Corps) between Poelcappelle and Steenstraat on the northeastern face of the Ypres salient, in the hope that a favourable wind from the northeast is more likely to occur.

- The Russian offensive in the Carpathians expands westward overnight, as a sharp attack breaks through the Austro-Hungarian 28th Division on the inner wings of 3rd and 4th Armies, resulting in III Corps falling back to Zboro.  Further, the commander of 2nd Army warns Conrad that his soldiers are reaching the end of their endurance, and V and XVIII Corps in particular are at the breaking point.  To complicate matters, he reports that the intensity of the combat requires the commitment of all reserves as soon as they arrive at the front, preventing the accumulation of any substantial force that could go over onto the attack and wrest the initiative from the Russians.

Meanwhile, in response to Conrad's request of yesterday for German aid, Falkenhayn instead insists that Conrad pressure the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Ministry to conclude negotiations with Italy over territorial concessions that would keep the latter out of the war.  Falkenhayn fears that if the Italians become fully aware of the growing crisis in the Carpathians, they will be tempted to seize the opportunity to attack a crippled Austria-Hungary.

- Though the Mesopotamian expedition was launched initially only to guard the oil pipeline leading to the vital terminal at Abadan, the occupation of the region around Basra has inevitably raised the issue of the permanent annexation of Ottoman territory.  In particular, the British recognition of Russia's claim to Constantinople has opened the issue of the postwar dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, and voices within the India Office are especially strong in favour of Mesopotamian annexations.  Prime Minister Asquith himself remains hesitant; as he explains in a letter to his friend and confidant Venetia Stanley today, 'taking on Mesopotamia, for instance, means spending millions in irrigation & development with no immediate or early return; keeping up quite a large army white & coloured in an unfamiliar country; tackling every kind of tangled administrative question, worse than we have ever had in India, with a hornet's nest of Arab tribes, and even if all that were set right having a perpetual menace to our flank in Kurdistan.'  However, he feels the pressure of immediate wartime necessities pushing the government in the direction of annexation, and that '[Sir Edward] Grey and I are the only two men who doubt and distrust any such settlement.'

March 24th, 1915

- Joffre today informs General Dubail of the Provisional Group of the East that I, II, and XII Corps, along with a cavalry corps, will be transferred to his command to participate in the forthcoming offensive against the St.-Mihiel salient.

- In the Carpathians Conrad plans to shift forces from 2nd and 3rd Armies eastward to General Pflanzer-Baltin's command for a major offensive.  However, the Russians have plans of their own, and General Ivanov aims to break the Austro-Hungarian lines in the central Carpathians, attacking the inner wings of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd and 3rd Armies and advancing towards the rail junction of Homonna.  The Russians have ben the first off the mark, and in heavy fighting over the past few days have inflicted sharp defeats on the enemy, and in particular have secured a large bulge in the line by pushing back the Austro-Hungarian XVII Corps.  Far from transferring forces eastward, 2nd and 3rd Army have found themselves in desperate fighting to prevent a Russian breakthrough, and Conrad has to send reinforcements from southern Poland to prop up his sagging line in the Carpathians.  Undaunted, however, Conrad believes that the Russian attacks offer the opportunity to defeat the enemy outside of their strong defensive positions.  Despite his ongoing optimism, a more accurate assessment of the situation is reflected in his request to Falkenhayn today of two or three German divisions to aid in the Carpathian fighting.

- As the Entente mission at the Dardanelles shifts from a naval to an amphibious operation, the bombardment to date has also served to highlight to the Ottoman government the weaknesses of their defences along the straits, especially the Gallipoli peninsula which forms the northern shore.  In an effort to reorganize its defence, Enver Pasha today appoints General Otto Liman von Sanders, head of the German military mission to Constantinople, to command Ottoman forces on Gallipoli.  The task before Sanders is substantial - though 80 000 soldiers garrison Gallipoli, they lack sufficient guns, ammunition, and even clothing and footwear, and are strung out along the 150 mile coastline of the peninsula.

- After departing Coonfidah six days ago, Emden's landing party has had an uneventful voyage to Leet, at which they arrive today.  The town lays at the northern tip of the coral reefs of the Farisan Bank, and with clear water to the north English warships would be once again able to impose a close blockade.  To avoid potential capture, the party must now advance overland, and preparations begin to assemble a caravan.

March 23rd, 1915

- In the Vosges the French 1st Chasseur Brigade attacks German positions on Hartmannswillerkopf, and are able to capture the first two enemy lines on the Siberloch flank of the mountain.

- In the aftermath of the fall of Przemysl, Falkenhayn had written to Conrad expressing his belief that the best chance for success in the east lay in an offensive against Serbia.  As this would necessitate Austria-Hungary standing on the defensive in the Carpathians, Conrad strongly objects in his reply of today.  He fears that any failure against Serbia would be the final nail in the coffin of the Dual Monarchy's prestige, while he believes that a resumption of the offensive in the Carpathians can still achieve success.  Conrad is not going to allow devastating failure to stop him from trying again.

- Admiral Robeck signals the Admiralty this morning of his intention to abandon a purely naval assault on the Dardanelles.  Instead, he proposes to launch a combined naval and army attack on the straits and Gallipoli peninsula on or after April 14th, when General Hamilton has stated his forces will be prepared to land.

The news from Robeck comes as a surprise to Churchill, who had expected the attack of the 18th to be merely the first stage of an ongoing operation.  The losses incurred in that attack, while unfortunate, are acceptable given the ability to dispatch reinforcements and the significance of the objective.  The First Lord intends to overrule Robeck and order an immediate resumption of a naval-only operation, and summons a meeting of the senior leadership of the Royal Navy, including Admiral Fisher.  The collected admirals, however, insist that Robeck, as the senior commander on the spot, is best-suited to judge the proper course of action, and if he advises that a landing is necessary, then the Admiralty should agree.  For Fisher in particular, who has long loathed the Dardanelles operation and feared the consequences of heavy losses, Robeck's message is a godsend, providing the justification needed to abandon the naval assault and shift to an operation on which the major burden will fall on the army.  All morning Churchill argues with Fisher and the admirals, and as a last resort the First Lord appeals to Asquith.  The Prime Minister responds, however, that while he may personally sympathize with Churchill's position, he does not feel it proper to overrule the professional advice of the admirals.

At a Cabinet meeting this afternoon, Churchill mournfully announces that the naval operation against the Dardanelles is to be abandoned, replaced by a joint operation in which the focus shall be on an amphibious operation by forces under General Hamilton's command.  Kitchener declares that the army will see the operation through to a successful conclusion, and the matter is settled.  Afterwards Churchill informs Robeck that his plan has been approved.  Entente operations at the Dardanelles will henceforth be directed by Hamilton and the army leadership, with the navy relegated to the role of providing fire support.

- Over the past few months the relationship between the Senussi in the Sahara and the Ottoman Empire has improved, given that the former has enthusiastically answered the call to jihad issued by the latter.  Money and equipment has been smuggled in on Greek merchant ships, while today Nuri Efendi, younger brother of Enver Pasha and a veteran of the 1912 fighting in Libya against Italy, lands at Sollum near the Libyan-Egyptian frontier with fifty Ottoman officers to aid the Senussi.

March 22nd, 1915

- In Britain the ongoing shortage of artillery shells leads Prime Minister Asquith to appoint a committee to plan for the formation of a new committee on munitions.  Beyond this reflecting the inanity of bureaucratic processes and the deliberate (to put it charitably) decision-making process of the Prime Minister, it also illustrates the growing marginalization of the War Office with respect to munitions production.  The new committee is to be under Cabinet, not the War Office, and David Lloyd George, but not Kitchener, was invited to attend its first meeting.  The growing belief in government circles is that however lustrous Kitchener's image is among the British public, his contempt for politicians and the normal procedures of administration has left the War Office in bureaucratic chaos.

- Overnight the Austro-Hungarian artillery at Przemysl fire off their remaining ammunition, and this morning are destroyed.  At 6am, the last of the fortifications are reduced to rubble, and at 7am an automobile carrying two staff officers depart Przemysl to negotiate the surrender of the garrison.  As white flags flutter over the remnants of the defences, the first Russian detachments enter Austro-Hungarian lines by 9am.

As a result of the surrender of Przemysl, 9 generals, 93 staff officers, 2500 other officers, and 117 000 men march into Russian captivity.  The rank-and-file of the Austro-Hungarian garrison has suffered terribly over the past months, their rations reduced to almost nothing.  The Russians, however, cannot help but notice that the senior Austro-Hungarian officers have a well-fed look about them.

The fall of Przemysl is undoubtedly a significant disaster for Austria-Hungary, it constituting one more military embarassment in a war that has gone completely off the rails for the Dual Monarchy.  The fortress' surrender also formally ends the efforts undertaken by the army over the past few months to break through the Russian lines to relieve the garrison.  Conrad's tunnel vision regarding the relief of Przemysl blinded him to the realities of attempting to conduct major offensive operations in mountainous terrain in the midst of terrible winter conditions.  The Winter Battles of the Carpathians have been a shattering debacle far beyond the mere failure to reach Przemysl.  Over the past few months, the Austro-Hungarian army has suffered 800 000 casualties, three-quarters as a result of sickness and exposure; the efforts to relieve the fortress squandered far more men than the besieged garrison itself contained.  In the end, Conrad's offensive has resulted in the worst of both worlds: not only has Przemysl been lost, but the catastrophic losses further cripples the fighting capacity of the field army.  It is one of Conrad's greatest failures in a war marked by them.

- Senior Entente commanders in the eastern Mediterranean meet today in the wardroom of Queen Elizabeth to plot the next move after the rebuff of the 18th.  For several days Admiral Robeck has continued to ruminate on the losses suffered in that day's bombardment, and opens the conference by declaring his opinion that the Dardanelles cannot be forced by warships alone.  Instead, the only way the minefields could be swept would be if the mobile batteries were destroyed and the enemy shore occupied by landing forces.  This declaration finds support from General Sir Ian Hamilton, who had been dispatched by Kitchener to command the various British forces assembling in the eastern Mediterranean and had arrived on the 17th.  His reaction to the failure of the 18th was that the army would now have to play a central part in the operation, and after communication with Kitchener had been informed by the latter that if large scale landing operations were necessary, then so be it.  With Hamilton's support, Robeck is able to carry the room, and the conference unanimously resolves that the naval attack should be postponed until the landing operation was ready to commence.  As the forces under Hamilton's command are scattered across the Mediterranean, he advises the admirals that it will be about three weeks before he is ready to move.

Keyes is absent from the meeting, attempting to reorganize the minesweeper fleet, and when he learns of the decision he works to change Robeck's mind.  Keyes is convinced that the Ottomans are tottering, and that one more push will shatter the defenders and open the way to Constantinople.  Robeck, however, still fearing additional warship losses more than anything else, refuses to budge.

March 21st, 1915

- At Przemysl, the high-ranking Austro-Hungarian commanders convene and decided that they will surrender to the Russians tomorrow; though rations remain for three days, negotiations over terms need to begin several days before they run out.  Further measures are also undertaken to destroy everything that might possibly be of military value to the Russians.  The railway station and rolling stock have been destroyed, and over the past two days all remaining horses have been slaughtered.  The military balloons at Przemysl also attempt to depart, but are all driven off course and land in Russian territory.

March 20th, 1915

- After giving his approval on the 11th for army Zeppelins to bombard London, the Kaiser has been typically plagued by second thoughts, and rescinded his order.  Deprived of their primary target, three Zeppelins instead bombard Paris today.

- The French 4th Army calls a halt today to major offensive operations, bringing an end to the 1st Battle of Champagne.  Over the past two months of fighting, 4th Army has suffered over 93 000 casualties, while advancing an average of one kilometre over a three kilometre stretch of the front.  On the other side, German casualties were only half those of the French.  Among the lessons the French take from the campaign, which Joffre deems to have been a success, is the vital importance of heavy artillery to smash the way through enemy defenses and the need for better offensive tactics.

- After painstaking preparations, today the Bavarian 8th Reserve Division recaptures the summit of Reichsackerkopf, west of Munster in the Vosges.

The front line in the Vosges, March 1915.

- With the last breakout attempt defeated and food stocks exhausted, the fate of the Przemsyl garrison has been sealed, and today Emperor Franz Joseph sends a validictory message to the fortress commander:

It saddens me greatly that the bold breakout attempt by the Przemysl garrison was shattered yesterday by the enemy's larger force.  Yet I gaze with a sad pride upon the incomparable self-sacrifice of the brave men whose efforts weren't crowned with success.  I wholeheartedly thank everyone who fought for their heroic deed.  I make the sign of the cross over every one of them who gave their lives on the field of honor.  Even in the distant future, history will record what Austria-Hungary's warriors achieved during the stubborn defense of Przemysl.  They were unflinching and brave until the end.

March 19th, 1915

- In Champagne a German attack on the high ground north of Le Mesnil largely fails to make any progress, the German infantry getting no further than the barbed wire strung before the French trenches.  Only south of Ripont are the Germans able to seize a stretch of the first French trench, primarily through liberal use of grenades.

- OHL issues orders today to the Chief of the Military Railways regarding the assembly of units for the anticipated major offensive on the Western Front.  Beginning on March 23rd, the following are to be gradually assembled: Guard Corps in Schlettstadt-Colmar, XXXXI Reserve Corps near Aulnoye-Busogny-Hirson, Bavarian II Corps near Douai-Cambrai, and III Corps near Mons.

- At Przemysl the garrison attempts a sortie, hoping to break through the Russian lines and allow for escape.  The attack is largely recognized to be a forlorn hope, given the weakened state of the half-starved garrison, and indeed it has been impossible to hide from the Russians the preparations for the attempt.  When the Austro-Hungarians advance, they are decimated by Russian artillery, and the 23rd Honved Division suffers 68% casualties in being driven back into the defensive lines.  Within Przemysl itself, preliminary steps towards surrender begin with the burning of all paper money, worth approximately $125 000 US dollars.

A section of the Austro-Hungarian defensive lines around Przemysl.

- Grand Duke Nicholas, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian army, decides today to call off Russian attacks against East Prussia, as while the Russians have recovered after defeat in the Winter Battle of Masurian Lakes, they have been unable to penetrate German defensive positions.  Instead, he decides that the Russians should concentrate on the Carpathians, given that Russian units covering Przemysl will be freed for future operations given the imminent fall of the fortress.

- This morning the weather has taken a turn for the worse at the Dardanelles, with high winds and lowered visibility.  The conditions make a resumption of the Entente attack of yesterday impossible.  As to whether the attack should be resumed, the view in London at least is to continue: the War Council sends a message to Admiral Robeck authorizing him to 'continue the naval operations against the Dardanelles if he thought fit.'  Though Churchill desires further attacks, and in fact is sending reinforcements for the lost warships, the decision is left in the hands of the senior commander on the spot.  Robeck, for his part, is conflicted: Keyes, his chief of staff, argues that the Ottomans are on the brink of collapse, but he can't shake the fear of losing more warships for reasons unknown.

March 18th, 1915

- As the offensive in Champagne prepares to wind down, Joffre still sees much to be praised about the fighting, though it has not resulted in the desired breakthrough.  Writing to General de Langle of 4th Army today, the French commander in chief praises the 'offensive capacity, warrior spirit, spirit of sacrifice, and devotion to country' shown by the soldiers of 4th Army - undoubtedly small comfort to the thousands who have lost their lives here over the past two months.

- After a twenty-four hours' delay, the offensive by the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army begins, attacking towards Gorlice, Sekowa, and Staszkowka.  Predictably, the Austro-Hungarian infantry gets nowhere.  Further east Südarmee has been attacking since the 7th, but, having secured only minimal gains, abandons the offensive today.  Finally, even further east the Russians abandon their attacks against Pflanzer-Baltin's force, giving the latter a momentary respite to reorganize.

- The morning dawns clear and bright at the Dardanelles, ideal weather for the Entente naval attack.  The British and French warships, led into battle for the first time by Admiral Robeck, left their anchorage at Mudros Bay on Lemnos overnight, and this morning the dreadnought Queen Elizabeth, the battlecruiser Invincible, and sixteen pre-dreadnoughts sail in formation towards the entrance to the straits.  Robeck's plan (which is for all intents and purposes Carden's plan) is to bombard the Ottoman forts protecting the Narrows from long-range, following by moving up the straits to destroy the mobile batteries.  Once those are suppressed, the minesweepers will go to work, clearing a path nine hundred yards across, allowing the warships to close up to and finish the destruction of the forts at the Narrows.  If all goes according to plan, the British and French expect to be in the Sea of Marmara by tomorrow.  Of course, the war to date is hardly known for operations going according to plan . . .

The naval attack on the Dardanelles, March 18th, 1915.

British pre-dreadnoughts approaching the Dardanelles, as seen from Agamemnon, March 18th, 1915.

At 11am, Queen Elizabeth, Invincible, and the pre-dreadnoughts Agamemnon and Lord Nelson arrive in position fourteen thousand yards downstream from the Narrows, and twenty-five minutes later they open fire, Queen Elizabeth bombarding the Chanak forts on the Asiatic shore and the other three firing upon the forts at Kilid Bahr on the opposite shore.  By 1150am the forts have been struck repeatedly, and a large explosion is seen at Chanak.  Robeck judges the time right for the next phase of his plan, and orders the French pre-dreadnoughts Gaulois, Charlemagne, Bouvet, and Suffren to pass through the lead ships and close to within ten thousand yards.  For the next two hours a fierce artillery duel rages in the straits.  One lucky Ottoman 14-inch shell strikes Gaulois at the waterline, forcing it to retreat as it takes on water.  Generally, however, the Ottomans are taking the brunt of the punishment - some guns are buried, - telephone lines to spotters have been destroyed, etc. - and the result is rate of fire from the remaining guns is declining.  Other than Gaulois, meanwhile, the British and French warships, protected by thick armour, have taken only superficial damage.

The British pre-dreadnought Prince George is targeted by a salvo of three Ottoman shells, one of which strikes home, March 18th, 1915.

- At 154pm Robeck orders the French warships to withdraw, intending to replace them with four British pre-dreadnoughts held in reserve, and Suffren leads the other two French ships in a turn to starboard, taking them out of action through a bay on the Asian shore.  Just as they pass abreast of Queen Elizabeth, Bouvet is rocked by a major explosion.  Still moving forward, it rolls over, capsizes, and sinks, all within sixty seconds.  Six hundred and forty sailors are lost, and only sixty-six rescued.  The sudden disappearance of Bouvet shocks everyone, and no one understands how it could have been sunk so quickly.  At first, both sides believe its magazine had detonated, which encourages the Ottomans to continue their bombardment.  In reality, Bouvet struck a mine, one of twenty laid at night on March 8th, a minefield completely unknown to the Entente commanders, and into which Bouvet had stumbled.

Above, the French pre-dreadnought Bouvet immediately after it strikes a mine.  Below, moments later, Bouvet capsizes and is keel-up
as it sinks, March 18th, 1915.

The loss of Bouvet does not deter Robeck, and the bombardment continues for another two hours.  At 4pm Keyes calls for the minesweepers.  Four pass upstream of Queen Elizabeth, but after sweeping three mines they are driven away by Ottoman gunfire.

The situation quickly worsened for the Entente.  At 411pm Inflexible wanders into the same unknown minefield that sank Bouvet, and a mine blows a hole in its bow and drowns twenty-nine sailors.  Badly damaged, Inflexible limps away, its forward deck almost level with the sea.  Fifteen minutes later the pre-dreadnought Irresistible strikes a mine, flooding both engine rooms and leaving it dead in the water.  Not realizing what had happened, its captain signals that it has struck a mine.  As it drifts slowly towards the Asian shore, the destroyer Wear comes alongside and takes off its crew.

The British pre-dreadnought floundering after striking a mine, March 18th, 1915.

At this point Robeck calls off the day's fighting.  The losses are bad enough, but worse is that neither Robeck nor anyone else in the fleet knows what sunk the warships.  In such circumstances it was felt only prudent to withdraw and regroup.  Moreover, when the pre-dreadnought Ocean attempts to salvage Irresistible by taking it in tow, it too strikes a mine.  Despite the best efforts of Keyes to organize their rescue, both ships sink after sundown.

By this evening a day that had started with such promise has ended in sudden and inexplicable disaster.  Robeck is greatly depressed by the day's results - not only has he lost three pre-dreadnoughts, but Inflexible, counted on to fight Goeben should the later sortie, will need to go to Malta for repairs, and Gaulois ended up having to beach itself to avoid sinking.  The Admiral is convinced that once news reached London, he shall be immediately relieved of command.  Keyes, who has a better understanding of Churchill's mind, recognizes that the most likely response of the First Lord is to send reinforcements and encourage further attacks, and does what he can to reassure Robeck.

On the Ottoman side, only eight large guns had been put out of action, and only 118 soldiers had been killed or wounded.  Of far greater importance, however, was that the Ottomans had fired off half of their supply of ammunition - there was great concern that if the British and French came again, it would be only a matter of time until the ammunition supply was exhausted, at which point the mines could be swept and the straits cleared into the Sea of Marmara.  Overnight the Ottomans prepare for what they believe to be a certain resumption of the Entente attack.

- This morning the surviving zambuk carrying Emden's landing party returns to the wreck of the other zambuk.  Fortunately, though submerged it is resting on the coral reef, and the German sailors are able to dive and recover two machine guns, a few pistols, and some of the ammunition.  The rest of the supplies on the zambuk - including their only medical supplies - are lost.

A stiff breeze during the day allows the remaining zambuk, despite being overloaded, to reach the town of Coonfidah by evening.  Here they find a larger zambuk, which they are able to charter for the next stage of their journey.

- In Mesopotamia Indian Expeditionary Force has been reinforced by 30th Brigade, and as such it is decided to reorganize the force as an army corps, under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir John Nixon.

March 17th, 1915

- German Army Zeppelins attempt today to bombard London, but not only are they unable to find their target in a heavy fog, they cannot even find England itself.  Instead, Z XII drops bombs on Calais, only to damage itself during landing.

- In Champagne there is heavy fighting for the heights north of Le Mesnil, where a German attack by 16th Reserve Division at 445am is turned back after an inadequate preliminary bombardment.  This evening the commander of 3rd Army orders more through preparations for an assault to retake Hill 196, taken yesterday by the French.

- Joffre today writes to the Minister of War, informing him of the situation on the Western Front.  He states that the fighting in Champagne since January has demonstrated that the commitment of considerable reserves and significant amounts of material were necessary to achieve decisive success in a major operation.  It would take time for such reserves to be formed, but in the interim Joffre intends to conduct offensives of a smaller scale, aiming to maintain morale about the soldiers and keep pressure on the Germans.

- The attack planned for today by the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army between the Vistula River and the western Carpathians, but poor weather has forced its postponement for twenty-four hours.

- With Admiral Robeck having resigned yesterday due to illness, he is replaced as commander of the Dardanelles expedition by Rear Admiral John de Robeck, formerly the second-in-command.  Churchill immediately encourages de Robeck to energetically attack the straits, and the later, accepting Carden's plan, states that with good weather the operation will begin tomorrow.

- As the naval campaign at the Dardanelles reaches its climax, a bizarre sideshow has been ongoing at the nearby Bulgarian port of Degeagatch on the Aegean coast.  For several days two Britons - Griffin Eady, a civil engineer, and Edwin Whittall, a businessman - who had been longtime residents of the Ottoman Empire have been in secret negotiations with a representative of the Ottoman government.  The negotiations had been initiated by Rear-Admiral William R. 'Blinker' Hall, the shadowy Director of Naval Intelligence and head of Room 40, and he had authorized Eady and Whittall to offer a £4 million bribe in exchange for the Ottomans withdrawing from the war.  Whether the Ottoman representative had any actual authority to negotiate, given Enver Pasha's grip on the government, is unknown, and moreover Hall has authorized the negotiations and the bribe entirely on his own initiative, without reference to the Admiralty, Cabinet, or the Foreign Office.  When the First Lord uncovered Hall's plot, he ordered the negotiations terminated, given the apparently imminent victory at the Dardanelles, and Eady and Whittall depart Degeagatch today.

- For the past three days Emden's landing party has been aboard two zambuks, sailing north along the east coast of the Red Sea.  Each of the two ships carries thirty-five men in a space measuring only fourteen metres by four.  Even beyond overcrowding the past few days have been uncomfortable for the Germans: both zambuks are infested with cockroaches, bedbugs, lice, and other insects.  In the words of First Officer Mücke, all clothing not in use had to be tied down, lest it run away, and in the daily 'louse hunts' the record for one shirt was seventy-four lice.

To keep Entente blockade ships at bay, the zambuks have been sailing within the coral reefs of the Farsan Bank.  While the reefs are dangerous for large ships, smaller ones such as the zambuks are still at risk.  Just after 6pm this evening the lead zambuk strikes a coral reef, and only after several efforts is able to reach deeper waters.  The second zambuk, following two hundred yards behind, is not so lucky - in trying to avoid one reef, it strikes another and sinks.  The able-bodied sailors from the stricken zambuk are able to swim to the other, while two dugouts from the surviving zambuk are able to bring back the sick.  In order to fit all aboard without floundering, however, most of the provisions had to be thrown overboard, leaving the Germans with food and water for only three days, in addition to their weapons and ammunition.

March 16th, 1915

- As the British government discusses ongoing operations in the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, the focus is not only on securing victory in the current war but also ensuring that the British Empire is in the best position for the post-war world.  As Kitchener writes in a memorandum submitted to the War Council today:

It must not be forgotten that, after the conclusion of peace, old enmities and jealousies which have been stilled by the existing crisis in Europe, may revive.  We have, in fact, to assume that, at some future date, we may find ourselves an enmity with Russia, or with France, or with both in combination, and we must bear this possibility in mind in deciding how, when the time for settlement comes and the question of the partition of Turkey in Asia arises, our interests can best be safeguarded.

- In Champagne a large number of French assaults are launched between 445am and 2pm, but with only minor exceptions are repulsed.  With XVI Corps failing to make further progress, Joffre finally concludes that the operation in Champagne cannot win a decisive victory and ought to be wound down.  He orders General de Langle to undertake the planned XVI Corps' attacks with the remaining fresh infantry, and then cease operations, form strong defensive positions, and pull all but three corps out of the line.

- Falkenhayn orders the formation of eight additional divisions today, of which four - 111th, 113th, 119th, and 121st - will be ready for service by April 1st, with 115th, 117th, 123rd, and 11th Bavarian ready one to two weeks later.  With the six new divisions whose creation has previously been ordered, these constitute the fourteen divisions (down from the initial projection of twenty-four) available as an OHL reserve, and which Falkenhayn intends to use on the Western Front.

The German Chief of Staff also issues a written directive to the commander of the newly-formed 11th Army:

The OHL plans to break through the enemy front in the West after making an adequate number of troops available. To this end, strong reserves will be placed in readiness in rear of that front along the several rail lines.  The concentration of these reserves and their subsequent forward movement by rail to the point where the breakthrough is to be effected, will be regulated by the OHL.  The tim for placing the reserves in readiness and the place for the breakthrough operation proper have not yet been fixed.  The Commander of the Eleventh Army will conduct the offensive in a zone of action that will be designed in due time.  The Eleventh Army Commander's next task will consist of reconnoitring the terrain between La Bassée Canal and the Avre near Roye for a breakthrough operation, with a view to piercing the hostile front north of the Somme on a width of from 25 to 30 kilometres and advancing thence to the sea.  In the zones of action to be selected, it is planned to allot first of all, in addition to the troops already in position, as many infantry divisions (each of three regiments) as will enable each division to occupy from two and a half to three kilometres of frontage.  The necessary heavy artillery will be made available.  With the aid of these forces the tactical breakthrough should be successful - including the piercing of the enemy's line.  In rear of the rupture, the OHL intends to place as many additional forces in readiness as will be required to exploit the tactical breakthrough for strategic purposes.  The reconnaissance must be initiated as early as possible . . . [and] the result will be submitted to the OHL in the form of a report no later than the end of March.

- Today a doctor serving on the hospital ship Soudan examines Admiral Carden, declaring that he has a dangerous ulcer and that he requires several weeks of rest to avoid a complete breakdown.  Though it means the end of his naval career, Carden feels he has no choice but to signal the Admiralty that he must resign as commander of the Dardanelles expedition.

March 15th, 1915

- In addition to yesterday's attacks in the Argonne, French infantry attack Vauquois.  However, they are unable to achieve anything of note.

- The British operation against the port of Smyrna is abandoned today, after negotations with the local governor bear no fruit while mobile artillery batteries have prevented the minefields from being swept.  The attempt has not been without loss: the seaplane carrier Anne Rickmers has been severely damaged by the Ottoman torpedo-boat Demir Hissar.  On the other hand, the Ottomans have sunk five steamers in the channels leading to the port, which ironically accomplishes the British objective of preventing the use of Smyrna as a submarine base.  Moreover, the pre-dreadnoughts Triumph and Swiftsure are needed back at the Dardanelles for the daylight attack scheduled for the 18th.

- At dawn breaks over the Red Sea, the zambuk under the direct command of First Officer Mücke finds that overnight it has drifted into the middle of the English blockade line, with no wind available to allow for their escape.  However, though the mast-head of an English ship appears over the horizon, the zambuk is left unmolested; Mücke attributes this to the disinclination of the English to work on weekends.  When a breeze rises in the afternoon, they are able to resume its progress northwards.

March 14th, 1915

- In Champagne the commander of the French XVI Corps reports to General de Langle that his force has made a small 'crack' in the German line, but that efforts to enlarge the breach have been thwarted by murderous flanking fire.  De Langle's response is to alter the direction of the assaults and order their continuation.

- After several hours of artillery preparation and the detonation of several mines, French infantry assault German positions held by XVI Corps today on the Bolante Plateau and west of Boureuilles in the Argonne.

- Though the fighting continues in Champagne, Joffre is already looking forward to future operations.  Near the German border is the French Provisional Army of the East, which includes 1st and 3rd Armys and Army Detachments Vosges and Lorraine, and is commanded by General Auguste Dubail.  Today Joffre instructs Dubail to commence preparations for an offensive against both flanks of the St. Mihiel salient, for which he will provide three corps and a cavalry division as reinforcements.

- In the central Carpathians all available reserves of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army are rushed to prop up the reeling XIX Corps and prevent a Russian breakthrough.  With nothing left to send to the aid of the corps advancing on Baligrod, 2nd Army commander calls off the offensive.  Over the past fourteen days, 2nd Army has lost 33% of its strength, numbering 51 086 men.  Even Conrad now acknowledges that his winter offensives to relieve Przemysl have failed, and that the garrison cannot be relieved before it is starved into surrender.  This, of course, does not deter Conrad from planning further offensives in the Carpathians, as he informs Falkenhayn today.

- In the early morning hours a determined effort is made to sweep the minefields in the Dardanelles.  First the pre-dreadnought Cornwallis enters the straits and bombards the searchlights and mobile batteries, followed by the light cruiser Amethyst and four destroyers at 2am.  An hour later, seven trawlers, with crews that now included naval volunteers, enter the Dardanelles, intending to sail in, turn, and sweep on their way out.  Despite the ongoing shore bombardment, they are quickly illuminated by Ottoman searchlights, and by the time they reach the point to turn and begin sweeping, they are under intense fire.  Two trawlers had their sweeping gear blown away, a third had its captain and deck crew all killed, and two more collided and drifted down the straits, entangled and seemingly the target of every Ottoman gun in range.  The two remaining trawlers manage to sweep several mines, but it is a meagre return, especially considering that Amethyst takes a large shell to its mess deck, killing twenty-four and injuring thirty-six.

Assessing the results in the daylight hours, Admiral Carden concludes that the only way for the minesweeping operation to succeed is if a smothering naval bombardment can first obliterate the Ottoman guns.  To do this requires the fleet to sail into the Dardanelles in daylight, and planning begins for such an attack in four days' time.

- At 5pm the two zambuks carrying Emden's landing party departs from Yabana, just north of Hodeida, with both ships flying the German naval pennant.  Aware that a blockade line to the north is maintained by several English gunboats, First Officer Mücke orders the zambuks to part ways, to avoid both being captured together.

- At dawn this morning, the armoured cruiser Kent and the light cruiser Glasgow round Cumberland Point on Más á Tierra.  Before them is the German light cruiser Dresden, at anchor and still waiting for its collier.  When Dresden trains its guns on the British warships, Glasgow opens fire.  Within four minutes, having already been struck at its waterline, the Germans raise the white flag.  A steam launch departs Dresden carrying Lieutenant William Canaris (yes, that Canaris) to register a complaint to the captain of Glasgow that the German warship was in Chilean waters and thus under Chilean protection.  The response of Glasgow's captain is, in the finest traditions of the service, that unless Dresden surrenders immediately, he will blow it out of the water, neutrality be damned.  The German response is to scuttle their ship and escape to shore, singing the German anthem as Dresden keels over.  Thus sinks the last survivor of the German East Asiatic Squadron, and it is fitting that Glasgow, who escaped from the squadron's greatest triumph, is present at its final demise.

The German light cruiser Dresden, scuttled today at Más á Tierra.

March 13th, 1915

- Today the Swedish merchant ship Hanna, carrying coal from the Tyne to Las Palmas, is sunk by a German U-boat off of Scarborough, the first neutral vessel sunk by torpedo without warning since the Germans began unconditional submarine warfare last month.

- At Neuve Chapelle the British decide to call off their offensive in the face of stiffening resistance.  For 13 000 casualties, including 4000 from the Indian Corps, the British have recaptured the village of Neuve Chapelle and advanced the line approximately a thousand yards along a three thousand yard stretch of the front.  Though the initial attack on the 10th was an immediate success, it has not led to any strategic advantage whatsoever - Aubers Ridge remains beyond the reach of the British.

In explaining the failure to exploit the initial breakthrough, a lack of artillery shells is highlighted, this despite the British firing one-sixth of their entire munitions stockpile on the Western Front in just three days.  This reflects the growing awareness that artillery is the master of the deadlocked battlefield in France and Belgium.  In analyzing the battle afterwards, Haig concludes that the thirty-five minute artillery bombardment was insufficient, lengthier bombardments necessary to thoroughly pulverize the enemy, and that attacks must be launched on a longer stretch of the front to prevent the enemy from concentrating their reserves at a single threatened point.  Unfortunately for the British, these are the absolute worst lessons Haig could of drawn from the battle.  The initial success was due precisely to the fact that the short-but-intensive bombardment both severely damaged German positions while catching them by surprise, while the concentration of the attacking force against a single point allowed for sufficient numerical superiority to overwhelm the defenders.  The lessons Haig draws from Neuve Chapelle will feature prominently in British operations to come, culminating in just over a year's time in the Battle of the Somme.

The Battle of Neuve Chapelle does at least demonstrate that the British have some ability in planning and executing offensive operations in the context of trench warfare.  Joffre is pleased to see his British allies willing to go over on to the attack, though he is disdainful of the failed followup operations.  For the British, the battle also reinforces the belief that this will be a long war.  As Brigadier-General John Chateris, Haig's intelligence officer at 1st Army, comments afterwards, 'I am afraid that England will have to accustom herself to far greater losses than those of Neuve Chapelle before we finally crush the German Army.'  More prophetic words were hardly ever spoken during the war.

Soldiers of the Northumberland Hussars in the second line of trenches, north of Neuve Chapelle, March 13th, 1915.

- Today Falkenhayn receives a second proposal for an offensive operation on the Western Front, this one composed by the Chief of Staff of 1st Army.  It argues that an attack in Artois will only push the British backwards, and otherwise will have no strategic consequences.  Instead, the focus should be on finding that stretch of the front where the odds of a successful breakthrough are greatest, and 1st Army's conclusion is that the line on its left wing and the adjoining right wing of 7th Army along the Aisne River is ideal for this purpose.  The plan calls for four corps to cross the Aisne on a twenty kilometre from east of Soisson, with four corps and a cavalry corps following on to widen the breach, after which the offensive would continue in the direction of Paris.  In favour of 1st Army's proposal was that it would required fewer corps and less artillery to execute.  On a tactical level, the plan is very promising, but the question is whether the tactical success of a breakthrough along the Aisne can be converted into a decisive strategic victory.

- In the central Carpathians, a Russian attack this afternoon breaks through the line held by the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps on the left wing of 2nd Army.  This corps, part of the stalled drive on Baligrod, now finds itself fighting a desperate defensive battle.  To the east, meanwhile, four Russian cavalry divisions and a rifle brigade drives back several Austro-Hungarian divisions in the centre of General Pflanzer-Baltin's line.

With the Austro-Hungarian offensive faltering, the garrison commander at Przemysl, General Hermann Kusmanek, is informed by radio today that 2nd Army may not be able to drive through Lisko to relieve the fortress by the 18th as hoped.  It is left to Kusmanek's discretion whether part of garrison should sortie and attempt to break through to Austro-Hungarian lines before the food supply is exhausted.

- Off the Dardanelles Admiral Carden replies to Churchill's message of the 11th, agreeing that the time has come for a more sustained effort and informing the First Lord that a major effort will be undertaken overnight.  Carden himself, however, is increasing ill, as Keyes notes today - the strain of the operation, combined with the pressure for results from London, is taking its toll.

March 12th, 1915

- At 6am, a major German counterattack is launched against the British line at Neuve Chapelle which is able to retake a portion of the trenches northeast of the village that was lost in the initial British attack two days ago.  However, a lack of artillery impairs the German ability to hold the new line, and an attack by the British 7th and 8th Divisions at noon manage to regain the lost ground.  By 8pm, the headquarters of the German 6th Army concludes that further attacks to recover Neuve Chapelle will be fruitless, and decides to entrench on the present line.  For the British, the German counterattacks are sufficiently disruptive and damaging that, despite being able to retake the lost ground, they are unable to push further towards Aubers Ridge.

British dead at Neuve Chapelle, March 12th, 1915.

- Today the French XVI Corps begins its assault in the Champagne, joined by other elements of 4th Army.  Despite the concentration of infantry and the focus on a maximum effort, the attack is little more successful than those earlier in the battle.

- The second advance towards Prasnysz by the German forces under General Gallwitz is called off today north of the town, as Russian counterattacks have checked German momentum.

- In the central Carpathians, General Brusilov continues the counterattack against the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, and today 34th Division is forced back.  The commander of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, meanwhile, is concerned about a Russian breakthrough that would undue what little has been accomplished to date, and rushes his reserves to XIX Corps in front of Lupkow.  Further east, the grinding Austro-Hungarian advance towards Baligrod continues - the village of Rabe and the Manilowa Heights are seized today.

- This afternoon a small English gunboat thoroughly searches Isa Bay, from which Emden's landing party is rumoured to be sailing from tomorrow.  In truth, Mücke's deception has worked, as his party prepares to sail on the fourteenth.

- The British and French commanders of Entente forces invading German Kamerun agree to a plan of campaign, in which their forces are expected to reach the line Dume-Lomie-Akoafim-Ntem River by the end of March.  The plan, however, bears little resemblance to the actual position of French columns in the south and west, and assumes a level of co-ordination utterly impossible given the terrain of the colony.

March 11th, 1915

- In direct response to the German declaration of a war zone around Britain and the commencement of unrestricted submarine warfare, the British declare a total blockade of Germany today.  Henceforth, Entente navies would prevent all cargoes, not just contraband, from reaching German ports.

- The Zeppelins belonging to the German army are today authorized to conduct aerial bombardments of London.

- In Canada, recruiting for a second contingent began even while the first was still training on Salisbury Plain.  Today, Lord Kitchener informs the Canadian government that the transportation of the first elements of the second contingent across the Atlantic will commence in late April.

- Overnight, German forces have constructed a new defensive line across the breach open yesterday at Neuve Chapelle, while also deploying additional artillery batteries.  In the morning mist the new positions go unseen, such that when a British attack is launched at 7am, it runs into a hail of machine gun and artillery fire from elements of the German 14th Division.  A second attack in the evening is similarly dispatched as further German reinforcements, this time from 6th Bavarian Division, arrive on the battlefield.

- In Champagne the major assault of the French XVI Corps is scheduled to begin tomorrow, and this evening its commander issues his final orders to his subordinates.  He instructs that every soldier is to participate in the advance, with none left to occupy trenches, and that every piece of ground seized is to be immediately consolidated and used as a launching pad for further attacks.

- The results of the reorganization of the German army, to incorporate the newest cohort of recruits while creating a large reserve of experienced divisions, are not as promising as Falkenhayn had originally hoped.  Instead of the anticipated twenty-four new divisions, it is now apparent that, due to losses and other requirements, only fourteen new divisions can be created.  This is less than the force envisioned in 6th Army's proposed operation for an offensive north of the Somme.  Despite this setback, Falkenhayn remains committed to undertaking an attack in the West - writing today to Colonel Seeckt, 11th Army's Chief of Staff, he emphasizes that he still plans to force a return to a war of movement on the Western Front through a major breakthrough that culminates in victory over the Entente.

- Since the beginning of March, the German 10th Army has been gradually falling back towards the line it held prior to the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, as the position it had won in the battle had been rendered untenable due to Russian pressure on the flanks.  It has been cautiously followed by the Russian 10th Army, but two days ago the Germans turned the tables on their pursuers, and after several furious days of fighting the Russians have been halted.  The Germans are thus able to assume defensive positions and stalemate returns to the front.  Despite the victory last month at Masurian Lakes, in terms of territory the Germans find themselves right back where they started.

- After four days of fighting the offensive of the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army has stalled, unable to maintain the early momentum towards Gorlize and Staszkowka, at a cost of six thousand casualties.

Meanwhile, the garrison of the besieged fortress of Przemysl reports today that after the slaughter of all horses and a thorough search for all available food it will be able to hold out until March 24th, at which point surrender will be necessary to avoid starvation.  The winter battles in the Carpathians are approaching their climax; the Austro-Hungarians must break through immediately if Przemysl is to be relieved before it falls.

The Russians, however, have other ideas.  General Brusilov has been concerned that the advance of the left wing of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd Army, particularly near Lupkow, threatens the flank of the Russian forces facing 3rd Army to the west.  To negate this possibility, Russian forces attack today near Lupkow, and the Austro-Hungarian 29th Division is forced to yield the ground it had conquered over the past few days.

- At the Dardanelles the minesweepers are sent into the straits unescorted tonight, hoping to catch the Ottomans by surprise.  The result was about what one would expect, as Keyes related:

The less said about that night the better.  To put it briefly, the sweepers turned tail and fled as soon as they were fired upon.  I was furious and told the officers . . . that it did not matter if we lost all seven sweepers, there were twenty-eight more, and the mines had got to be swept up.  How could they talk about being stopped by heavy fire if they were not hit?

- At the Admiralty, Churchill has received reports of Ottoman ammunition shortages at the Dardanelles, and sends orders to Carden to abandon his methodical attempts to bombardment the forts and sweep the minefields, and instead press forward with maximum force.  In Churchill's views, any losses that may occur would be amply compensated by the strategic consequences of victory at the Dardanelles.

- The landing party of the German light cruiser Emden arrives today back at Hodeida, from which it had departed a month earlier.  Intending to continue their journey by sea, they must secure new vessels, as Choising, the merchant ship upon which they had crossed the Indian Ocean, had been sent away upon their arrival at Hodeida.  As there are no steamships to be had, First Officer Mücke acquires two zambuks, small sailboats fourteen meters long and four meters wide, used along the Arabian coast.  The party intends to sail from Yabana, a small bay north of Hodeida, on the fourteenth, while to deflect unwanted attention Mücke spreads the rumour that they will instead sail from Isa Bay on the thirteenth.

March 10th, 1915

- At 730am this morning, British artillery opens up on the German line at Neuve Chapelle.  The intense bombardment, using more shells in thirty-five minutes than the British had used in the entire Boer War, catches the Germans completely by surprise.  The concentration of shells against such a small portion of the line ensured that most of the German defensive positions were obliterated, while the brevity of the bombardment left the Germans with no time to send up reinforcements, leaving the defenders significantly outnumbered.  When the attacking infantry go over the top at 805, they easily break through the front German trench while the German survivors break and retreat.  The pace of the British advance is set not by German resistance, of which there is practically none, but rather how fast they can move over the ruined battlefield.  In thirty minutes, the British have captured the village of Neuve Chapelle, and the entire of the first objective line is soon in British hands.

The battle of Neuve Chapelle, March 10th to 13th, 1915.

The ruins of the village of Neuve Chapelle after its capture by the British, March 10th, 1915.

By noon the British have achieved the goal that has and will elude so many other attacks on the Western Front - a breakthrough.  The German line has been shattered, and there is nothing before the British infantry but fleeing Germans.  It is a success that exceeds even the expectations of Haig and his staff.  However, this breakthrough leads to the accomplishment of absolutely nothing of significance, and the reasons point to fundamental realities that hinder offensive operations on the Western Front for most of the war.  Most important is actually a technical limitation: while wireless radios have been developed, they have not yet been miniaturized enough to allow for sets to be carried by infantry into battle.  Thus advancing infantry have only two options for communicating to rear areas: (1) telephone lines; and (2) messengers on foot.  The first requires the laying of telephone wires that are extremely vulnerable to enemy artillery fire, while the latter, even if they can escape the front line alive, are greatly slowed by the destruction omnipresent on the battlefront, and hours frequently pass between the departure of a messenger from a front line officer to his arrival at a headquarters in the rear.  As a result, it is practically impossible for officers commanding advancing infantry to communicate their position, which in turn has two consequences.  First, it means that artillery batteries fire without knowing the location of their own infantry, which creates the very real potential for friendly fire and prevents the infantry from ordering artillery fire on unexpected defensive positions they encounter as they advance.  Instead, the infantry is expected to advance at the pace of the pre-arranged artillery barrage, as it moves from the first to the second to the reserve trench lines.  Move too fast, and the infantry run the risk of literally running into their own artillery fire.  Second, it means that when the advance does not go to plan, forward officers are unable to receive revised orders from their superiors.  Thus when the pre-battle plan fails to provide instructions for the actual circumstances on the battlefield, forward officers default to doing nothing, lest they either create chaos by random advancing and/or march their soldiers into a future artillery target.  This is not to condemn these officers, having to make difficult decisions often under intense enemy fire and with their units significantly depleted; it is little wonder that they default to their training, which is in such conditions to wait for further orders.  The problem, of course, is that as they wait, the enemy has a window in which they can rush in reinforcements and plug the breach in the line.  Thus even when attacking forces are able to achieve a breakthrough, it disappears like a mirage, ever just beyond reach.

This is precisely how the breakthrough at Neuve Chapelle plays out.  When the British infantry reach their first objective line ahead of schedule, they halt their advance, awaiting further orders.  The Germans, meanwhile, rush up reserve formations to plug the gap, and are able to do so largely unmolested by artillery fire.  In addition to the lack of direct communication between British batteries and their infantry, air-ground artillery coordination has also failed; despite the infantry carrying white stripes of cloth to mark their position, mist obscures them.  By the time the British are finally prepared to resume the advance at 530pm, they find new German reserves in front of them, and they are halted halfway between Neuve Chapelle and Aubers Ridge.  By the end of the day's fighting, the strategic opportunities available in the morning have vanished, and further attacks will need to be launched against forewarned and reinforced German defences.

Two gunners of No. 5 Mountain Battery, 3rd Mountain Artillery Brigade, Royal Garrison Artillery (Indian Army), lying dead by their
2.75 inch mountain gun near Neuve Chapelle, March 10th, 1915.

- Despite the abject failure of test use of gas at the Battle of Bolimów in January on the Eastern Front, the German army continues to view the weapon as potentially significant.  The first asphyxiating gas to be produced in quantity was chlorine, chosen because it did not require the diversion of any resources or manufacturing capacity from the munitions industry.  Though a shell has also been invented that can carry and disperse gas, they are not yet available in sufficient quantity to make their use effective.  Instead, the tactic at present is to mass thousands of canisters of the gas along the front line, and open them when the wind will push the gas in the desired direction.  As its use was totally dependent on the weather, it could not be used in major pre-planned operations that required precise scheduling, as with the preliminary discussions at OHL regarding an offensive on the Western Front.  Instead, Falkenhayn has decided that the execution of the first major gas attack will be assigned to 4th Army, responsible for the front in Flanders.  The focus of the operation will be primarily on testing the combat effective of large-scale use of gas, while crucially the gains on the battlefield itself are a secondary consideration.

4th Army headquarters has decided that the attack should take place on the southeastern face of the Ypres salient, between the Ypres-Comines Canal and the Menin road.  XV Corps has been assigned to undertake the assault, and as of today the gas canisters have been installed on six thousand yards of the line.  Now it is simply a matter of waiting for the right weather conditions.

- The German navy loses two submarines today: U-12 is rammed and sunk by the British destroyer Ariel off the Scottish coast, while U-29, whose captain had famously sunk the 'live bait squadron' off the Dutch coast in September, is rammed and sunk by Dreadnought while attempting to line up a torpedo shot at the dreadnought Neptune.  The two losses highlight that the only reliable means the British have of sinking U-boats is to destroy them at the surface.  As of yet, no means exists to sink a submerged submarine.

- Even in the context of a terrible winter in the Carpathians, a particularly heavy blizzard strikes today.  In these conditions movement is impossible; the sick and wounded die as they cannot be evacuated, while entire skirmish lines vanish into the snow.  The Austro-Hungarian infantry find it impossible to dig entrenchments, and have to huddle in the open in front of the Russian positions they are supposed to be attacking.  In the eastern Carpathians, the blizzard forces Generals Pflanzer-Baltin and Brusilov to postpone their respective plans for offensive operations.

The position of the Austro-Hungarian 2nd and 3rd Armies in the Carpathians, March 10th, 1915.

- In London, unbridled optimism still reigns regarding the Dardanelles operation, and the War Council discusses today what the British should do after the fall of Constantinople- Kitchener, for example, calls for an attack on Alexandretta.  There is little appreciation as of yet of the difficulties encountered at the Dardanelles, where tonight the minesweepers make their seventh attempt.  To improve their chances of success, they use a new approach: instead of sweeping while sailing up the straits, they will sail in, turn, and sweep on the way out.  Meanwhile Commodore Keyes, Carden's Chief of Staff, has also taken direct command of the minesweepers, and to encourage them to perservere under fire, he has offered a financial bonus to the civilian crews and proposed to stiffen the crews with young officers from the fleet.

Despite the new tactic, this evening's effort is little more successful than earlier attempts.  Though escorted by Canopus and other warships, the minesweepers are under fire as they sail up the straits, and by the time they reach the point to turn and begin to sweep, four of the crews are so agitated that they do not extend their equipment.  Two trawlers manage to sweep two mines, but the other strikes a mine and sinks.  Though the crew is saved, the loss serves only to inspire the shore defences to pour more fire on the ships.  With two of the trawlers damaged by 6-inch shells, the operation is called off and the minesweepers withdraw.

- In Germany the Admiralty Staff considers the ammunition situation at the Dardanelles to be dire, and since the prospects of Austro-Hungarian success against Serbia are as remote as ever, they recommend putting severe diplomatic pressure on Romania to allow for the transportation of munitions across its territory.  It also recommends that at least one German submarine should be dispatched to the Dardanelles, as the Austro-Hungarians remain unwilling to do so.

- The commander of the British force occupying Duala and the surrounding region in German Kamerun is informed by London today that no further reinforcements should be expected and that his priority is defending his current positions, as opposed to undertaking offensive operations.  This is effectively a restatement of the original British aim in its campaign against German Kamerun - namely, that the priority is the conquest of the coast and the denial of ports to German raiders.

- After two months of moving between fjords on the southern Pacific coast of Chile, the German light cruiser Dresden has slowly been making its way up the Chilean coast since mid-February, staying out to sea to avoid detection.  Two days ago, it was sighted by the British armoured cruiser Kent, and though it used its superior speed to escape, it used most of its remaining coal to do so.  Since yesterday Dresden has been anchored in Cumberland Bay on the Chilean island of Más á Tierra, waiting for the arrival of its collier.  Today the Chilean governor insists that in accordance with maritime law, Dresden has used up its alloted twenty-four hours in neutral waters and must depart immediately, but the German captain insists that his engines require repairs, which would provide legal justification to prolong his warship's stay.  While this dispute is played out, Dresden's wireless signal to its collier has been intercepted by the British, and both Kent and the light cruiser Glasgow are en route to Cumberland Bay.

March 9th, 1915

- General Douglas Haig issues an Special Order of the Day to his 1st Army, announcing the offensive that is to be launched tomorrow morning.  In contrast to the ad hoc fighting of the past six months, especially during the 1st Battle of Ypres, this operation will be the first planned, set-piece attack undertaken by the British on the Western Front.  Meticulously planned, it constitutes the first sustained effort to deal with and overcome the stalemate of trench warfare.  The initial phase is the capture of the village of Neuve Chapelle, to be undertaken by 8th Division and the Meerut Division, and is to be followed by a general advance of IV and Indian Corps to Aubers Ridge and beyond.  Simultaneously, I Corps to the south and the Canadian Division to the north will conduct diversionary operations to pin the German forces opposite; for the Canadians, this will be their first significant taste of combat since coming into the line on March 3rd.

Similar to the other major combatants, the British are experiencing a shortage of artillery ammunition, so Haig intends to make a virtue of necessity by concentrating the preliminary bombardment into an intensive thirty-five minute barrage.  After the preliminary bombardment the initial attack will be launched over a narrow two-thousand yard section of the line, the hope being that concentrating the bombardment and attack on such a small stretch of the front will allow the British to overwhelm and break through the German defence.  The planning of the operation has been aided by comprehensive aerial reconnaissance of the German lines, allowing for detailed maps to be issued to officers illustrating the German defenses up to fifteen hundred yards behind the first trench line.

Despite the detailing planning and high hopes, the leadership of the BEF is well aware that even the most successful of attacks will incur substantial losses.  Writing to a friend today, Sir John French anticipates that five thousand will be killed in the attack, and is disturbed at the thought that these men will march to their deaths at his orders.

- Today the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister submits a proposal to the Italian government regarding territorial adjustments to be made should Italy remain neutral in the war.  The deteriorating military position in the Carpathians has finally convinced the Emperor and his ministers that some offer is necessary to mollify the Italians.  Their proposal is to surrender the Trentino, a territory in the Alps and home to a significant Italian population.  However, the transfer is not to be effected until after the end of the war.

- The Entente has occupied the Greek island of Lemnos, located about forty miles southwest of the Dardanelles, in order to use the port of Mudros as their base of operations.  With the dismissal of the pro-Entente Venizelos, the Greek government has asked the British government for an explanation of this violation of Greek territorial integrity.  In reply today, the British can only offer the justification used by combatants throughout history: necessity.

The harbour at Mudros, with a French hospital in the foreground.